Environment and Ecology Research 6(3): 137-146, 2018 http://www.hrpub.

org
DOI: 10.13189/eer.2018.060301

Theory and Practice of Vulnerability to Disasters in

Flood Prone Areas in Chikwawa, Malawi
J. Mtembenuzeni, J. Kushe*

Department of Geography and Earth Sciences, Mzuzu University, Private Bag 201, Luwinga Mzuzu 2, Malawi

Copyright©2018 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under
the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License

Abstract Contrary to the nature of occurrence of waiting for relief from government and epistemic
floods in Malawi, for communities, floods have a social organizations. There was no or poor demarcation between
face and should be understood as a social disaster other normal life and disaster situation for the vulnerable groups
than natural disasters. A study was carried out in Chikuse and that was among the major obstacles to full recovery
Traditional Authority area in Chikhwawa, Malawi, to from a disaster situation. The research found a mismatch
understand why people are affected by floods despite the between what has been documented as the root causes of
long history of their occurrence. Assessment of the vulnerability in the study area and the actual situation. The
vulnerabilities of people in the area was critically reviewed research also founds out that apart from social, political and
in relation to pressure and release model (PAR) and also economic causes of vulnerability in flood areas, there were
the access model. Data was collected from the other factors that also make people vulnerable such as;
communities through interviews and focus group attitude of people, cultural beliefs, poor social network, and
discussions and also the use of key informant’s interviews. not just the drainage density of the area. Uncoordinated and
Cluster and circle approach was used to understand the unplanned efforts in terms of mitigation strategies for
interrelationships pressure conditions, access/release reducing people’s vulnerability compounded the disaster
conditions, vulnerability and disaster situation. This situation. The study concluded that during floods people
approach help to find the relationship that exist between will be pushed to a disaster situation because of their
people normal life condition with inherent vulnerabilities capacities the floods and their effects. The research
and the way they react to, cope with and recover from suggested the need to build capacity for the people in this
hazardous situation and whether their condition will enable area which will help build resilience or ease relocation.
them avoid disasters or predispose them to disasters. An
appraisal of the route to recovery or next disaster was made Keywords Theory, Practice, Vulnerability, Disaster,
to explain the social causation of likelihood of recurrence Flood
of disasters in the study area. In this case an analysis
common treats of the groups which ended into disaster
situation were considered the causal factors of the disaster.
The probability of the next disaster was considered as 1. Introduction
product of the social causation in presence of floods as
pressure conditions. It was found out that the disaster in the Theoretically researchers have written much on flood
study area varied between individual and families because risk but have neglected practical aspects of people’s
of their vulnerability condition. Lack of access to land, vulnerability on the ground. Despite warnings people insist
wealth, natural and social resources and linkages was living in places prone to floods due to the benefit obtained
found to be the major cause of pressure condition. Those during and after floods [1]. When human and economic
with low score of access to resources were more vulnerable losses are determined for planning of relief services, those
and were likely to be driven into the disaster condition in who experience disasters are conceptualized as a
presence of a flooding event. Ill health, poor nutrition, long homogenous group called ‘victims’, a category which
duration of recovery was typical notable characteristics of overlooks differences in terms of gender, caste, class, age
the more vulnerable individuals than those with access to or physical and mental ability [1] and also the state their
release condition. Families which had access to shelter, normal life in disaster free times. However, ‘disasters’
food, wealth natural resources and land recovered quickly unfold in varying geographic, political, socioeconomic and
from the hazard and some completely avoided the disaster cultural contexts [2] and people’s ability to respond, cope
unlike those who did have resources who ended up in with or adapt reflects unevenly distributed patterns of
138 Theory and Practice of Vulnerability to Disasters in Flood Prone Areas in Chikwawa, Malawi

vulnerability structured by access to and control over 1.2. Significance of the Study
resources, the extent of diversified livelihood strategies,
physical location (community settlement patterns , In absence of the correct understanding of vulnerability
population density ) or personal endowments (skills, to floods in Chikuse area in Chikhwawa people will keep
on suffering from floods without adequate and proper ways
education, key survival and recovery resources) and access
address to the risk. The International Strategy for Disaster
to information and communication systems [3]. This is so
Reduction [8], define vulnerability “a set of conditions and
because some people think that by the mere fact one being
processes resulting from physical, social, environmental
found in flood prone areas, they are vulnerable to flooding
and economic factors, which increase the susceptibility of a
which is contrary to the people who actually stay in these
community to the impact of hazards.”
areas. In addition what other people may believe in are the
problems with floods are not actually the real problems
faced on the ground. In Malawi, the most frequently 1.3. Limitation of Study
reported natural hazards are floods and they account for
The study period was limited as it was meant for
over 40 per cent of all disasters [4]. The major flood areas
undergraduate students to be submitted in partial fulfilment
in Malawi are along the shores Lake Malawi, the main
of the undergraduate degree.
rivers, and in low lying areas. Virtually the whole of
Malawi is at risk to floods but the Lower Shire Valley is the
most affected area. The threats of the flood hazard have 1.3. Objectives
become complex and interrelated whilst the number of the 1.3.1. General Objective
vulnerable is growing fast. Reports indicate that the
southern Lower Shire region of Malawi, which stretches The general aim of the study is to assess the theoretical
down to the border with Mozambique, has suffered most and practical understanding of vulnerabilities in flood
due to its low, marshy terrain and the presence of several prone areas of Chikuse, Traditional Authority Makhwira in
rivers flowing into the already swollen Shire River [4]. Chikhwawa District.
High intensity and long duration rains across plateau and 1.3.2. Specific Objectives
high rising areas overseeing the Shire to the west in Shire
Highlands and east across the western border have caused The specific objectives of this study include the
the rivers in the area to burst their banks, displacing following:
thousands of people, flooding homes and farmland, and 1. To find out the nature and cause of the vulnerability
causing severe damage to property and crops. Although the in people.
loss of life has been minimal because of the government 2. To investigate the level of vulnerability based on
warnings but thousands are at risk because of the timing of social economy condition of the people in the study
the floods. February is considered a lean month when most area.
food stocks are used up ahead of the March/April harvest 3. To examine the extent of coping mechanisms on
[5]. With much of the harvest washed away, food becomes flood hazards or disasters.
a priority. The lack of food and shelter increases the 4. To find out reasons why the vulnerable people still
vulnerability of flood victims, heavily impacting on their remain in the flood prone areas.
health and nutritional status. The already serious situation 5. To find out what could be the most effective
has been compounded by damaged sanitation facilities and mitigation strategies based on the condition in
study area.
contaminated water, increasing the threat of cholera and
malaria. The area under study is one of the most dominant
affected areas in Chikwawa where floods occur yearly and
most of lives and properties are lost and between 2000 up 2. Materials and Methods
to 2012 this area has been annually experiencing floods [6].
2.1. Description of the Study Area
1.1. Problem Statement The study was conducted in Group Village Headman
Chikuse Area of Traditional Authority Makhwira in
Flood is probably the most devastating, widespread and Chikwawa District. It comprises of four villages namely;
frequent natural hazard of the world. Since Malawi was Wilson, Gusu, Chikuse 1 and 2. Chikuse is the main area
awakened by floods that occurred in Phalombe in 1991 [7], that is hit by floods almost yearly. This area is located
there have been reports about how the vulnerable people along the Shire River and gets flooded due to several rivers
are affected in one way or the other. However have pouring their water in this Shire River. Among these rivers
presented the situations theoretically unlike what really has is Mwanza River. The area has an altitude of 100m above
been the case on the ground (practicality). A gap exist in the sea level or below. The land is almost flat with several
relation to what is thought of as vulnerability and the actual river tributaries. The area has good and fertile soils that
vulnerabilities people have in flood prone areas of Chikuse attract people for cultivation of crops without applying
in Chikhwawa. inorganic fertilizer.
 Environment and Ecology Research 6(3): 137-146, 2018 139

Figure 1. Map showing Chikuse Flood Prone Area of T/A Makhwira in Chikwawa District
140 Theory and Practice of Vulnerability to Disasters in Flood Prone Areas in Chikwawa, Malawi

2.2. Study Design regarding their vulnerability that was in terms of social,
economic and physical. The data collected was also
For this study, a field trip to Chikwawa District was a analyzed manually and the use of computer through
good opportunity to make direct observations. It provided Microsoft word and Microsoft excel.
chances to hear useful comments that could never be found
in books – and yet so relevant and helpful to the research.
Adequate information on various aspects of floods such as 3. Results and Discussion
the extent of vulnerability, some measures of mitigation,
and problems regarding lack of funds and lack of proper The sample of the study consisted of three (3) villages
and on-time coordination were gathered. and each was represented by ten (10) respondents. These
A questionnaire was administered to the subjects in villages were; Gusu, Wilson and Chikuse. All of the
Chikwawa District. It was answered by 30 adults whose respondents answered the questionnaires and observations
ages ranged between 16 to 60 years who were likely to be were made by the researcher.
the ones who were once the victims mainly from the area
under study. Key informants were interviewed comprised 3.1. The Nature and Causes of the Vulnerability of
the Desk Officer for Disaster Management in Chikwawa People in Chikuse Area
District, a senior officer from Chikwawa Police, and the While floods can play an invigorating role in this case
chief of Traditional Authority (TA) Makhwira. In order to study area’s ecology by bringing fish and other species into
ensure the validity and reliability of the collected data, this the wetlands and depositing nutrients in the soil, floods of
study employed both qualitative and quantitative research greater intensity or duration than expected severely
methods. Qualitative method was used for the purpose of affected this community [9]. The respondents indicated
finding out diversity of opinions and understanding the that the nature and cause of vulnerability in Chikuse Area
effectiveness of various aspects of the flood vulnerability are due to the following factors. All the respondents
and management. For a balanced view, the research tools indicated that really in this area of study people are more
comprise four tools. An observation was made, a vulnerable to floods. The following were indicated as the
semi-structured interview was conducted, and a most nature and the causes of people vulnerability: Almost
questionnaire was undertaken. The final method that was seventeen percent (17%) of them said that being confined
employed for the investigation of the relationships and at one place and caught by crocodiles, thirty three percent
processes of interest was the review of documentation. (33%) said walking long distance to get maize mill during
Computation were made of the data collected to establish the flooding, thirty three percent (33%) said that receiving
frequencies and trends to determine magnitudes of the of little support at an evacuation centre, and another
challenges. seventeen percent (17%) no support given to the
foreigners.
2.3. Sampling Techniques “I must have been here for about 10 years now and I saw
the first flood that entered into our house. I stayed at home
Purposive sampling was used to get information from with my mother for almost two weeks –we lived on the
only those residents in the area who had experienced a grains we had stored at home, to us it was a normal life
flood. because we had nowhere to escape, to us whether it means
that flooded water has exceeded the level of my breast it
2.4. Sample Collection and Analysis does not bother us provided we should have food for us to
Data analyzing involved rearranging the responses. survive. …..we know for sure that without floods we
Descriptive analysis which was in form of qualitative cannot stay in this area,” a certain villager describes,
description was carried out on the responses of the subjects referring to her Wilson village.
 Environment and Ecology Research 6(3): 137-146, 2018 141

Figure 2. Showing the Nature and Causes of Vulnerability of People in Chikuse Area

3.2. The Level of Vulnerability Based on Social Economic Condition of the People in the Study Area
All the respondents admitted that the level of their vulnerability is based on the social economy. According to the
observation made the vulnerability is due the following: it was discovered that the area has the housing units which are
poor and have insufficient basic water and sanitation, roads and poor markets. Of one hundred percent (100%)
respondents only ten percent (10%) had pin latrines (toilets).

Figure 3. Showing the Level of Vulnerability based on Social Economic condition of the people in the study area

“There were also sentiments expressed buy the people source, leading to increase of the use of unprotected
in the area: ……. are no boreholes in this area all people shallow wells as sources of water. As indicated above, only
access water through unprotected wells, which was a few people have pit latrines but the rest use the nearby
dangerous because the area is located in low flat areas.” bushes. There were no any under-five clinics even a
High water tables presents abundance of groundwater government primary school in Chikuse area which has a
142 Theory and Practice of Vulnerability to Disasters in Flood Prone Areas in Chikwawa, Malawi

sizable population of youth which result in more people losing land or work, making them more vulnerable to
failing to access medical attention when they get sick and hazard. But this is not the case with floods in this study area
high illiteracy levels respectively. Since most of the because people’s vulnerability is linked with poverty
residents are illiterate, they cannot obtain formal
employment with most deriving their income from farming. 3.3. The Extent of Coping Mechanisms on Floods
Rising from lack of employment and high illiteracy levels, Hazards or Disasters
most residents earn very low incomes from small scale
The study focus on how the community’s response to
businesses, barter trading, and wages from piece works
protect and cope with the identified element exposed to
“ganyu”. Barter trading is mainly done due to the fact that
risk - income, physical structures, disruption of path way,
the area has no community market where people can sell
Injuries and life losses, and their personal belongings.
their farm inputs after a harvest. Due to unemployment and
Result shows that more than half of the households
lack of sustainable means of livelihoods, poor farming
perceived the flood as a nuisance to them rather than a
methods are always practiced just for the people to earn catastrophe. They opt to stay in the area for the proximity
their living. to the source of economic livelihood. The people apply
Theoretically, this research involves The Pressure and more than three (3) coping mechanisms in order to live in
Release Model (Crunch) which shows that a disaster the area. For these people, coping mechanism are an
happens only if a hazard meets a vulnerable situation. It integral part of their life to live with the effects of flood.
shows how the cause of vulnerability can be traced back They said that they construct homes at an ant hill, building
from the unsafe condition, through economic and social homes at a safer and higher elevation and construction of
(dynamic) pressures to underlying root cause. Pressure local havens called “Tchete.”
model is an organized framework outlining a hierarchy of Three factors were identified that influence the coping
causal factors that together constitute the pre-conditions for mechanisms employed by the community at different
a disaster. It can be described as a pathway, progression of flood stages –before, during and after. Income, access to
vulnerability or a chain of causation. It is a sequence of assistance, and geographical location show significant
factors and processes that leads one from a disaster event relationships with the community’s coping mechanisms.
and its proximate causes back over more distant factors and However, other respondents when asked how do they cope
processes that initially may seem to have little to do with up during or after the flood, they said that they do not
causing the disaster [10]. have any coping mechanism because during this time
Pressures are caused and increased by a set of underlying almost all their properties that they depend on are
causes which encourages those in position of power to destroyed by flood. Majority of them said that no any
behave in a certain way. These underlying causes may be central government, followed or foreign aid Agencies.
political ideas, economic principles or due to cultural Ten percent (10%) out of one hundred percent (100%)
issues or practices. People’s vulnerability at local and were able to sell their livestock like goats and the maize,
international levels can often be linked back to poor to cope with flood hazards within the community. They
governance, inequality, greed, injustice and prejudice [10]. also said that poor flood-affected families take shelter in
These issues may seem far from the affected community higher ant hills where they (victims) construct a small
but they can have a powerful influence. For example, “Tchete” house like a nest where they can stay as long as
political decision about land reform can result in people the area remains flooded (weeks or months).
 Environment and Ecology Research 6(3): 137-146, 2018 143

Figure 4. Showing the extent of coping mechanisms on flood hazards or disasters

Families who lose their home and livelihood and possibly because of the fact that many floodplain residents
remain without any thing to eat and other sources of in this specific case study area are so poor because more
income move to flood relief camps in the district (Kalulu than half of the sample lives under the poverty threshold
Area) which is about Fifteen (15) kilometres from this that they have no assets to sell.
case study area. The Access Model picks up the state of normal life and
Most of the flood-affected people barely have any explains how people earn a livelihood with differential
savings or food stocks. Therefore, it can be concluded that access to material, social and political resources [10]. In
just a few people, the selling off assets particularly this case, if this Access model is critically analysed, it can
livestock, is one of the most common coping strategies. be noted that it is contradicting with the situation being
Also the existence of formal credit institutions to help faced in this study area. Where if the area is under flood
rehabilitate flood-struck households in the study area is there is no role of any agency to help, no interacting with
rare. Flood-affected families mainly cope with a flood other actors like police. This might be case due to the
crisis with the help of informal credit. Relatives, geographical position of the area. For example, the area is
neighbours, and family friends help flood-affected surrounded by Shire River and other small tributaries
families by providing loans and other assistance, or which cause the situation to become tough for these
flood-affected families buy food from local shops on a agencies to help properly eventually the victims’
credit basis. Sometimes, richer, well-off families in a vulnerability increases.
village lend money to flood-affected local residents.
There are no leading NGOs that deal with micro- credit 3.4. The Reasons Why the Vulnerable People Still
in the study area. Although existing literature suggests Remain in the Flood Prone Areas Despite Being
that these NGOs play an important role in ex post coping Warned
response to flood disasters by distributing flood relief,
agricultural inputs and subsidized micro credits in There were varied responses as to why people prefer to
flood-affected regions [11]. In contrast most key remain in this flooded area despite having knowledge that
informants in this particular area stated that they play floods cause them to be vulnerable. This question though
almost no role at all. Most flood-affected families depend viewed to be simple but it was very crucial because
on relatives, neighbours, and informal microcredit systems Seventy percent (70%) of the respondents said contrary to
to cope with floods. According to this research it has what thirty percent (30%) other respondents said. The
revealed that almost victims of the affected farmers in seventy percent of respondents said that, they are used in
Chikuse area mitigated their income and asset losses by this area as a result they take this area as their only home.
selling land, livestock, and other belongings. This was They also said that they prefer to remain in this area
observed in this case study though not mentioned by the during the floods for the fear of outbreak of diseases like,
key informants as an effective common coping strategy, cholera and dysentery at an evacuation centre because if
144 Theory and Practice of Vulnerability to Disasters in Flood Prone Areas in Chikwawa, Malawi

they are at this evacuation they noted that they are provided for them to go back and that the landowners do not show
with only one toilet to be used by hundreds of people there. interest of going out of this area to get at least a higher area.
The people at the evacuation consist of men, women and While the landowners, they fear of losing their home and
youth. Then to them it is unethical and uncalled for. They chieftaincy because wherever they are going, they are
also said that they always think that by going to an uncertain whether they can maintain their positions or that
evacuation centre, it can be a wastage of time to come back they will be recognised as village headmen or leaders in
to start cultivating rice as the level of water gets lowered. foreign land. On the same point, it has been noted with
All of the respondents in this category were mostly those great concern that though the government always insist to
who came from distant (foreigners). For example, others push the people out of their disastrous area but up to now, it
came from Mozambique, and other districts of Malawi to has failed to identify a safer place for it citizens to resettle
settle in this area due to its fertility. and be protected. So just saying that these people should go
out of such areas but no land identified for them to stay on,
Table 1. Showing the reasons why the people still remain in the flood
prone area. it also increases their vulnerability that is why the people
insist to live in this area because so far no place has been
Reasons Frequency Percentage (%)
identified.
Used 21 70 Furthermore, if there these people have decided to go out
Ancestral 9 30 of such places, what will government do with this area?
Fishing 9 30 Will other people not occupy this area? If the government
Fear of Disease can tell these people clearly what it can do with such area if
30 100 people go out of that area, it can possible to convince them.
outbreak
Time Wastage 30 100 So in this case, it can be argued that failure of government
to come up with proper strategic plan to convince these
The remaining thirty percent (30%) of the respondents people also increase their vulnerability.
said that they cannot go out of this area because it was
given to them by their forefathers and this area belongs to
3.5. Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA)
them. “I cannot go out of this area because I am a Group
Village Headman and I have my subordinates. If we go out There are also many views from other peoples’
of this area will I maintain my chieftaincy there?” asked a perspectives all over Malawi as to why these people opt to
certain village leader. The issue of wasting of time as they stay in this area. One of the views that other people give is
go to a certain evacuation centre was also highlighted with the issue of dependency. They say that people in flooded
this group meaning to say that they opt to stay in the area to affected areas stay there for them to get an aid from either
catch up with time for cultivating rice so that they can have government of other organisations. But as the respondents
enough food for the next growing season. This group also were asked to do Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) as to which
noted that at the evacuation centre, they are given little they benefit much between what they normally realise
support from the government and other concerned through floods and those items they get through aid from
organisations to aid their various needs. “We only get two the government as well as organisations. All respondents
(2) blankets, one (1) fifty kilogram (50kg) of dry maize, (100%) strongly said that what they get in the flooded area
five kilograms (5kg) of beans, five (5) plastic cups, four (4) is more than what government give them mainly at the
plates and one (1) bucket, and we are eight (8) in my family, evacuation centre. So this also increases their vulnerability.
how can we share two (2) blankets.” A certain man
lamented. This group also raised an issue of fishing that 3.6. Mitigation Strategies Based on the Condition in
during floods they catch a lot of fish which supplement this Study Area
them to on as source of food. Therefore, culture is also
playing a leading role to the vulnerability of the victims. This research also looked for information concerning
For example, societal status is the one which is making what other stakeholders are doing to help the victims in
these people to be more vulnerable. As noted, most people other flooded areas. According to the Desk Officer for
(victims) in this area are the ones who are responsible for Disaster Management in Chikwawa District and
land distribution for other people to settle and cultivate. Evangelical Association of Malawi’s Project Officer in the
Now, it becomes hard for these people to lose that same district they said that they have built two (2) Save
responsibility (status) hence be vulnerable in this flooded Havens one at T/A Ngowe and one at Khungubwe
area. respectively. These Save Havens are disaster adaptive
As observed, it was noted that most of the respondents infrastructures that can be occupied by the victims. Having
were foreigners while only thirty percent (30%) of the close look at these Havens, they have been built in dry
respondents were the landowners. In this case, it can be areas unlike the actually areas that normal experiences
argued that foreigners are more vulnerable because they are floods, which becomes also a threat because it can take
coming from long distant places that it can be very difficult more hours for the victims to travel a long distance to reach
 Environment and Ecology Research 6(3): 137-146, 2018 145

these two places hence increase in their vulnerability. need better life. But for now, even if it rained heavily, I
Though it is good idea to build the havens but it could be would not go anywhere, unless someone comes to my aid.”
very appropriate if these havens were constructed in the It is obvious that the victims though affected by floods
same flooded areas so that people should not take too long they are supposed to have coping mechanisms for them to
to get this place so that their vulnerability of walking long keep on living. Nine per cent (10%) out of one hundred
distance could be reduced and this can be called as per cent (100%) were able to sell their livestock like goats
impractical. and the maize, to cope with flood hazards within the
community. They also said that poor flood-affected
3.7. Discussion families take shelter in higher ant hills where they
(victims) construct a small “Tchete” house like a nest
The study found that there are differences in how floods where they can stay as long as the area remains flooded
occur and their effects and what they believe is the problem for some time. This is contrary to what other people have
with them. Two models have been defined and discussed in been speculating about the floods any disaster’s victims
the literature review and theoretical framework, in chapter that most of them depend on the aid from either
2. In this chapter the researcher has used them in the government or any charity organisation. Victims always
formulation of a conceptual framework that, which is find ways for them to sustain a living in this area.
recommended for understanding vulnerability in Chikuse. As noted that most people prefer to stay in this area
Pressure and Release model shows the elements of the because they have no readily identified place for them to
conceptual framework. These have been categorized into live on as opposed to what has been decided by the
those related to vulnerability namely; defining root causes, government that these people need to be reallocated.
identification of dynamic pressures and creation of safe Theoretically, it is true that the people here are vulnerable
conditions. While Access model shows some of the things because they insist to live in this area but practically no
which make the victims to be able to earn a living before, place has been identified by the government to help these
during and after the floods. The data collected and analysed people from being vulnerable. Others, mainly landowners
in this paper imply a number of things. In the first place it as indicated that they fear of losing their chieftaincy ship
indicates that people in Chikuse area are vulnerable due to because they are uncertain if they go out of this area that
floods that are always experienced in this area. The where they are going they will not be leaders. In this case
findings in this chapter emphasised the problems caused by the government too should make some efforts to arrange
floods in Chikuse area. According to Wisner et al [10] they proper ways to avoid conflicts where these people can be
argue that the most important root causes that give rise to resettled. As also noted in the responses about why these
vulnerability (and which reproduce vulnerability over time) people prefer to stay in this area it can be concluded that
are economic, demographic and political processes. Issues culture also plays a big role for people to be vulnerable to
like; altitude, proximity to Shire River and river network flood disasters. In this way, Wisner et al, (2003) did not
these entire have also significance to the cause and nature include the cultural aspect to be one of the root causes of
of the vulnerability problem in this study area. vulnerability in flood areas. On the same, though not
The indicators show that people are vulnerable partly not given in the responses but still can be included as root
because they are poor though there is relationship between cause is the issue of religious beliefs since some cultures
vulnerability and poverty. Being confined at one place, go hand in hand with some religious beliefs. This element
caught by crocodiles, walking long distance to get maize too was overlooked by Wisner et al in their Pressure and
mill during the flooding, receiving of little support at an Release model.
evacuation centre, and no support given to the foreigners Even building of two (2) Save Havens one at T/A
who came from Mozambique other areas like Thyolo, Ngowe and one at Khungubwe by government and
Mzimba, etc. are some of the factors that cause the people Evangelical Association of Malawi (EAM) respectively is
in this area to be vulnerable unlike what the Pressure and not practical solution to help flood victims. Practically,
Release model is presenting as causes of vulnerability these Save Havens could have been built in the same area
during hazards or disasters. to ease their vulnerability by walking short distance to get
Out of the one hundred per cent (100%) interviewed where these Havens are. But by just building these Havens
with semi-structured questionnaires, none expert, the in dry area both government and EAM have not solved the
researcher was told that all decided to live in Chikuse problem because this has also increase their vulnerability.
because they want to cultivate so that they can eliminate If they were willing to help these people they would have
their poverty because they cannot afford to buy food. The involved the victims to decide where these Havens should
general opinion is well reflected in the following quotation be built. In this case the project lacked the element of
which was said by a 54 year old man,’’ what can I do? consultation for victims to participate in any decision made
Where can I go? I only hope that one day; my life can outside their involvement. In this case, it can also be
change through farming in this area. I also hope the concluded that people are also vulnerable in this area
government will seriously consider that even us the poor, because of uncoordinated planning in terms of mitigation
146 Theory and Practice of Vulnerability to Disasters in Flood Prone Areas in Chikwawa, Malawi

strategies that both government and other humanitarian eventually reduce people’s vulnerability which can
agencies provide. Therefore, there is no relationship come due to behaviour change.
between theory and practice of vulnerability in all flood
prone areas. Some of these theories can work better in other 4.3. Opportunities for Further Study
areas but not Chikuse area.
1. Similar study should be carried out at a larger scale
2. Indigenous knowledge on the management of floods
4. Conclusion and Recommendation in flood prone areas
3. Pattern of flooding events in time and space in
Lower Shire Valley
4.1. Conclusions
Having looked at the theory and practice of
vulnerabilities in flood prone areas in Malawi, mainly in
Chikuse area of Traditional Authority Makhwira in
Chikwawa District, people are vulnerabilities in flood REFERENCES
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