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Properties of magnets
-Magnetic materials
Magnets attract strongly only certain materials such as iron, steel, nickel and cobalt, which are called
ferro-magnetics. These materials can be magnetized.
-Non Magnetic materials
These materials can’t be magnetised and are not attracted by a magnet. Such as Aluminum and wood.
-Magnetic poles
The poles are the places in a magnet to which magnetic materials, such as iron fillings, are attracted.
They are near the ends of a bar magnet and occur in pairs of equal strength.
-North and south poles
If a magnet is supported so that it can swing in a horizontal plane it comes to rest with one pole, the
north-seeking or N pole, always pointing roughly towards the Earth’s north pole. compass.
-Law of magnetic poles
Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
The force between magnetic poles decreases as their separation increases.

Induced Magnetism
- If ferro-magnetic touches or brought near a
pole of permanent magnet, it becomes a
magnet itself.

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Definitions
-Temporary Magnets: 1-Made of soft iron
2- lose magnetism easily
-Permanent Magnets: 1- made of steel
2- retain their magnetism

Magnetisation of iron and steel

- Magnetic materials such as iron that magnetise
easily but readily lose their magnetism (are easily
demagnetised) are said to be soft.
- Those such as steel that are harder to
magnetize than iron but stay magnetized are
hard. These types are used to prepare hard
permanent magnet.
• Note: dropping or heating a magnet also
causes demagnetisation

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Magnetic fields
-Magnetic field: The space surrounding a magnet where it
produces a magnetic force.
-Magnetic field line (line of force):
these lines have a direction
-The direction of the field at any
point should be the direction of the
force on a N pole.
-To show the direction, arrows are put on the lines
of force and point away from a N pole towards a S pole.
-The magnetic field is stronger in regions where the field lines are
close together than where they are further apart.

Magnetic field direction

-To show the direction, arrows are put on
the lines of force and point away from
a N pole towards a S pole.
-The magnetic field is stronger in regions
where the field lines are close together than
where they are further apart.
-The force between two magnets is a result
of the interaction of their magnetic fields.

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Test yourself

Electromagnet
-Think
Why soft iron core is used?
Electromagnet: is a magnet
produced due to electric effect

-The magnetism of electromagnet

is temporary
C-core (horseshoe)
-It can be switched on and off.
Unlike the permanent magnet

-Think
What will happen if the
current direction is reversed?

Note:
The coil on each limb of the coil is
wound in the opposite directions

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Electromagnet Vs. Permanent magnet

Permanent magnet Electromagnet
Compass, Computer hard -Electrical bells, magnetic
desk, electric motor, locks, relays, practical
Uses electricity generator, motors and generators
microphone, loudspeaker, -used in cranes to lift iron
credit and debit cards objects and scrap iron
It does not require a current Field strength can be varied
Advantage to maintain its magnetism (by varying the current)
Has a constant field strength Can switch on and off

H.W.

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Static Electricity (Electrostatic charge)

What if we change
one of the rubbed
polythen strips by a
rubbed strip of
cellulose acetate?

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Where charges come from

Charge of electron = - 1.6 × 10 Coulomb
Charge of proton = + 1.6 × 10 C
Charge of neutron = zero

Why does rubbing produce charges?

Friction causes electrons to be

Note: Before rubbing the
transferred from one material total charge is zero
to another
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Conductors and insulators

Conductors: have free electrons that
Conductors
can move freely from atom to atom. Metals e.g: (Silver copper aluminium)
Carbon
Insulators: electrons are bound
firmly to their atoms.

Semiconductors: poor conductors

and poor insulators

Insulator can be charged

by rubbing. But conductors Semiconductors
can not, unless it is held Wood paper cotton human body
earth silicon germanium
with an insulating handle.
WHY???!
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Test yourself

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Electric Field
- Electric Field: The region surrounding a charge where it produces an
electric force on other electric charge.
- Electric force is called “action-at-a-distance force”
- Moving charges inside an electric field are deflected due to the electric
force.
- Uniform electric field: electric force on a charge is the same everywhere
in the uniform electric field.

a uniform electric field is

produced between
two oppositely charged
parallel metal plates
spaced parallel
lines drawn perpendicular
to the metal surfaces 15

Direction of electric field

- Electric field is a vector quantity

- Direction of electric field: it is the direction of

the force on a small positive charge and
denoted by arrows

- Like charges repel, unlike charges attract

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Electric field patterns

Positive point charge Negative charges distributed on a
conducting sphere
Note the charges on the surface
and not inside the
sphere.Why??!!

Field lines radiating from the isolated

positive charge

Two oppositely point

charges

Think!!??
Note: the field How would be the electric field
lines emerge at between two alike point charges
right angles to
Two oppositely charged the conducting
parallel plates suface
Uniform field 17

Electric field patterns

-The similar charges repel each other, so they
are distributed through the body to minimize
the repulsions What if the object is an
insulator?!!!!
Curved surface

The electric field is strongest where

the electric field lines are closest

The charges are most concentrated

near the sharpest curve

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Test yourself

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Electric Charge
- Charge is measured in Coulomb ( C )
- But C is large so we use Think
1 μC = 10-6 C What is the
charge of a
proton?!!
- Charge of an electron is - 1.6 ×10-19

Induced Charges

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Van de Graaff generator

1- van de Graaff machine works to
charge the metal plates

2-the table-tennis ball shuttles

rapidly to and from between the plates
WHY?!!

3- the meter records a small current.

WHY?!!

4-As the ball touches each plate it

becomes charged with the same charge
and is repelled to the
other plate.

5- In this way charge is carried across the

gap. Van de Graaff generator
produces static charges by
6- the movement of the charges is called friction.
Electric Current 21

How does metal conduct Current?

1- In a metal, each atom has one or more
loosely held electrons that are free to move.
2- When a van de Graaff or a battery is
connected across the ends of a conductor, the
free electrons drift slowly along it.
3- The direction of current is from the negative
to the positive terminal of the battery.
4-There is then a current of negative charge.

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Effects of a current

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Three Effects of a current

1-Magnetic
The plotting compass 3- Chemical
is deflected when it is Bubbles of gas are
placed near the wire given off at the
because a magnetic wires in the acid
field is produced because of the
around any wire chemical action of
carrying a current. the current.

2- Heating and lighting

The lamp lights because the small wire
inside (the
filament) is made white hot by the
current.
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Electric Current, Ampere and Coulomb

Current
Electric current:
1-is the charge passing a point per unit time Unit Ampere ( A )
mA = 10-3 A
2- is the rate of flow of charge in a circuit
Device to Ammeter
I is the current when charge measure
Q passes any point of a
circuit in time t Note:
for the current to pass, there
must be a complete path of
- Coulomb ( C ) can be defined in
conductors ( closed circuit)
terms of ampere
- One coulomb is the charge passing
any point in a circuit when a steady
current of 1 A flows for 1 s Q
- 1C=1A×1s
- C = A.s
- We can use Q = I × t I t
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Current Calculations

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Conventional Current
1- At the beginning and before the descovering of electron,
scientists agreed to think of current as positive charges
2- The +ve charge moving round a circuit in the direction
from positive to negative of a battery.
3- This agreement still stands and is called
Conventional Current
4- Conventional current is the direction in which +ve
charges would flow. (from positive to negative of a battery)
5- Free Electrons flow in opposite direction to the
Conventional current

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Ammeter and Multimeter

Ammeter Multimeter
1- is used to measure
1- is used to measure direct current (d.c.) d.c. current and
2- should placed in series in a circuit. alternating current (a.c.)
Positive terminal on the ammeter current
connected to the positive of the supply. 2- can measure voltage
and resistance by
3- has analogue display. selecting the required
function
Think!!?? 3- suitable range must
You are using ammeter or multimeter be chosen. (mA or μA)
to measure the current. Unfortunately, 4- has either a digital or
the reading is off-scale. What should analogue display
you do?

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Ammeter and Multimeter

Ammeter Multimeter
1- is used to measure
1- is used to measure direct current (d.c.) d.c. current and
2- should placed in series in a circuit. alternating current (a.c.)
Positive terminal on the ammeter current
connected to the positive of the supply. 2- can measure voltage
and resistance by
3- has analogue display with a pointer. selecting the required
function
Think 3- suitable range must
You are using ammeter or multimeter be chosen. (mA or μA)
to measure the current. Unfortunately, 4- has either a digital or
the reading is off-scale. What should analogue display
you do?

You need to change the range of reading (Sensitivity). Suppose you

expected a few mA and chose 10 mA, then you need to reduce the
sensitivity by changing to a higher range 100 mA. 29

Test yourself

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Direct and Alternating Current

d.c. current a.c. current
1-electrons flow in one 1-the direction of electron’s flow
direction only. reverses regularly.
2- pointer of ammeter is 2- pointer move to and fro about the
deflected on way zero if the changes are slow enough;
otherwise no deflection can be seen.
Steady d.c. current

Varying d.c. current

Symbol for d.c.

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Frequency of a.c.
-Frequency: is the number of complete alternations or cycles in 1 second.
Frequency =
Frequency =
- The unit of frequency is the hertz (Hz).
- If the frequency of the a.c. is 2 Hz,
it means there are two cycles per second
or 2 Hz means one cycle lasts in = 0.5 s.

-The unit Hz is the reciprocal of time’s unit (second)

Hz =

-Frequency 50 Hz means each cycle lasts 1/50th of a second. ( 0.02 s) This

regularity was used in the tickertape timer
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a.c. frequency
Using the figure below:
1- Find the time required to complete one cycle?

2- Find the frequency?

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Electromotive force and potential difference

Potential difference (p.d.)
Electromotive force (e.m.f) -The work done by a unit charge passing through
-The electrical work done by a source in an electrical component.
moving unit charge around a complete circuit. -Between two points of any electrical component
- Between the two points of the source. -The unit used is volts (V)
-The unit used is volts (V) - Is called voltage

The charge Coulomb is

carrying energy.
Charge are not
consumed.
Energy is consumed.

Think!!!
What is the source of the energy to do electrical work, if we use a battery? 34

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Energy transfers and P.d.

What is the duty of the current?

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Energy transfers and P.d.

The electric current transfers energy
What is the duty of the current?
from an energy source to components

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Energy transfers and P.d.

The electric current transfers energy
What is the duty of the current?
from an energy source to components

Ammeter readings are the

same. but the voltage is not
the same. The more voltage,
the more light and heat

p.d. across a device affects the

rate of energy transfer

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Calculations
W=Q W: work done ( Energy transferred) unit is joules

Q: Charge moved in the circuit, unit is coulombs

E: e.m.f, unit in volts

In terms of units
1 J =1 C ×1 V
Volts can be defined by units
1V = 1J/1C V is the p.d.
p.d. between two points in a circuit is 1V if between two
1J of energy is transferred when charge of points
1 C passes from one point to another.
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Calculations

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Test yourself

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Voltmeter
Voltmeter: is a device to measure potential difference

Voltmeter: is placed in parallel with the component across which the p.d. is to
be measured

Analogue voltmeter is used to measure d.c. voltages

- Voltmeter has two scales 0-5 and 5-10
- In 0-5 scale Each small division 0.1 V
- Read to nearest 0.1 V
- We can estimate to the half of the
smallest which 0.05

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Voltmeter
Voltmeter: is a device to measure potential difference

Voltmeter: is placed in parallel with the component across which the p.d. is to
be measured

Analogue voltmeter is used to measure d.c. voltages

- Voltmeter has two scales 0-5 and 5-10
- In 0-5 scale Each small division 0.1 V - In 5-10 scale Each small division 0.2 V
- Read to nearest 0.1 V - Read to nearest 0.2 V (less precision)
- We can estimate to the half of the - We can estimate to the half of the
smallest which 0.05 smallest which 0.01

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Analogue and digital

voltmeters
Analogue voltmeters are adapted Digital voltmeters are constructed
moving-coil galvanometers from integrated circuits

they have very high resistance (10 MΩ)

Hence, affect most circuits very little

and so give very accurate readings.

When making measurements a suitable range must be chosen

If reading off-scale, the sensitivity should be reduced.
Example
You expected a voltage of a few millivolts, and might select 10mV range. Then
the readings is off-scale, you reduce the sensitivity by changing the scale to
100 mV.

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Example

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Resistance
Resistance: the opposition of a conductor to a current pass through conductor

Good conductor has a low resistance Poor conductor has a high resistance

Unit of resistance is ohm ( Ω )

Ohm’s law R: resistance ( Ω )

𝑽 V: potential difference (V)
R= I: Current (A)
𝑰
the greater ( R ), the smaller ( I )
Definition of ohm (Ω)
Is the resistance of a
Substitute units in Ohm’s law conductor in which the
𝑽 current is 1 ampere when
Ω = a voltage of 1 volt is
𝑨
applied across it. 46

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Resistance
Example: if I is 2 A, when V = 12V, what is the
resistance?

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Resistance
Example: if I is 2 A, when V = 12V, what is the R=
𝑽
𝑰
resistance?
R= =6Ω

I R

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Practice

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Resistors
Resistor is a conductor that has a resistance
Resistor
Resistor is made either from wires of special alloys or from carbon

Radio and television sets use resisters that have values from a few
ohms up to millions of ohms

Variable resistor: Also

called potentiometer.
Are used in electronics as
volume and other control

As R increases, I decreases

Large variable resistor

Variable Resistor
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Large variable resistor

Large variable resistors consist of a coil
of constantan wire (an alloy of 60%
copper, 40% nickel) wound on a tube
with a sliding contact on a metal bar
above the tube.

Using the variable resistor

Rheostat Potential divider

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Rheostat and potential divider

Rheostat is used to change Potential divider is used to
the current in a circuit change the p.d. applied to a
device

only one end (terminal) connection - All three connections are used.
and the sliding contact are then - Any fraction from the total p.d. of
required. Moving the sliding contact the battery to zero can be ‘tapped
to the left reduces the resistance off’ by moving the sliding contact
and increases the current. down

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Resistance of a metal wire

Think!!
Which has a more resistanc
1- long thin wire
2-short thick wire of same material

Silver is the best conductor.

But copper is used to connect wires and for domestic electric cable. WHY?!!

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Resistance of a metal wire

Think!!
Which has a more resistanc
1- long thin wire
2-short thick wire of same material

Silver is the best conductor.

But copper is used to connect wires and for domestic electric cable. WHY?!!
Copper is the second best conductor. However copper is cheaper than silver

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Resistance proportionality
Resistance R is directly proporional to its length ( l )
R𝛼l R increases as l increases
R decreases as l decreases
If two wire from same materials

Resistance R is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area ( A )

R𝛼 R increases as A decreases
R decreases as A increases
If two wire from same materials

=
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Resistance proportionality
What happens to R if A is doubled? What happens to R if l is doubled?

What happens to R if A is halved? What happens to R if l is halved?

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I-V graphs
I-V graph is a graph to represent
the relation between the current
and the potential difference
applied across any electrical
component

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I-V graph for Ohmic conductor

- Ohmic conductors are the conductors that obey Ohm’ law
- All metallic conductors are Ohmic conductors
- I-V graphs for Ohmic conductors are straight lines. So they are called linear conductor
- Ohm’s law : the current in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the p.d.
across its ends if temperature and other conditions are constant.
- I-V relation is linear and the gradient is constant.
- So, the resistance R of a metallic conductor is constant even p.d changes.
- If temperature of metal Increases, resistance will increase.

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I-V graph for Semiconductor diode

- Semiconductor diode allows the current to pass if p.d. is applied in one direction
- Current almost zero if p.d. is applied in opposite direction
- Diode has small resistance when connected one way round
- Diode has large resistance when p.d. is reversed
- Diodes conduct in one direction but it is non-ohmic conductor
- If temperature of semiconductor Increases, resistance will decrease.

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I-V graph for Filament lamp

- Filament lamp is non-ohmic conductor at high temperatures
- The I-V graph curve flattens
- The resistance changes as current changes
- R increases as I increases and makes the filament hotter.
- If temperature of filament lamp Increases, resistance will increase.

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I-V graph for Semiconductor Thermistor

- Thermistor is a temperature dependent resistor

- As current pass through semiconductor thermistor, its temperature rises
- If temperature of semiconductor thermistor Increases, resistance will decrease
- I-V graph of semiconductor thermistor bends up
- Thermistor is used as a variable resistor (temperature dependent)

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Using thermistor

Potential divider

Resistor
Explain what is happening to p.d. across R, if temperature increases.

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Using thermistor

Potential divider

Resistor
Explain what is happening to p.d. across R, if temperature increases.

As temperature of thermistor increases, its resistance decreases and

takes less p.d.
Then p.d. across the resistor increases

This circuit is used to monitor temperature as in car radiator

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Light- dependent Resistor (LDR)

The resistance of LDR (some semiconducting materials)

changes as the intensity of light falling on them changes

As light intensity increases, the resistance decreases

It is a non-ohmic resistor

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Power in electric circuit

Electric power: it is the rate at which the electric current transfers energy
from the source to the circuit components.

Power =

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Power in electric circuit

Electric power: it is the rate at which the electric current transfers energy
from the source to the circuit components.

The energy transferred E

Power = P= E= P×t
We know that W = I ×t× 𝑉 Then
E = IVt
I × 𝑡 ×V
Then P= The Unit of power is watt (W)
1 kW = 1000 W (kilowatt)
P = I×V 1MW = 1000 000 W (megawatt)
In units
P= I×V
Watts = amperes ×volts
Volts =
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Power

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Power

It means that 60 J of energy are transferred to

the lamp each second.

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Power
P=IV
P = I2 R How???!
P=

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Power
P=IV
P = I2 R How???!
P=
By using
Ohm’s law V

If current is doubled, four time

I R
energy is produced. How??

If voltage is doubled, four time

energy is produced. How?

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Power

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Joulemeter (Electricity meter)

Joulemeter is a device to measure the electrical energy transferred directly.

Circuit connection

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Paying for electricity

Unit of Energy is Joule Electric companies charge Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is
Joule is very small for the amount of energy the electrical energy
using a large unit used by a 1 kW
Kilowatt-hour (kWh) appliance in 1 hour

1 kWh = 1 x 1000 x 3600s = 3600000 J = 3.6 MJ

1 kWh = 3.6 MJ

Example:
The power of electric fire is 3 kW.
If it works for 2 hours, it will use 6 kWh.

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Appliances Power
Each appliance has its
own Power.

Example:
6.4 kW cooker is used in a house. If
you know that the voltage supplied in
the house is 230 V, what is the
current required by the cooker?

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Appliances Power
Each appliance has its
own Power.

Example:
6400 W
6.4 kW cooker is used in a house. If I= = = 28 A
you know that the voltage supplied in
the house is 230 V, what is the
Note :
current required by the cooker?
28 A is too large current to draw
from the ring main of a house.
So, a separate circuit must be used.
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Paying for electricity

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Exam-style question

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