Perceived Athletic and Academic Stressors and Time Management of Student-

Athletes

Amanda Miller1, M.A., Steve S. Chen1, D.S.M., Tsung-chih Chiu2, M.S.

1
Morehead State University, Department of Management and Marketing
2
Jinwen University of Science and Technology, Office of Physical Education

Introduction Gratto, 2001; Cosh & Tully, 2015;

A typical National Collegiate Halvorson, 2012; Miller, 2002), it is easy
Athletic Association (NCAA) Division-I to conclude that student-athletes are
affiliated member institution provides highly anxious and concerned with both
support to at least seven men’s and the academic and athletic demands
women’s sports that sustains over 300 placed on them. Multiple studies and
student-athletes. These student-athletes literature indicate that student-athletes’
perform both on and off the court on a stressors include long hours of practice,
daily basis while completing their competition, travel, pressure to win, and
homework and studying for tests just academic obligations (Carodine et al.,
like non-athlete students. Furthermore, 2001; Halvorson, 2012; Miller, 2002).
they participate in practices, compete in Other studies also addressed the
games, lift weights, attend team different types and levels of anxiety and
meetings, and manage injuries. stress student-athletes experience
Although faculty members are aware of throughout their academic career
the demands placed on college athletes, (Rhoden, 1990; Storch, Storch, Killiany,
it’s unclear if they understand the & Roberti, 2005; Weber, Shennan, &
magnitude of the challenges and Tegano, 1990). Although the issues
pressure college athletes have concerning student-athletes’ stress and
experienced outside of the classroom. anxiety are recognized, only a limited
Much of current media attention amount of research has been
focuses on the controversial issues such undertaken to identify methods that can
as compensating student-athletes for be used to help student-athletes cope
their athletic contribution, and the with them (Boyd, 2012; Cosh & Tully,
academic integrity of college athletic 2015).
programs. Many critics insist that The purpose of this study is to
student-athletes should be mainly in examine how student-athletes perceive
school to pursue an education, and not daily stresses derived from their athletic,
to play a sport for salaries. However, academic, and social obligations. In
this does not alleviate student-athletes addition, the authors investigated the
from the pressure to achieve athletic student-athletes’ time management and
excellence since they must play the dual the support they expect to receive in
roles, student and athlete, regardless of order to cope with stress. The results of
the merits of the arguments. After the study will help the administrators
examining studies conducted on the and faculty members learn about
level of anxiety and stress faced by student-athletes’ daily activities and their
collegiate athletes (Carodine, Almond, & psychological states, which should help

11
them aid and improve the well-being of source of pride, providing a gathering
the student-athletes. place for the university faculty, students,
and alumni, and developing well-
Review of the Literature prepared leaders for our society.
Student-athletes’ stresses and issues Although the intent and goals are noble,
According to Folkman and participants (mainly student-athletes) of
Lazarus (1985), stress is defined as a athletic programs may not believe they
“relationship between the person as are receiving the ideal or claimed
relevant to his or her well-being and in benefits through their participatory
which the person’s resources are taxed experience. Cosh and Tully (2015)
or exceeded” (p.151). Stress affects stated that student-athletes who
each person differently. In addition, participate in elite sports in higher
student-athletes’ perceived nexus of education find the experience to be very
collegiate sport and stress varies stressful and it may cause them to
significantly depending on their gender, sacrifice their education. Athletes seem
race and social class (Beamon and Bell, to be less motivated to engage in
2006; Halvaorson, 2012; Sagar et al, academics in comparison to the non-
2011; Watson & Kissinger, 2007). The athlete students (Armstrong & Oomen-
variability of the stress effects depends Early, 2009; Beamon & Bell, 2006). For
on the individual’s personality and example, they often choose easier
medical history. Also previous subjects and only aim to pass them in
experiences on how stress was handled order to accommodate their athletic
can assist the person in dealing with a commitments and requirements. Not
current stressful situation. Some surprisingly, this academic approach
stressors associated with participation in could drastically hinder their future
elite-level sports include: poor mental careers.
preparation, injury, performance In addition to academic pressure,
expectations, self-presentation, and intercollegiate athletic participation is
rivalry (Cosh & Tully, 2015). Along with also viewed as a root of cause of
pressure coming from athletic negative emotions, delinquent
participation, many student-athletes also behaviors, and pain (Armstrong &
experience intense stress outside of Oomen-Early, 2009). Sagar and
sport competition that includes associates (2011) examined 176 male
interpersonal relationships and and 155 female collegiate athletes’
academic pressure (Halvorson, 2012; athletic participation experiences. Their
Kimball & Freysinger, 2003; Misra, & study concluded that athletes’ athletic
McKean, 2000). Other potential experiences and fears of failure may
stressors may include the training increase the frequency of antisocial
environment, homesickness, ineffective behaviors. Male athletes expressed a
support systems, the effects of traveling, greater level of fear of failure and were
and coaching techniques and styles more likely to lower their self-esteem
(Halvorson, 2012). after losing than female athletes.
According to Boyd (2012), most Studies demonstrated that many
university athletic programs’ main student-athletes feel anxious and
function include providing competitive introverted prior to competition
opportunities for athletes, serving as a (Halvorson, 2012; Sagar et al., 2011).

12
When mistakes occurred, whether in theorized (see Table 1). Competition
practice or in competition, these feelings has a great impact on athletes’ ability to
become more intense, while adding cope with stress. In the case of middle
frustration and self-disappointment. In a adolescent athletes, emotion- and
small sample qualitative study problem-focused coping strategies
conducted by Halvorson (2011), all of appear to be the most used. In contrast,
the athletic participants experienced elite athletes with a high level of athletic
negative emotions related to pain during experience, appear to rely on a
practice or competition. Furthermore, problem-focused and appraisal-focused
the majority of the participants described coping mechanism more than less
not being satisfied with their athletic experienced athletes.
performance. Kimball and Freysinger (2003)
Although student-athletes mainly indicated participation in sports can
choose to attend an institution for assist student-athletes to deal with
athletics and academics, Halvorson stress, if they also develop self-
(2012) indicated that family support and determination, control, and social
the proximity of the school to the support. Studies have described many
athletes’ family/hometown are the positive coping strategies and
primary factors that determine the techniques to deal with stress (Folkman
athletes’ school choice. It was noted that & Moskowitz, 2000; Halvorson, 2012).
many freshman female athletes often The most commonly identified
reported being unusually anxious or techniques include mental training
‘down’ since starting college. relating to problem-focused coping and
Combination of being far from home and emotion-focused coping. Experts also
athletic obligation or pressures cause suggested using intense focus and
many athletes to develop unhealthy positive self-talk to work through
coping behaviors. These unhealthy stressful situations (Folkman &
behaviors include alcohol and tobacco Moskowitz, 2000). Athletes are
use, eating disorders, and participation receptive to this strategy because they
in risky sexual behaviors (Halvorson, were encouraged to bounce back after
2012). mistakes. Other methods included
consuming food and exercise. These
Mechanism and strategies for coping techniques are more likely used to avoid
stress or reduce negative emotions.
Even though sports participation Maturity (age) and gender are
can be viewed as an enjoyable and two important factors to determine
satisfying activity that relieves their daily effective coping strategies to overcome
stress, it is also a source of stress. sport-specific stressors. According to
Hence to overcome stress, the student- Halvorson (2012), freshman female
athletes must utilize a variety of coping collegiate athletes seem to lack coping
strategies and mechanisms. skills to manage the stress associated
Fortunately, student-athletes are often with adjusting to college life and the
able to readily identify the cause of their higher level of sports competition. Since
anxiety or depression. According to 52.6% of the 11,730 Division-I athletes
Folkman, and Lazarus (1985), four are female, more research is needed to
coping macro-dimensions have been determine how female student-athletes

13
manage and cope with stress. It is vital 41.5% of the total participants had a
for student-athletes to maintain close GPA of 3.0 or higher. Nearly half of the
relationships with family, friends and/or participants played “non-revenue
significant others to successfully cope generating sports” at the varsity level. In
with stress. Student-athletes often view this case, the non-revenue generating
their sport family members as “extended sports athletes are individuals who play
families.” Their coaches, teammates, a sport other than football and
and community friends can all lend basketball. Some individuals refer them
significant support to student-athletes. as the Olympics sports athletes, since
Despite family support, student-athletes these individual or team sports were
still need to “figure things out” and deal sanctioned by the International Olympic
with stress on their own. When an Committee. There were 170 scholarship
experienced athlete overcomes stress, student-athletes (80.2%) among the 212
the individual is more likely to provide participants.
energy and encouragement to other
team members. Instrumentation
Boyd (2012) believes it is A survey questionnaire, which
imperative that programs be created to contained a total of 27 items, was
help orient athletes to the university and created based on the concepts and
support them while they develop a fine framework of several past studies by
grasp of their academic responsibilities, Coash and Tully (2015), Misra and
their community, and their personal McKean (2000), and Chen, Mason,
development. For the sake of student- Middleton, and Salazar (2013). The
athletes’ well-being, the institution must surveyed items cover demographic
also develop a mechanism to ensure information (n = 7), open-ended
that student-athletes avoid drinking questions concerning expected support
alcohol as a means to to cope with for coping with stress (n = 2), a series of
stress. 10-point Likert scale items rating the
level of agreement on the source and
Methodology perception of stress (n = 12), and self-
Participants reported time spent on daily activities (n
In this study, the authors adopted = 6). The statement ratings of perceived
a convenience sampling method to stress and anxiety, the range from 1 to
survey 212 student-athletes and non- 10, where 1 equals “strongly disagree”
athlete students (66% males, 34% and 10 eauals “strongly agree.”
females) who study and compete at a
regional state university in Appalachia. Procedure
A majority of the participants (60.4%) Participants were recruited in two
were Caucasians (whites) and about main forms. Student were either
25.5% were African-Americans (blacks). solicited for responses via face-to-face
Table 2 and 3 each display the contract by an e-mail invitation.
distribution of the number of different Originally, a call of response was sent to
academic performance categories more than 250 student via e-mail with
based on their self-reported grade point the support of the institution’s athletic
average (GPA) and types of academic coordinator. However, only a
participatory sports. Overall, about very small number of respondents had

14
completed their SurveyMonkey and negative thoughts, (2) physical and
responses (n = 12) within the month of psychological stress, (3) pressure to
August, 2016. Therefore, the authors perform, and (4) earning respect from
decided to reach out to more others. Overall, the highest level of
participants in a variety of locations such stress and anxiety were associated with
as cafeterias, dorms, classroom the factor of “pressure to perform”. In
hallways, and the library from addition, participants also reported
September 2016 to January 2017. We relatively high ratings on two items,
collected an additional 200 completed “worry about maintaining good grades”
responses with an attempt of reaching (M = 7.3) and “constantly feel tired” (M =
out to 240 student. The online survey 7.0). According to the reported number
contained a consent letter that informed in Table 4, the participants do not seem
the participants of their rights and we to exhibit a very high level of stress
obtained their consent to be included in concerning lack of time, negative
the study. thoughts, and earning respect from
others (M < 6.0). Nor did they express
Results having experienced great physical and
Student participants of the psychological stress (M < 5.0).
sample slept nearly 7.5 hours per day The authors further compared the
and spent about six hours devoted to participants’ perceived daily stresses
their academic work and duty (including based on various variables such as
studying and attending classes). gender, race, academic standing,
Regardless of whether they were athletic status, and others. Apparently,
athletes, on average they all engage in no gender difference was found among
exercise and sports for more than 2.6 any of the factors. Out-of-state students
hours each day. This implies the sample spent significantly more
represents a group of physically active practice/exercise time than in-state
individuals who spend a great deal of students (4.2 vs. 3.5 hours; p <.05).
time engaging in physical activities. Hispanic students spent more
Statistically speaking, there is a practice/exercise time than other racial
significant time difference (p < .01) groups (p < .05).
spent by student-athletes and non- In general, more differences in
athlete students in two daily activities: time spent on daily activities and ratings
exercise and maintenance (see Table of perceived stress were observed
4). Logically, student-athletes spent based on participants’ athletic
significantly more time in practice and involvement and experience. For
exercise than non-athletes. However, example, student-athletes (who received
athletes also tend to spend less time on athletic scholarship) had a significantly
the maintenance activities, and high rating on “pressure to perform”
apparently spend a little more time (Factor 3) than those of non-athletes
studying each day than their non-athlete and intramural participants (p < .05).
peers (2.8 vs 2.6 hours). Surprisingly, they spent significantly
Based on the exploratory factor more time engaging in practice/exercise
analysis (see Table 5), the authors (4.9 hours per person, p < .05) than
identified four types of perceived stress football and basketball players. In
and anxiety. They are: (1) time concern comparison, non-athlete students spent

15
less time attending classes (not pressure to perform well both
statistically significant), but spent much academically and athletically.
more time engaging in leisure and social Although it is evident that
activities (about 5.2 hours; p < .01), and student-athletes spent over 20 some
slightly more time on maintenance hours on their athletic duties and
activities. responsibilities, it is encouraging to
The open-ended responses observe that they were equally
revealed that the top-four popular responsible for handling their academic
strategies to cope with stress were tasks. They spent slightly more time
working out, listening to music, sleeping attending classes and completing their
and eating. The regression analysis homework. They also reduced time for
(Table 6) indicated the best indicators of social/leisure and maintenance activities
participants’ happiness toward their to compensate for lack of personal time.
campus life were “pressure to perform” Perhaps student-athletes’ limited time
and “physical and psychological stress”. spent in social and leisure activities
This means greater happiness would practically reflects the issue of having a
result from an appropriate level of hard time in engaging in the campus life
pressure to perform, and low level of and feeling isolation (Armstrong &
physical and psychological stress. Oomen-Early, 2009; Beamon & Bell,
2006; Miller, 2002). Nevertheless,
Discussion and Conclusions student-athletes devote as much effort
As past studies have pointed out, and time (if not more) on their academic
student-athletes experienced significant endeavors as non-athlete students. The
pressure to perform academically and authors believe that mass media does
athletically. Our findings agree with not accurately portray the situation while
those studies since the ratings of claiming that all competitive student-
perceived pressure to do well both on athletes only focus on athletic
and off the field were high (8.2 on a 10- performance while intentionally
point scale). Student-athletes also neglecting their academic
consistently worry about maintaining responsibilities. In fact, the majority of
good grades and feel tired. However, student-athletes who compete at the
participants’ overall happiness toward regional or mid-major Division-I
their campus lives was also positively institutions value their college education
correlated with the perceived level of and do not solely invest their time and
“pressure to perform”. “Pressure to energy in athletics in pursuit of a
perform” is considered a double-edged professional playing career.
sword that can inspire a student-athlete To combat the problem of
to succeed or break his/her spirit. student-athletes focusing too much
Literature indicates student-athletes attention on their athletics, the authors
were able to gain a greater level of self- believe the solution must rely on the
esteem and confidence after following triad of supportive groups:
overcoming great challenges (Richards faculty, coaches, and academic
& Aries, 1999; Watson, & Kissinger, counselors. These groups are most
2007). Thus, it is not necessarily likely to impact student-athletes’
negative that student-athletes feel academic learning experience, shape
their career aspiration, and foster their

16
educational goals. If successfully indicate that out-state athletes and
applied, student-athletes will not feel Hispanic minority athletes spent more
alone and scared, when they seek time in athletic activities. Furthermore,
curricular guidance, support for out-of-state students who cannot easily
completing academic work, and career travel home may cause them to become
advices. We also agree with Boyd’s more socially isolated, which causes
comment (2012) that every university them to become more devoted to
must systematically assess all the athletics. While trying to monitor
entering athletes to determine their athletes’ psychological status, these two
academic preparedness whether they groups of people may be high risk
are high-risk. Once the high-risk athletes individuals that are susceptible to a
are identified, individualized program greater level of stress.
should be developed to support them
and enable them to learn effectively. References
Monitoring the academic performance of Armstrong, S., & Oomen-Early, J.
African-American athletes can be an (2009). Social connectedness,
effective strategy, since GPA was often self-esteem, and depression
strongly related to their self-esteem and symptomatology among
level of anxiety (Killeya, 2001). The collegiate athletes versus non-
program also should include a athletes. Journal of American
structured study program, using the College Health, 57(5), 521-526.
universities tutorial resources, Beamon, K., & Bell, P. A. (2006).
monitoring their academic performance, Academics versus athletics: An
engaging all coaches, and demanding examination of the effects of
the best not only from the at-risk background and socialization on
student-athletes, but from all student- African American male student
athletes. athletes. The Social Science
In general, the stress coping Journal, 43(3), 393-403.
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(i.e., working out, listening to music, education for life, not eligibility at
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reassess stress and develop proper for student athletes combining
strategies to address the problem. More elite sport and tertiary education:
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sufficient rest and sleep. Our findings

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18
Table 1. Different mechanisms for coping stress
Category Description
Problem focused coping A focus on strategies to reduce or resolve the problem
Emotion-focused coping Strategies to reduce negative emotion/distress
Avoidance Removal of the stress or one’s self from the stress
Appraisal-focused Reevaluation of the situation and adjustment of the priorities

Table 2. Distribution of participants in academic performance categories

GPA Score Number Percentage
Below 2.00 4 1.9%
2.00-2.49 46 21.7%
2.50-2.99 74 34.9%
3.00-3.49 54 25.5%
3.50-4.00 34 16.0%

Table 3. Distribution of participants in different sports

Sport category Number %

Football & basketball 68 32.1

Non-revenue generating sports 102 49.1

Intramural and club sports 14 6.6

None athletes 28 13.2

Table 4. Average time spent in daily activities (Mean & SD; Unit: in hours)
Activity Athletes Non-Athletes or Rec. Athletes
Sleeping 7.4 (1.2) 7.5 (1.2)
Practice/Exercise** 4.1 (1.5) 2.6 (1.6)
Classes 3.8 (1.7) 3.4 (1.5)
Leisure/Social** 2.8 (1.4) 4.6 (2.4)
Maintenance 2.6 (0.9) 2.7 (1.8)
Study 2.8 (1.4) 2.6 (1.4)
** p < .01

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Table 5. Factors on perceived stress and anxiety
Factor and Items (KMO: .710; loading: 67.03%) Mean % of Variance
Factor1: Time concern and negative thoughts 5.7 23.7%
j. Don’t have time to rest or sleep 5.7
c. Constantly feel tired 7.0
i. Rarely have time for social activity 5.5
f. Fail to live up to expectation 4.2
Factor 2: Physical and psychological stress 4.6 17.4%
d. Lack of motivation attending classes stress 4.7
b. Worry about maintaining good grades 7.3
k. Feel depressed daily 2.8
e. Lack of energy 3.8
Factor 3: Pressure to perform 8.2 13.1%
a. Feel the pressure to do well academically 8.7
g. Feel the pressure to perform on the field 7.8
Factor 4: Earning respect 5.3 12.8%
h. Pressure and need to earn respect 5.3

Table 6. Regression analysis on best indicators of participants’ happiness toward their

campus life

Model 1 formula:
(Participants’ happiness toward their campus life) = 3.663+ (Pressure to perform)* .474

Model 2 formula:
(Participants’ happiness toward their campus life) = 4.995 + (Pressure to perform)* .518-
(Physical & psychological stress)*.360

20