Smart Zebra Crossing

A
PROJECT WORK
ON
Smart Zebra Crossing
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Submitted to
Dr. A P J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,

LUCKNOW U.P.
Submitted by
Muskan Abid
(1906950310017)
Chhavi Malik
(190695031005)
Manish Baliyan
(1906950310028)
Surjeet Singh
(1906950310043)
Under the Supervision of

Mr. Ashish Singh
(Asst. Prof.)
(2019-2023)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SHRI RAM GROUP OF COLLEGES
(Parikarma Marg, Laxman Vihar Colony, Civil Lines South,
Muzaffarnagar, U.P. 251001)
1
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work which is being presented in the Project , entitled
“Smart Zebra Crossing” partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
BACHELOR of Technology in (Electronics & Communication) submitted in the
department of Electronics and Communication Engineering (Shri Ram Group of
colleges, Muzaffarnagar ) is an authentic record of my own work carried under the
guidance of Prof. Mr.Ashish Singh. I have not submitted the matter embodied in this
report for the award of any degree.
SUPERVISIOR MUSKAN ABID
ASST.PROF. MR ASHISH SINGH Roll No: 1906950310017

MANISH BALIYAN
Roll No: 1906950310028
CHHAVI MALIK
Roll No: 1906950310005
SURJEET SINGH
Roll No: 1906950310043
2
CERTIFICATE
This is certified that the project entitled “Smart Zebra Crossing” which is being
submitted by Muskan Abid (1906950310017), Chhavi Malik (1906950310005), Manish
Baliyan (1906950310028), Surjeet Singh(19069503100..) in partial fulfillment of
requirement for the award of degree of “BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY” in
Electronics & Communication Engineering during session 2019-2023 in
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Shri Ram Group of
Colleges, Muzaffarnagar U.P. is a record for bonafide work done by him under my
guidance.
HOD EXTERNAL
EXAMINER
Prof. Mrs. Kanupriya
Dept of Electronics and comm.Engg
Shri Ram Group of Colleges,
Muzaffarnagar(U.P.) 251001
SUPERVISOR
Prof. Mr. Ashish Singh

Dept of Electronics and comm.Engg
Shri Ram Group of Colleges,
Muzaffarnagar(U.P.) 251001
3
ABSTRACT
The smart zebra crossing is an essential technology for enhancing pedestrian

safety on busy roads. This project proposes a smart zebra crossing system that utilizes
DC and Servo motors, an Arduino Uno microcontroller, and ICs without the use of
sensors. The system is designed to control the traffic lights and provide a safe and
efficient crossing experience for pedestrians. The system uses a DC motor to control the
traffic light for vehicles and a servo motor to control the traffic light for pedestrians.
The Arduino Uno microcontroller and ICs are used to control the motors' movements
and timings. The traffic lights' timing is programmed to ensure that pedestrians have
enough time to cross safely, while vehicles are stopped at the crossing. This project
presents a smart zebra crossing system that utilizes DC and Servo motors, an Arduino
Uno microcontroller, and ICs to control the traffic lights without the use of sensors. The
system provides a safe and efficient crossing experience for pedestrians, reducing the
risk of accidents on busy roads.
Zebra crossings are designed to ensure that pedestrians can cross from one pavement
to the other safely. However, this isn’t always so. According to data from Statista, in
2020 346 pedestrians were killed on British roads. To avoid this, better infrastructure is
needed, but also greater awareness among drivers, who should exercise extreme caution
when driving in cities, and among pedestrians, who must take better care when crossing
the street. To meet the objective of ensuring compliance with regulations and preventing
fatal road accidents, traffic authorities have deployed several strategies for zebra
crossings. The most common is to install speed bumps before zebra crossings to slow
vehicles down or speed cameras, which automatically penalise drivers who skip red
lights.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First I would like to thank God for giving me the health, the patience and the blessing
that I have received from the beginning to end of the Bachelor study. Next, I would like
to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor Mr. Ashish Singh, Professor,
Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering, Shri Ram Group of
Colleges, Muzaffarnagar . It would not have been possible to accomplish this work
without his sincere help, guidance and support. I am thankful to him for the valuable
time he gave me.
I would like to thank the entire faculty of Electronics & Communication Engineering
Department for their constant support throughout my course work.
I express my gratitude to Mrs. Kanupriya , Head of Department of Electronics &

Communication Engineering, Shri Ram Group of Colleges, Muzaffarnagar, for
providing such innovative lab to develop my desired Project work so comfortably.
I am also thankful to Dr. A P J Abdul Kalam Technical University, Lucknow U.P. for
their curricular to give me this opportunity.
In the end, I would like to thank my father and my family for their endless support and
blessings that gave me strength to accomplish this Project Report .
Signature: Signature:
Name: Muskan Abid Name: Manish Baliyan
Roll No: 1906950310017 Roll No: 1906950310028
Date: Date:
5
Signature: Signature:
Name: Chhavi Malik Name: Surjeet Singh
Roll No: 1906950310005 Roll No: 1906950310043
Date: Date:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 Cover Page…………….…………………………………………….1
 Decleration…………….……………………………………………2
 Certificate…………….…………………………………..................3
 Abstract……………….………………………………….................4
 Acknowledgement …….…………………………………….………5
 Table of Contents .…….…………………………………………6-8
 List of Figures……..……………………………………………….9
Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………..9-11
Chapter 2 COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS USED……………12-60

2.1 Arduino UNO………………………………………..13
2.1.1 Technical specifications………………………….14
2.1.2 Header……………………………………………15
2.1.3 General pin functions…………………………….16
2.1.4 Special pin functions…………………………….16
2.1.5 Communication…………………………………..17
6
2.2 DC Motor………………………………………...18-22
2.2.1 Electromagnetic motors………………………22-24
2.2.2 Brushed ………………………………………25-26
2.2.3 Brushless…………………………………………27
2.2.4 Uncommutated…………………………………...28
2.2.5 Permanent magnet stator…………………………29
2.2.6 Wound stators…………………………………….30
2.2.7 Series connection……………………………….30
2.2.8 Shunt connection……………………………….31
2.2.9 Compound connection………………………….31
2.3 L293D Motor Driver………………………………….32

2.3.1 L293d pinout……………………………………..33
2.3.2 Pin configuration details…………………...…34-35
2.3.3Features…………………………………………...36
2.3.4 How to use L293d……………………………….37
2.3.5 L293d Example circuit…………………………..38
2.3.6 Applications of L293d…………………………...38
2.4 Servo Motor…………………………………………39

2.4.1 Mechanism……………………………………….40
2.4.2 Construction……………………………………...41
2.4.3 Applications of Servo Motor……………………..42
2.4.4 Advantages and Disadvantages…………………..43
2.5 Light Emitting Diodes(LED)………………………. 43

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2.5.1 Working of LED…………………………………44
2.5.2Advantages……………………………………….46
2.5.3 Disadvantages …………………………………...47
2.5.4 Applications……………………………………...49
2.6 Jumper Wires………………………………………..50

2.6.1 Types of wires ………………………………..51-56
2.7 Battery 12V………………………………………….57

2.7.1 Types…………………………………………….58
2.7.2 Performance,Capacity and Discharge……….61-62
2.7.3 Lifespan……………………………………...63-64
Chapter 3 WORKING………………………………………………61-70
Chapter 4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND CODE…………………….71-72

4.1 Code of project
4.2 Picture of Project
Chapter 5 RESULT / CONCLUSION………………………………73-77
Chapter 6 REFERENCES……………………………………………...78
8
LIST OF FIGURES
1. INTRODUCTION
2. COMPONENTS AND MATERRIALS USED

2.1 Arduino Uno 13
2.1.2 Headers 15
2.1.5 Communication 17
2.2 DC Motor 18
2.2.1 Electric Motor 24
2.2.2 Brushed 25
2.2.3 Brushless 28
2.2.5 Permanent Magnet Stators 29
2.2.7 Series Connection 31
2.2.8 Shunt Connection 32
2.2.9 Compound Connection 33
2.3.1 L293d Pinout 36
2.4.2 Construction of Servo Motor 42
2.5 LED 45
2.6 Jumper Wire 51
2.7 Battery 12Volt 58
2.7.1 Primary Battery 60
3. WORKING
3.3 Esclator Working 74
4. Picture of Project 79
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Chapter 1 - Introduction
In the 21
st
century, traffic control systems all
over the world
are becoming more and more
technology oriented and the
development of such technology
has reached the point of
automation. That being said, the
automation process is only
limited to the already developed
countries or to some
developing countries. Although
technology based, many
developing and underdeveloped
countries still rely a
tremendous amount on the
physical and tactical services of
the
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traffic management officials [1]. It
goes without saying that the
task of orienting and managing
traffic can be extremely bleak
and hard for a human being to
focus on 24/7 and should be
managed by automatic systems to
get the best output. It is also
necessary to mention that the
traffic systems of the latter
mentioned countries fail to commit
people to the laws and
customs of traffic, especially road
crossing. Bangladesh is one
In the 21
st
over the world
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the
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over the world
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the
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over the world
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the
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over the world
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the
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over the world
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the
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the
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over the world
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the
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the
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over the world
the
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of the most reliable example of
people’s apathetic behavior
towards following traffic rules [2].
Other than the fact that people are
unwilling to abide by the
rules, it should also be noticed that
crossing roads at random is
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risky and may result in untimely
and accidental deaths. So, to
bring forward a simple solution to
this day-to-day and
controvertibly burning question,
this paper presents an
automated system, that takes in
some valuable parameter to
calculate the necessity and
frequency of a zebra crossing to be
active and inactive [2]. For the
system to be cost effective and
easy to build and maintain,
Arduino-UNO and ultrasonic
sensors have been used. Ultrasonic
sensors take in the
measurement required for the
system to understand the number
of people that need to cross at a
particular time and the Arduino
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processor calculates this
measurement alongside other
important parameters, such as,
time, characteristics of the road
etc. The proposed system is very
easy to install and is very
cheap, and this point is accented
because it is proposed
especially for underdeveloped and
developing countries with
low budget on hand to walk on the
path of automation in traffic
control system [2].
The rest of the paper is organized
as follows: Section II
describes the background study
behind the realization of this
project. Section III gives an overall
idea of the proposed model
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and the components used. Section
IV details the prototype
structure, how it was implemented
and how the entire system
functions, and finally section V
concludes the paper.
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the
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this day-to-day and
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sensors take in the
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control system [2].
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sensors take in the
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control system [2].
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sensors take in the
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control system [2].
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sensors take in the
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control system [2].
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control system [2].
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The smart zebra crossing safety warning system uses artificial intelligence and big data
analysis and other technologies to detect pedestrians and motor vehicles in areas such as
zebra crossings and nearby motor vehicle lanes at non-signal-controlled intersections,
identify the busy and idle state of traffic, and detect traffic warnings and realize separate
lanes.
When we refer to new technologies applied to roads, we tend to refer to autonomous

and connected vehicles or traffic lights, but, what about pedestrian crossings? These key
elements on our road systems were first introduced in the United Kingdom in the 1940s
and they have remained relatively unchanged until now. However, as new innovations
are incorporated into roads, these will also need updating.
A group of British designers have proposed a new concept of zebra crossing, which
goes way beyond the white lines painted on the asphalt that we all know. This
pedestrian crossing called Starling Crossing (Stigmergic Adaptive Responsive Learning
Crossing), has been designed by the company Umbrellium and consists of a system
made up of smart tiles that light up with different signs to adapt to traffic circumstances
and pedestrian requirements.
Together with these tiles, various cameras and sensors detect both the road and
pedestrian traffic, they calculate their exact positions, directions and speeds, and, based
on the information captured at that point, added to millions of prior data, they anticipate
their next movements. This enables them to modify the configuration of the signs in real
time, their size and even their direction, to increase the safety of pedestrians.
In many underdeveloped and developing countries, the custom and laws of crossing the
roads are not very strict, in which case an automated road crossing system is much
needed. Besides, the amount of risk being taken every other day around us, only makes
the case for an automated zebra crossing system stronger.
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The smart zebra crossing safety warning system uses artificial intelligence and big data
analysis and other technologies to detect pedestrians and motor vehicles in areas such as
zebra crossings and nearby motor vehicle lanes at non-signal-controlled intersections,
identify the busy and idle state of traffic, and detect traffic warnings and realize separate
lanes. A system that controls, monitors, and records road traffic violations.
For many years, the zebra crossing on the road has been the "Guardian-angle" of
pedestrians' personal safety, and the traffic signal has become the first type of lighting
product next to the zebra crossing. After nightfall, traffic lights that are only used for
indicating lighting cannot provide a comfortable visual environment for the traffic
participants on the zebra crossing, and it is difficult to completely eliminate the safety
hazards of walking on the zebra crossing.
Under such social needs, with the development of lighting intelligence/smart

technology, smart zebra crossings with smart lighting products such as luminous bricks
have gradually entered the field of vision of road traffic participants.
Recently, with the implementation of the group standard "Luminous Floor Tiles for
Road Traffic", the smart zebra crossing has become one of the hot spots in the domestic
lighting industry.
So, when will the smart zebra crossing appear in the world? What is the current status of
application popularization in various parts of the country?
Rise in the world
Since the late 2000s, driven by the improvement of lighting energy-saving reforms set
off by LED light sources, more and more lighting application models have begun to
integrate into the field of social and people's livelihood.
In the mid-2010s, with the development of Internet of Things technology, LED light
source, with its low-voltage micro performance characteristics, can be perfectly
integrated with cutting-edge technologies such as computer technology, network
communication technology, image processing technology, and embedded control
technology. It will play an important role in the construction of smart people's
livelihood infrastructure and later smart cities.
The preparing of this lighting technology upsurge has delivered "the nutrients of the
times" to the birth of the smart zebra crossing.
In the second half of the 2010s, smart zebra crossings began to be implemented all over
the world, and more and more intelligent/smart technologies were integrated to
continuously increase the safety of pedestrians crossing the road.
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In January 2017, a Dutch design firm called Lighted Zebra Crossing B.V. designed a
glowing zebra crossing on a street in a shopping district in Eerbeek, a small town in the
east of the country, to remind passing drivers to slow down. In addition to "lighting up",
the zebra crossing also has sensors that can calculate data such as the number of passing
vehicles, the number of pedestrians, vehicle load and speed.
In 2017, British design studio Umbrellium collaborate with insurance company “Direct
line” to create a 22-meter smart walkway called Starling Crossing on a south London
streets.
The technical highlight of this zebra crossing is the LED panel placed under the road
surface. Pedestrians will be track down by cameras installed on both sides of the road
for positioning and the positioning information will be transmitted to the smart device in
real time. Different signs, colors and widths light up at different positions and traffic
near the zebra crossing, reminding pedestrians to pay attention to the different traffic
conditions around the zebra crossing, and achieving on-demand lighting at the same
time. The zebra crossing detection technique is widely studied in several fields. In the
advanced driving assistance system (ADAS), the technique is applied to detect the
position of the zebra crossing. In the electronic travel aid (ETA), the technique is
applied to help the visually impaired to cross the road independently. The zebra
crossing is an essential traffic sign, which represents a safe way to cross the road. The
accessible region of zebra crossing should be provided to the visually impaired for safe
travelling. In addition, the visually impaired demands the direction of zebra crossing to
adjust the travelling orientation.
Zebra crossing is also known as a pedestrian crossing that is used in many countries
worldwide and it is the oldest form of safe pedestrian crossing. They are made in black
and white longitudinal stripes. In your term paper on the importance of zebra crossing
to avoid accidents do not go on and on about what zebra crossing is and write why it is
important as well. So why is it important?
For this you must do research. I’ll give you an example so that you can understand
clearly. Basically zebra crossings give the pedestrians some more rights. If and when
there are no traffic signals or traffic lights then pedestrians will always have a right of
way on the zebra crossings. Do not forget to include facts such as these when writing
your term paper on the importance of zebra crossing to avoid accidents. These facts are
imperative and will keep the reader informed. In case of a traffic light pedestrians will
only have a priority on the green light.
In conclusion to your research paper topics on the importance of zebra crossing to avoid
accidents it will be better if you also write how motor vehicles play a vital role in
everyday trivial human activity. Why? It is because it enables people to move from one
place to another, making life very easy.
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But it is these motor vehicles that are responsible for some major accidents that are a
common occurrence. Reckless driving and a total disregard for human life make these
motor vehicles equally dangerous as they are convenient. You see what I am getting at.
You must make a compelling argument in the last part of your term paper on the
importance of zebra crossing to avoid accidents.
CHAPTER -2
COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS USED
2.1 Arduino Uno

The Arduino Uno is an open source microcontroller processor based on the Microchip
ATmega328P microcontroller and developed by Arduino.cc and initially released in
2010. The board is equipped with sets of digital and analog input/output (I/O) pins that
may be interfaced to various expansion boards (shields) and other circuits. The board
has 14 digital I/O pins (six capable of PWM output), 6 analog I/O pins, and is
programmable with the Arduino IDE (Integrated Development Environment), via a type
B USB cable. It can be powered by a USB cable or a barrel connector that accepts
voltages between 7 and 20 volts, such as a rectangular 9 volt battery. It is similar to
the Arduino UNO and Leonardo. The hardware reference design is distributed under
a commmons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and is available on the Arduino
website. Layout and production files for some versions of the hardware are also
available.
The word "uno" means "one" in Italian and was chosen to mark a major redesign of the
Arduino hardware and software. The Uno board was the successor of the Duemilanove
release and was the 9th version in a series of USB-based Arduino boards. Version 1.0 of
the Arduino IDE for the Arduino Uno board has now evolved to newer releases. The
ATmega328 on the board comes preprogrammed with a bootloader that allows
uploading new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer.
While the Uno communicates using the original STK500 protocol, it differs from all
preceding boards in that it does not use a FTDI USB-to-UART serial chip. Instead, it
uses the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB to Serial
convertor. The Arduino UNO is the best board to get started with electronics and
coding. If this is your first experience tinkering with the platform, the UNO is the
most robust board you can start playing with. The UNO is the most used and
documented board of the whole Arduino family.
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Arduino UNO is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328P. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16
MHz ceramic resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header and a reset
button. It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it
to a computer with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get
started.
Fig. 2.1 Arduino Uno
2.1.1 Technical specifications
 Microcontroller:
 IC: Microchip ATmega328P
 Clock Speed: 16 MHz on Uno board, though IC is capable of 20MHz
maximum at 5 Volts
 Flash Memory: 32 KB, of which 0.5 KB used by the bootloader
 SRAM: 2 KB
 EEPROM: 1 KB
 UART peripherals: 1
 I2C peripherals: 1
 SPI peripherals: 1
 Operating Voltage: 5 Volts
 Digital I/O Pins: 14
 PWM Pins: 6 (Pin # 3, 5, 6, 9, 10 and 11)
 Analog Input Pins: 6
 DC Current per I/O Pin: 20 mA
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 DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
 Length: 68.6 mm
 Width: 53.4 mm
 Weight: 25 g
 ICSP Header: Yes
 Power Sources:
 USB connector. USB bus has a voltage range of 4.75 to 5.25 volts. The
official Uno boards have a USB-B connector, but 3rd party Uno boards may
have a miniUSB or microUSB connector.
 5.5mm/2.1mm barrel jack connector. Official Uno boards support 6 to 20
volts, though 7 to 12 volts is recommended. The maximum voltage for 3rd
party Uno boards varies between board manufactures because various
voltage regulators are used, each having a different maximum input rating.
Power into this connector is routed through a series diode before connecting
to VIN to protect against accidental reverse voltage situations.
 VIN pin on shield header. It has a similar voltage range of the barrel jack.
Since this pin doesn't have reverse voltage protection, power can be injected
or pulled from this pin. When supplying power into VIN pin, an external
series diode is required in case barrel jack is used. When board is powered
by barrel jack, power can be pulled out of this pin.
2.1.2 Headers
Fig. 2.1.2
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2.1.3 General pin functions
 LED: There is a built-in LED driven by digital pin 13. When the pin
is high value, the LED is on, when the pin is low, it is off.
 VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino/Genuino board when it is
using an external power source (as opposed to 5 volts from the USB
connection or other regulated power source). You can supply
voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack,
access it through this pin.
 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board.
The board can be supplied with power either from the DC power
jack (7 - 20V), the USB connector (5V), or the VIN pin of the board
(7-20V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage the board.
 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator.
Maximum current draw is 50 mA.
 GND: Ground pins.
 IOREF: This pin on the Arduino/Genuino board provides the
voltage reference with which the microcontroller operates. A
properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and
select the appropriate power source, or enable voltage translators on
the outputs to work with the 5V or 3.3V.
 Reset: Typically used to add a reset button to shields that block the
one on the board.
2.1.4 Special pin functions

Each of the 14 digital pins and 6 analog pins on the Uno can be used as an input or
output, under software control (using pinMode(), digitalWrite(), and digitalRead()
functions). They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or receive 20 mA as the
recommended operating condition and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by
default) of 20-50K ohm. A maximum of 40mA must not be exceeded on any I/O pin to
avoid permanent damage to the microcontroller. The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labelled
A0 through A5; each provides 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By
default, they measure from ground to 5 volts, though it is possible to change the upper
end of the range using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function.
In addition, some pins have specialized functions:
 Serial / UART: pins 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit
(TX) TTL serial data. These pins are connected to the corresponding pins of
the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL serial chip.
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 External interrupts: pins 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger
an interrupt on a low value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value.
 PWM (pulse-width modulation): pins 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Can provide 8-
bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface): pins 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), and
13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication using the SPI library.
 TWI (two-wire interface) / I²C: pin SDA (A4) and pin SCL (A5). Support
TWI communication using the Wire library.
 AREF (analog reference): Reference voltage for the analog inputs.
2.1.5 Communication
Fig.2.1.5
The Arduino/ Genuino Uno has a number of facilities for communicating with a
computer, another Arduino/Genuino board, or other microcontrollers. The ATmega328
provides UART TTL (5V) serial communication, which is available on digital pins 0
(RX) and 1 (TX). An ATmega16U2 on the board channels this serial communication
over USB and appears as a virtual com port to software on the computer. The 16U2
firmware uses the standard USB COM drivers, and no external driver is needed.
However, on Windows, a .inf file is required. Arduino Software (IDE) includes a serial
monitor which allows simple textual data to be sent to and from the board. The RX and
TX LEDs on the board will flash when data is being transmitted via the USB-to-serial
chip and USB connection to the computer (but not for serial communication on pins 0
and 1). A Software Serial library allows serial communication on any of the Uno's
digital pins.
Automatic (software) reset
Rather than requiring a physical press of the reset button before an upload, the
Arduino/Genuino Uno board is designed in a way that allows it to be reset by the
software running on a connected computer. One of the hardware flow control lines
(DTR) of the ATmega8U2/16U2 is connected to the reset line of the ATmega328 via a
100 nanofarad capacitor. When this line is asserted (taken low), the reset line drops long
enough to reset the chip.
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This setup has other implications. When the Uno is connected to a computer running
Mac OS X or Linux, it resets each time a connection is made to it from software (via
USB). For the following half-second or so, the bootloader is running on the Uno. While
it is programmed to ignore malformed data (i.e. anything besides an upload of new
code), it will intercept the first few bytes of data sent to the board after a connection is
opened.
2.2 DC MOTOR
A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. In a DC motor, the input electrical energy is the direct current which is
transformed into the mechanical rotation. In this session, let us know what is a DC
motor, types of DC motor and their applications. A DC motor is defined as a class of
electrical motors that convert direct current electrical energy into mechanical energy.
From the above definition, we can conclude that any electric motor that is operated
using direct current or DC is called a DC motor.
Fig. 2.2
A DC motor is any of a class of rotary electrical motors that converts direct current
(DC) electrical energy into mechanical energy. The most common types rely on the
forces produced by induced magnetic fields due to flowing current in the coil. Nearly all
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types of DC motors have some internal mechanism, either electromechanical or
electronic, to periodically change the direction of current in part of the motor.
DC motors were the first form of motors widely used, as they could be powered from
existing direct-current lighting power distribution systems. A DC motor's speed can be
controlled over a wide range, using either a variable supply voltage or by changing the
strength of current in its field windings. Small DC motors are used in tools, toys, and
appliances. The universal motor, a lightweight brushed motor used for portable power
tools and appliances can operate on direct current and alternating current. Larger DC
motors are currently used in propulsion of electric vehicles, elevator and hoists, and in
drives for steel rolling mills. The advent of power electronics has made replacement of
DC motors with AC motors possible in many applications. A servo motor is a type of
motor that can rotate with great precision. Normally this type of motor consists of a
control circuit that provides feedback on the current position of the motor shaft, this
feedback allows the servo motors to rotate with great precision. If you want to rotate an
object at some specific angles or distance, then you use a servo motor. It is just made up
of a simple motor which runs through a servo mechanism. If motor is powered by a DC
power supply then it is called DC servo motor, and if it is AC-powered motor then it is
called AC servo motor. For this tutorial, we will be discussing only about the DC servo
motor working. Apart from these major classifications, there are many other types of
servo motors based on the type of gear arrangement and operating characteristics. A
servo motor usually comes with a gear arrangement that allows us to get a very high
torque servo motor in small and lightweight packages. Due to these features, they are
being used in many applications like toy car, RC helicopters and planes, Robotics, etc.
Servo motors are rated in kg/cm (kilogram per centimetre) most hobby servo motors are
rated at 3kg/cm or 6kg/cm or 12kg/cm. This kg/cm tells you how much weight your
servo motor can lift at a particular distance. For example: A 6kg/cm Servo motor should
be able to lift 6kg if the load is suspended 1cm away from the motors shaft, the greater
the distance the lesser the weight carrying capacity. The position of a servo motor is
decided by electrical pulse and its circuitry is placed beside the motor.
Servo Motor Working Mechanism

It consists of three parts:
1. Controlled device
2. Output sensor
3. Feedback system
It is a closed-loop system where it uses a positive feedback system to control motion

and the final position of the shaft. Here the device is controlled by a feedback signal
generated by comparing output signal and reference input signal.
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Here reference input signal is compared to the reference output signal and the third
signal is produced by the feedback system. And this third signal acts as an input signal
to the control the device. This signal is present as long as the feedback signal is
generated or there is a difference between the reference input signal and reference
output signal. So the main task of servomechanism is to maintain the output of a system
at the desired value at presence of noises.
Servo Motor Working Principle

A servo consists of a Motor (DC or AC), a potentiometer, gear assembly, and a
controlling circuit. First of all, we use gear assembly to reduce RPM and to increase
torque of the motor. Say at initial position of servo motor shaft, the position of the
potentiometer knob is such that there is no electrical signal generated at the output port
of the potentiometer. Now an electrical signal is given to another input terminal of the
error detector amplifier.
Now the difference between these two signals, one comes from the potentiometer and
another comes from other sources, will be processed in a feedback mechanism and
output will be provided in terms of error signal. This error signal acts as the input for
motor and motor starts rotating. Now motor shaft is connected with the potentiometer
and as the motor rotates so the potentiometer and it will generate a signal. So as the
potentiometer’s angular position changes, its output feedback signal changes. After
sometime the position of potentiometer reaches at a position that the output of
potentiometer is same as external signal provided. At this condition, there will be no
output signal from the amplifier to the motor input as there is no difference between
external applied signal and the signal generated at potentiometer, and in this situation
motor stops rotating.
Interfacing Servo Motors with Microcontrollers:

Interfacing hobby Servo motors like s90 servo motor with MCU is very easy. Servos
have three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will be used for Supply
(positive and negative) and one will be used for the signal that is to be sent from
the MCU. An MG995 Metal Gear Servo Motor which is most commonly used for RC
cars humanoid bots etc. The picture of MG995 is shown below:
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The color coding of your servo motor might differ hence check for your respective
datasheet.
All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to be careful on
the amount of current the motor would consume if you are planning to use more than
two servo motors a proper servo shield should be designed.
Controlling Servo Motor:

All motors have three wires coming out of them. Out of which two will be used for
Supply (positive and negative) and one will be used for the signal that is to be sent from
the MCU.
Servo motor is controlled by PWM (Pulse with Modulation) which is provided by the
control wires. There is a minimum pulse, a maximum pulse and a repetition rate. Servo
motor can turn 90 degree from either direction form its neutral position. The servo
motor expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (ms) and the length of the pulse will
determine how far the motor turns. For example, a 1.5ms pulse will make the motor turn
to the 90° position, such as if pulse is shorter than 1.5ms shaft moves to 0° and if it is
longer than 1.5ms than it will turn the servo to 180°.
Servo motor works on PWM (Pulse width modulation) principle, means its angle of
rotation is controlled by the duration of applied pulse to its Control PIN. Basically servo
motor is made up of DC motor which is controlled by a variable resistor
(potentiometer) and some gears. High speed force of DC motor is converted into
torque by Gears. We know that WORK= FORCE X DISTANCE, in DC motor Force is
less and distance (speed) is high and in Servo, force is High and distance is less. The
potentiometer is connected to the output shaft of the Servo, to calculate the angle and
stop the DC motor on the required angle.
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Servo motor can be rotated from 0 to 180 degrees, but it can go up to 210 degrees,
depending on the manufacturing. This degree of rotation can be controlled by applying
the Electrical Pulse of proper width, to its Control pin. Servo checks the pulse in every
20 milliseconds. The pulse of 1 ms (1 millisecond) width can rotate the servo to 0
degrees, 1.5ms can rotate to 90 degrees (neutral position) and 2 ms pulse can rotate it to
180 degree.
All servo motors work directly with your +5V supply rails but we have to be careful
about the amount of current the motor would consume if you are planning to use more
than two servo motors a proper servo shield should be designed.
To learn more about servo motor working principle and practical uses, please check
below applications where controlling of servo motor is explained with the examples:
 Servo motor tester circuit
 Servo motor interfacing with 8051 microcontroller
 Servo motor control using Arduino
 Servo control with Arduino Due
 Servo Control with Flex Sensor
 Raspberry Pi Servo Motor Tutorial
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2.2.1 Electromagnetic motors
An electric motor is an electrical machine that converts electrical
energy into mechanical energy. Most electric motors operate through the interaction
between the motor's magnetic field and electric current in a wire winding to generate
force in the form of torque applied on the motor's shaft. An electric generator is
mechanically identical to an electric motor, but operates with a reversed flow of power,
converting mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Electric motors can be powered by direct current (DC) sources, such as from batteries,
or rectifiers, or by alternating current (AC) sources, such as a power grid, inverters or
electrical generators.
Electric motors may be classified by considerations such as power source type,
construction, application and type of motion output. They can be powered by AC or
DC, be brushed or brushless, single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase, axial or radial
flux, and may be air-cooled or liquid-cooled.
Standardized motors provide convenient mechanical power for industrial use. The
largest are used for ship propulsion, pipeline compression and pumped-
storage applications with output exceeding 100 megawatts.
Applications include industrial fans, blowers and pumps, machine tools, household
appliances, power tools, vehicles, and disk drives. Small motors may be found in
electric watches. In certain applications, such as in regenerative braking with traction
motors, electric motors can be used in reverse as generators to recover energy that might
otherwise be lost as heat and friction.
Electric motors produce linear or rotary force (torque) intended to propel some external
mechanism, such as a fan or an elevator. An electric motor is generally designed for
continuous rotation, or for linear movement over a significant distance compared to its
size. Magnetic solenoids are also transducers that convert electrical power to
mechanical motion, but can produce motion over only a limited distance.
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Fig. 2.2.1
A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field

aligned with the center of the coil. The direction and magnitude of the magnetic field
produced by the coil can be changed with the direction and magnitude of the current
flowing through it.
A simple DC motor has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with
one or more windings of insulated wire wrapped around a soft iron core that
concentrates the magnetic field. The windings usually have multiple turns around the
core, and in large motors there can be several parallel current paths. The ends of the
wire winding are connected to a commutator. The commutator allows each armature
coil to be energized in turn and connects the rotating coils with the external power
supply through brushes. (Brushless DC motors have electronics that switch the DC
current to each coil on and off and have no brushes.)
The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size, and what it is wrapped
around decide the strength of the electromagnetic field created.
The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective
electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence, a rotating
magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic
fields of the magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor
(stator) to create a torque on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor
designs, the stator fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allows
greater control over the motor.
At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air.
Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected
provide different inherent speed and torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a
DC motor can be controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature. Variable
resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allows speed control. Modern DC
motors are often controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by
"chopping" the DC current into on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage.
Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often
used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was
the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives,
street-cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC
motors and an electrical grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a
new second Industrial Revolution. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable
batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid
cars and electric cars as well as driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are
still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate
steel rolling mills and paper machines. Large DC motors with separately excited fields
were generally used with winder drives for mine hoists, for high torque as well as
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smooth speed control using thyristor drives. These are now replaced with large AC
motors with variable frequency drives.
If external mechanical power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator,
a dynamo. This feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid and
electric cars or to return electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or
electric powered train line when they slow down. This process is called regenerative
braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel electric locomotives they also use their DC
motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the energy in resistor stacks. Newer
designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this energy.
2.2.2 Brushed
Fig. 2.2.2
A brushed DC electric motor is an internally commutated electric motor designed to
be run from a direct current power source and utilizing an electric brush for contact.
Brushed motors were the first commercially important application of electric power to
driving mechanical energy, and DC distribution systems were used for more than 100
years to operate motors in commercial and industrial buildings. Brushed DC motors can
be varied in speed by changing the operating voltage or the strength of the magnetic
field. Depending on the connections of the field to the power supply, the speed and
torque characteristics of a brushed motor can be altered to provide steady speed or speed
inversely proportional to the mechanical load. Brushed motors continue to be used for
electrical propulsion, cranes, paper machines and steel rolling mills. Since the brushes
wear down and require replacement, brushless DC motors using power electronic
devices have displaced brushed motors from many applications.
A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using an
internal mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the stator field.
Torque is produced by the principle that any current-carrying conductor placed within
an external magnetic field experiences a force, known as Lorentz force. In a motor, the
magnitude of this Lorentz force (a vector represented by the green arrow), and thus the
output torque,is a function for rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque
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ripple) Since this is a two-pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the
current reverses each half turn ( 180 degrees).
The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the
motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets
(permanent or electromagnets), and rotating electromagnets.
Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple
control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high
intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs
which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These
components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the
spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor.
Brushes are usually made of graphite or carbon, sometimes with added dispersed copper
to improve conductivity. In use, the soft brush material wears to fit the diameter of the
commutator, and continues to wear. A brush holder has a spring to maintain pressure on
the brush as it shortens. For brushes intended to carry more than an ampere or two, a
flying lead will be molded into the brush and connected to the motor terminals. Very
small brushes may rely on sliding contact with a metal brush holder to carry current into
the brush, or may rely on a contact spring pressing on the end of the brush. The brushes
in very small, short-lived motors, such as are used in toys, may be made of a folded
strip of metal that contacts the commutator. Brushed DC motors are constructed with
wound rotors and either wound or permanent-magnet stators.
Wound stators
The field coils have traditionally existed in four basic formats: separately
excited (sepex), series-wound, shunt-wound, and a combination of the latter two;
compound-wound.
In a series wound motor, the field coils are connected electrically in series with the
armature coils (via the brushes). In a shunt wound motor, the field coils are connected in
parallel, or "shunted" to the armature coils. In a separately excited motor the field coils
are supplied from an independent source, such as a motor-generator and the field
current is unaffected by changes in the armature current. The system was sometimes
used in DC traction motors to facilitate control of wheelslip.
Permanent-magnet motors
Permanent-magnet types have some performance advantages over direct-current,
excited, synchronous types, and have become predominant in fractional horsepower
applications. They are smaller, lighter, more efficient and reliable than other singly-fed
electric machines.[2]
Originally all large industrial DC motors used wound field or rotor magnets. Permanent
magnets have traditionally only been useful on small motors because it was difficult to
find a material capable of retaining a high-strength field. Only recently have advances in
materials technology allowed the creation of high-intensity permanent magnets, such
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as neodymium magnets, allowing the development of compact, high-power motors
without the extra volume of field coils and excitation means. But as these high
performance permanent magnets become more applied in electric motor or generator
systems, other problems are realized (see Permanent magnet synchronous generator).
2.2.3Brushless
Fig. 2.2.3
Typical brushless DC motors use one or more permanent magnets in the rotor
and electromagnets on the motor housing for the stator. A motor controller converts DC
to AC. This design is mechanically simpler than that of brushed motors because it
eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the
spinning rotor. The motor controller can sense the rotor's position via Hall effect sensors
or similar devices and can precisely control the timing, phase, etc., of the current in the
rotor coils to optimize torque, conserve power, regulate speed, and even apply some
braking. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no
maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more
complicated motor speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes
referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to be
synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.
2.2.4 Uncommutated
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Other types of DC motors require no commutation.
 Homopolar motor – A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis
of rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the
magnetic field. The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity
change. Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits
them to very low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of
this type of motor.
 Ball bearing motor – A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that
consists of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a
common conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current,
low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits the outer races
inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-
conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod). This method has
the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation is
determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it going.
2.2.5 Permanent magnet stators
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Fig. 2.2.5
A permanent magnet (PM) motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame,
instead relying on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field
interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be
used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it
cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature
motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors
are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be
made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical
to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as
dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines.
To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy
magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-
iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy
PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly fed synchronous and
induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration,
except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor
position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of
the curved field magnets
2.2.6 Wound stators
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A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the armature of a
DC machine (motor or generator) .
There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for
DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound (various blends of series and
shunt/parallel) and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for different
loading torque profiles/signatures.
2.2.7 Series connection
Fig. 2.2.7
2.2.7A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with
a common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load
torque and armature current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding
current squared (I^2) behavior. A series motor has very high starting torque and is
commonly used for starting high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists. This
speed/torque characteristic is useful in applications such as dragline excavators, where
the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load.
A series motor should never be started at no load. With no mechanical load on the series
motor, the current is low, the counter-Electro motive force produced by the field
winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-
EMF to balance the supply voltage. The motor can be damaged by overspeed. This is
called a runaway condition.
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Series motors called universal motors can be used on alternating current. Since the
armature voltage and the field direction reverse at the same time, torque continues to be
produced in the same direction. However they run at a lower speed with lower torque on
AC supply when compared to DC due to reactance voltage drop in AC which is not
present in DC. Since the speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can
develop higher-than-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than induction motors of
the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable characteristic for hand-held power
tools. Universal motors for commercial utility are usually of small capacity, not more
than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal motors were used for electric
locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems
with commutation under heavy and varying loads.
2.2.8 Shunt connection
Fig. 2.2.8
A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a
common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the
load varies, but does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor. It is typically
used for industrial, adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools,
winding/unwinding machines and tensioners.
2.2.9 Compound connection
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Fig. 2.2.9
A compound DC motor connects the armature
and fields windings in a shunt and a series combination to give it characteristics of both
a shunt and a series DC motor. This motor is used when both a high starting torque and
good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be connected in two arrangements:
cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors connect the series field to
aid the shunt field, which provides higher starting torque but less speed regulation.
Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are typically
operated at constant speed.
2.3 L293D Motor Driver

Every AC and DC motor have the ability to rotate in both directions. AC motor has its
own rules and usage, but DC motor could rotate in another direction just
by changing the polarity of the current. Now a day mostly DC Motors
are used to produce rotatory motion due to its high efficiency. But in some cases,
we need to rotate the motor in both directions. Like robots, cars, etc. There are multiple
circuits by which motor could be rotated in both directions just by using some diodes
and transistors. But those circuits are complex to make. To avoid the complexity and IC
name l293d was invented by which not only direction, other multiple functions could be
achieved just by the blink of an eye.
L293d IC is known as a motor driver. It is a low voltage operating device like
other ICs. The other ICs could have the same functions like L293d but
they cannot provide the high voltage to the motor. L293d provides the continuous
bidirectional Direct Current to the Motor. The Polarity
of current can change at any time without affecting the whole IC or any other device in
the circuit. L293d has an internal H-bridge installed for two motors.
H-Bridge is an electrical circuit that enables the load in a bidirectional way. L293d
bridge is controlled by external low voltage signals. It may be small in size, but its
power output capacity is higher than our expectation. It could control any DC motor
speed and direction with a voltage range of 4.5 – 36 Volts. Its diodes also save the
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controlling device and IC from back EMF. To control the max 600mA amount of
current an internal “Darlington transistor sink” installed in it, which could be used to
control a large amount of current by providing a small amount of current. It has also
internal “pseudo-Darlington source” which amplifies the input signal to control the high
voltage DC motor without any interception.
2.3.1 L293D pinout
Pin 1 is known as the enable pin. It has a major effect on Input and output.
Pin1
If there is High logical signal on enable pin (EN) then there will be input
(Enable)
and output between pin 2,3,6 & 7 (Input 1, Output 1, Input 2 & Output 2)
Pin2 Mostly input means where we provide the input to give the output. But
(Input 1) here Input 1 means which polarity we want to give at Output 1.
Pin3
(Output Output 1 is the input of the first motor/Motor 1. It attaches to its one end.
1)
Pin4
(Ground The ground pin will attach to the ground of the circuit.
)
Pin5
The ground pin will be attached to the ground, and it will remain common
(Ground
with the previous ground.
)
Pin6
Output 2 will attach to the input of the first motor/Motor 1. It will attach
(Output
to its second end.
2)
Pin7 Input 2 will attach to the control button or device to control the Output 2
(Input 2) just like Input 1.
Pin8 is the voltage pin for Motor. It will device how much power we are
Pin8
going to attach the Motor. This Power should not be more than 36 volts
(Vcc)
and should not be less than 4.5 volts.
Pin 9 is also the same as Pin 1. It controls the input and output signals. Pin
Pin9
9 Controls the connection between Input 3, Input 4, Output 3 and Output
(Enable)
4. It also enables the connection when the logic signal will be High (1).
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Pin10 Input 3 will control the output polarity of the Pin 11 (Output 3) by logic
(Input 3) signals.
Pin11
(Output Output 3 will be connected to the one end of the second motor.
3)
Pin 12
(Ground Pin 12 will attach to the common ground with all other grounds.
)
Pin13
(Ground Pin 13 will also be attached to the common ground with all other grounds.
)
Pin14
(Output Pin 14 will attach to the second end of the second motor.
4)
Pin15 Pin 15 will control the output polarity of the Pin 14 (Output 4) by logic
(Input 4) signals.
Pin 16 will the Power we will provide to the L293D to activate it or to

Pin16
turn it on. The power level of Pin 16 should be 4.5 – 7Volts. Voltage more
(Vcc)
than 7 will burn the IC
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Fig. 2.3.1
L293D Motor Driver
A motor driver is an integrated circuit chip which is usually used to control motors in
autonomous robots. Motor driver act as an interface between Arduino and the motors .
The most commonly used motor driver IC’s are from the L293 series such as L293D,
L293NE, etc. These ICs are designed to control 2 DC motors simultaneously. L293D
consist of two H-bridge. H-bridge is the simplest circuit for controlling a low current
rated motor. We will be referring the motor driver IC as L293D only. L293D has 16
pins.
2.3.2 L293D Pin Configuration Details
1) L293D IC
2) 4 1microfarad capacitor
3) 6 Header Male pins
4) 12 Volt battery or source

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5) Wires or female sockets
6) 2 Motors
7) Arduino (Any) to test the Driver
8) Computer with arduino IDE
9) Misc itmes like soldering iron , soldering Wire etc
2.3.3 FEATURES
 L293d could be used to control the two motors at the same time.
 It has the ability to control the speed by using the enable pin.
 The direction is also easy to change.
 Voltage supply range is higher than other IC. Voltage range between 4.5-
36 volts can easily handle by the IC to the motor.
 The motor has a maximum continuous range of current close to 600mA
but the maximum peak current range is 1.2A
 It has an automatic shutdown system on thermal condition.
 Its working range is from 0 – 70 degree which is much higher for any
small-sized IC.
 It has an internal back emp protection for IC and the controlling device.
2.3.4 How to Use L293D?
The L293D is a 16 pin IC, with eight pins, on each side, dedicated to the controlling of a
motor. There are 2 INPUT pins, 2 OUTPUT pins and 1 ENABLE pin for each motor.
L293D consist of two H-bridge. H-bridge is the simplest circuit for controlling a low
current rated motor.
Pin No. - Pin Characteristics
 1 - Enable 1-2, when this is HIGH the left part of the IC will work and when it
is low the left part won’t work.
 2 - INPUT 1, when this pin is HIGH the current will flow though output 1
 3 - OUTPUT 1, this pin should be connected to one of the terminal of motor
 4,5 - GND, ground pins
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 8 - VCC2, this is the voltage which will be supplied to the motor.
 16 - VCC1, this is the power source to the IC. So, this pin should be supplied
with 5 V
 13,12 - GND, ground pins
 9 - Enable 3-4, when this is HIGH the right part of the IC will work and when it
is low the right part won’t work.
Why 4 grounds in the IC?
The motor driver IC deals with heavy currents. Due to so much current flow the IC
gets heated. So, we need a heat sink to reduce the heating. Therefore, there are 4
ground pins. When we solder the pins on PCB, we get a huge metallic area between
the grounds where the heat can be released.
Why Capacitors?
The DC motor is an inductive load. So, it develops a back EMF when supplied by a
voltage. There can be fluctuations of voltage while using the motor say when
suddenly we take a reverse while the motor was moving in some direction. At this
point the fluctuation in voltage is quite high and this can damage the IC. Thus, we
use four capacitors that help to dampen the extreme variation in current.
Working Mechanism and Arduino Code
Now depending upon the values of the Input and Enable the motors will rotate in either
clockwise or anticlockwise direction with full speed (when Enable is HIGH) or with
less speed (when Enable is provided with PWM).Let us assume for Left Motor when
Enable is HIGH and Input 1 and Input 2 are HIGH and LOW respectively then the
motor will move in clockwise direction.
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Fig. 2.3.8
L293d may have an internal complex circuit, but it is easy to use in real life. Just attach
two motors with output pins. Remember at output 1 and output 2 same motor should be
connected and it needs to be the same for output 3 and output 4. All ground should be
common with both the power supplies provided to the IC. The enable pins are used to
control the outputs but when we use the microcontrollers or microprocessor these
enable pins can be used to control the speed of the motor.
Motor Control Pins
The Input pins have a major role to control the direction of the motor. If Input 1 (Pin 2)
is High and Enable (Pin 1) is high low but Input 2 (Pin 7) is low than motor will rotate
clockwise at motor attached to the Pin 3 & 6. The rotation will be anti-clockwise when
Input 2 (Pin 7) & Enable (Pin 1) is high but Input 1 (Pin 2) is low. To control the
rotation of Pin 11 & 14 the Pin 9,10 & 11 will be used. If Input 1 & Input 2 has the
same logic at the same time or enable 1 pin is low then there will be no rotation. This
will be the same for Input 3, Input 4 and enable 2.
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2.3.5 L293D Example Circuits
As you read above L293d has multiple featured and usage where it can be used without
any limitations. Here is an example of the circuit of street racing cars. We just need to
use two L293d to control the car.
 Connect all the enable pins together and use the single button to control
the motor power state.
 Then attach the input pins with any microcontroller or microprocessor
and control their direction.
 The speed of the car could be control by proving the
controllable PWM on enable pins.
 After attaching all pins to the microcontroller/microprocessor follow
these states to control the direction of the car.
2.3.6 APPLICATIONS of L293D
 It could be used to control stepper and DC motor direction and Speed.

 Due to a separate power supply for the motor, it could be used in small
children’s cars, street racing cars, or robots.
 It could be used for latching relay drivers.
2.4 Servo Motor

A servomotor (or servo motor) is a rotary actuator or linear actuator that allows for
precise control of angular or linear position, velocity, and acceleration. It consists of a
suitable motor coupled to a sensor for position feedback. It also requires a relatively
sophisticated controller, often a dedicated module designed specifically for use with
servomotors.
Servomotors are not a specific class of motor, although the term servomotor is often
used to refer to a motor suitable for use in a closed-loop control system.
Servomotors are used in applications such as robotics, CNC machinery, and automated
manufacturing.
2.4.1 Mechanism
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A servomotor is a closed-loop servomechanism that uses position feedback to control its
motion and final position. The input to its control is a signal (either analog or digital)
representing the position commanded for the output shaft.
The motor is paired with some type of position encoder to provide position and speed
feedback. In the simplest case, only the position is measured. The measured position of
the output is compared to the command position, the external input to the controller. If
the output position differs from that required, an error signal is generated which then
causes the motor to rotate in either direction, as needed to bring the output shaft to the
appropriate position. As the positions approach, the error signal reduces to zero, and the
motor stops.
The very simplest servomotors use position-only sensing via a potentiometer and bang-
bang control of their motor; the motor always rotates at full speed (or is stopped). This
type of servomotor is not widely used in industrial motion control, but it forms the basis
of the simple and cheap servos used for radio-controlled models.
More sophisticated servomotors make use of an Absolute Encoder (a type of rotary
encoder) to calculate the shafts position and infer the speed of the output shaft. A
variable-speed drive is used to control the motor speed. Both of these enhancements,
usually in combination with a PID control algorithm, allow the servomotor to be
brought to its commanded position more quickly and more precisely, with
less overshooting.
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2.4.2 Construction
Fig. 2.4.2
Construction of Servo Motor

The Servo motor is DC motor which has 5 following parts:-
1. Stator Winding: This type of winding wound on the stationary part of the
motor. It is also known as field winding of the motor.
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2. Rotor Winding: This type of winding wound on the rotating part of the
motor. It is also known as an armature winding of the motor.
3. Bearing: These are of two types,i.e, font bearing and back bearing which are
used for the movement of the shaft.
4. Shaft: The armature winding is coupled on the iron rod is known as the shaft
of the motor.
5. Encoder: It has the approximate sensor which determines the rotational
speed of motor and revolution per minute of the motor.
2.4.3 Applications of Servo Motors
Here are some applications used to control speed when the servo is overheaded or over
rotating:
 They are used to control the positioning and movement of elevators in radio
controlled airplanes
 They play an important role in robotics information of robot because of their
smooth switching on or off and accurate positioning.
 They are used in hydraulic systems to maintain hydraulic fluid in the
aerospace industry.
 In radio controlled toys these are also used.
 They are used to extend or replay the disc trays in electronic devices such as
DVDs or Blue-ray Disc players.
 They are used to maintain the speed of vehicles in the automobile industries.
2.4.4 Advantages & Disadvantages of Servo Motors
Advantages:
 High output power relative to motor size and weight.

 Encoder determines accuracy and resolution.
 High efficiency. It can approach 90% at light loads.
 High torque to inertia ratio. Servo Motors can rapidly accelerate loads.
 Has 2-3 times more continuous power for short periods.
 Has 5-10 times more rated torque for short periods.
 Servo motors achieve high speed at high torque values.
 Quiet at high speeds.
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 Encoder utilization provides higher accuracy and resolution with closed-loop
control.
Disadvantages:
 Servos Motors requires tuning to stabilize the feedback loop.

 Servo Motor will become unpredictable when something breaks. So, safety
circuits are required.
 Complex controller requires encoder and electronic support.
 Peak torque is limited to a 1% duty cycle. Servo Motors can be damaged by
sustained overload.
 Gear boxes are often required to deliver power at higher speeds.
 Higher overall system cost and the installation cost of a Servo Motor system
may be higher than that of a stepper motor due to the requirement for feedback
components.
2.5 Light Emitted Diode
Fig. 2.5
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A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor device that emits
light when current flows through it. Electrons in the semiconductor recombine
with electron holes, releasing energy in the form of photons. The color of the light
(corresponding to the energy of the photons) is determined by the energy required for
electrons to cross the band gap of the semiconductor. White light is obtained by using
multiple semiconductors or a layer of light-emitting phosphor on the semiconductor
device.
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962, the earliest LEDs emitted low-
intensity infrared (IR) light. Infrared LEDs are used in remote-control circuits, such as
those used with a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visible-light LEDs
were of low intensity and limited to red. Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps,
replacing small incandescent bulbs, and in seven-segment displays. Later developments
produced LEDs available in visible, ultraviolet (UV), and infrared wavelengths, with
high, low, or intermediate light output, for instance white LEDs suitable for room and
outdoor area lighting. LEDs have also given rise to new types of displays and sensors,
while their high switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology with
applications as diverse as aviation lighting, fairy lights, automotive headlamps,
advertising, general lighting, traffic signals, camera flashes, lighted
wallpaper, horticultural grow lights, and medical devices.
LEDs have many advantages over incandescent light sources, including lower power
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. In exchange for these generally favorable attributes, disadvantages of LEDs
include electrical limitations to low voltage and generally to DC (not AC) power,
inability to provide steady illumination from a pulsing DC or an AC electrical supply
source, and lesser maximum operating temperature and storage temperature. In contrast
to LEDs, incandescent lamps can be made to intrinsically run at virtually any supply
voltage, can utilize either AC or DC current interchangeably, and will provide steady
illumination when powered by AC or pulsing DC even at a frequency as low as 50 Hz.
LEDs usually need electronic support components to function, while an incandescent
bulb can and usually does operate directly from an unregulated DC or AC power source.
As a transducer of electricity into light, LEDs operate in reverse of photodiodes.
2.5.1 Working of LED
Like an ordinary diode, the LED diode works when it is forward biased. In this case, the
n-type semiconductor is heavily doped than the p-type forming the p-n junction. When
it is forward biased, the potential barrier gets reduced and the electrons and holes
combine at the depletion layer (or active layer), light or photons are emitted or radiated
in all directions. A typical figure blow showing light emission due electron-hole pair
combining on forward biasing.
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Fig. 2.5.1
The explanation behind the emission of photons in an LED diode lies in the energy band
theory of solids. According to this theory, whether the electron-hole combining will
give out photons or not depends on whether the material has a direct band gap or
indirect band gap. Those semiconductor materials which have a direct band gap are the
ones that emit photons. In a direct bandgap material, the bottom of the energy level of
conduction band lies directly above the topmost energy level of the valence band on the
Energy vs Momentum (wave vector ‘k’) diagram. When electrons and hole recombine,
energy E = hν corresponding to the energy gap △ (eV) is escaped in the form of light
energy or photons where h is the Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of light.
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2.5.2 Advantages
 Efficiency: LEDs emit more lumens per watt than incandescent light
bulbs. The efficiency of LED lighting fixtures is not affected by shape and
size, unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes.
 Color: LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color
filters as traditional lighting methods need. This is more efficient and can
lower initial costs.
 Size: LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily attached
to printed circuit boards.
 Switch on time: LEDs light up extremely quickly. A typical red indicator
LED achieves full brightness in under a microsecond. LEDs used in
communications devices can have even faster response times.
 Cycling: LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling, unlike
incandescent and fluorescent lamps that fail faster when cycled often,
or high-intensity discharge lamps (HID lamps) that require a long time
before restarting.
 Dimming: LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width
modulation or lowering the forward current. This pulse-width modulation is
why LED lights, particularly headlights on cars, when viewed on camera or
by some people, seem to flash or flicker. This is a type of stroboscopic
effect.
 Cool light: In contrast to most light sources, LEDs radiate very little heat in
the form of IR that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics. Wasted
energy is dispersed as heat through the base of the LED.
 Slow failure: LEDs mainly fail by dimming over time, rather than the
abrupt failure of incandescent bulbs.
 Lifetime: LEDs can have a relatively long useful life. One report estimates
35,000 to 50,000 hours of useful life, though time to complete failure may
be shorter or longer. Fluorescent tubes typically are rated at about 10,000 to
25,000 hours, depending partly on the conditions of use, and incandescent
light bulbs at 1,000 to 2,000 hours. Several DOE demonstrations have
shown that reduced maintenance costs from this extended lifetime, rather
than energy savings, is the primary factor in determining the payback period
for an LED product.
 Shock resistance: LEDs, being solid-state components, are difficult to
damage with external shock, unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs,
which are fragile.
 Focus: The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light.
Incandescent and fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to
collect light and direct it in a usable manner. For larger LED packages total
internal reflection (TIR) lenses are often used to the same effect. When large
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quantities of light are needed, many light sources are usually deployed,
which are difficult to focus or collimate on the same target.
2.5.3 Disadvantages
 Temperature dependence: LED performance largely depends on the

ambient temperature of the operating environment – or thermal management
properties. Overdriving an LED in high ambient temperatures may result in
overheating the LED package, eventually leading to device failure. An
adequate heat sink is needed to maintain long life. This is especially
important in automotive, medical, and military uses where devices must
operate over a wide range of temperatures, and require low failure rates.
 Voltage sensitivity: LEDs must be supplied with a voltage above
their threshold voltage and a current below their rating. Current and lifetime
change greatly with a small change in applied voltage. They thus require a
current-regulated supply (usually just a series resistor for indicator LEDs).
 Color rendition: Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ
significantly from a black body radiator like the sun or an incandescent light.
The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can make the color of objects appear
differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent
sources, due to metamerism, red surfaces being rendered particularly poorly
by typical phosphor-based cool-white LEDs. The same is true with green
surfaces. The quality of color rendition of an LED is measured by the Color
Rendering Index (CRI).
 Area light source: Single LEDs do not approximate a point source of light
giving a spherical light distribution, but rather a lambertian distribution. So,
LEDs are difficult to apply to uses needing a spherical light field. Different
fields of light can be manipulated by the application of different optics or
"lenses". LEDs cannot provide divergence below a few degrees.
 Light pollution: Because white LEDs emit more short wavelength light
than sources such as high-pressure sodium vapor lamps, the increased blue
and green sensitivity of scotopic vision means that white LEDs used in
outdoor lighting cause substantially more sky glow.
 Efficiency droop: The efficiency of LEDs decreases as the electric
current increases. Heating also increases with higher currents, which
compromises LED lifetime. These effects put practical limits on the current
through an LED in high power applications.
 Impact on wildlife: LEDs are much more attractive to insects than sodium-
vapor lights, so much so that there has been speculative concern about the
possibility of disruption to food webs. LED lighting near beaches,
particularly intense blue and white colors, can disorient turtle hatchlings and
make them wander inland instead. The use of "turtle-safe lighting" LEDs
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that emit only at narrow portions of the visible spectrum is encouraged by
conservancy groups in order to reduce harm.
 Use in winter conditions: Since they do not give off much heat in
comparison to incandescent lights, LED lights used for traffic control can
have snow obscuring them, leading to accidents.
 Thermal runaway: Parallel strings of LEDs will not share current evenly
due to the manufacturing tolerances in their forward voltage. Running two or
more strings from a single current source may result in LED failure as the
devices warm up. If forward voltage binning is not possible, a circuit is
required to ensure even distribution of current between parallel strands.
2.5.4 Applications
LED uses fall into five major categories:
 Visual signals where light goes more or less directly from the source to the
human eye, to convey a message or meaning
 Illumination where light is reflected from objects to give visual response of
these objects
 Measuring and interacting with processes involving no human vision
 Narrow band light sensors where LEDs operate in a reverse-bias mode and
respond to incident light, instead of emitting light
 Indoor cultivation, including cannabis.
 LED is used as a bulb in homes and industries.
 The light-emitting diodes are employed in a vehicle like cars, bikes etc.
 LED display boards are standard now these days and are used outside like
accommodation signs, billboards, road signs, etc. In signboards which have
many languages conveying signals, the use of more LEDs will be profitable in
terms of less power dissipation.
 LEDs are employed at traffic lights
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2.6 Jumper Wire
Fig. 2.6
A jump wire (also known as jumper, jumper wire, DuPont wire) is an electrical wire,
or group of them in a cable, with a connector or pin at each end (or sometimes without
them – simply "tinned"), which is normally used to interconnect the components of
a breadboard or other prototype or test circuit, internally or with other equipment or
components, without soldering.
Individual jump wires are fitted by inserting their "end connectors" into the slots
provided in a breadboard, the header connector of a circuit board, or a piece of test
equipment. Generally, jumpers are tiny metal connectors used to close or open a circuit
part. They have two or more connection points, which regulate an electrical circuit
board.Their function is to configure the settings for computer peripherals, like the
motherboard. Suppose your motherboard supported intrusion detection. A jumper can
be set to enable or disable it.Jumper wires are electrical wires with connector pins at
each end. They are used to connect two points in a circuit without soldering.
You can use jumper wires to modify a circuit or diagnose problems in a circuit. Further,
they are best used to bypass a part of the circuit that does not contain a resistor and is
suspected to be bad. Jumper wires are simply wires that have connector pins at each
end, allowing them to be used to connect two points to each other without soldering.
Jumper wires are typically used with breadboards and other prototyping tools in order to
make it easy to change a circuit as needed. Fairly simple. In fact, it doesn’t get much
more basic than jumper wires.Though jumper wires come in a variety of colors, the
colors don’t actually mean anything. This means that a red jumper wire is technically
the same as a black one. But the colors can be used to your advantage in order to
differentiate between types of connections, such as ground or power.
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2.6.1 Types
There are different types of jumper wires. Some have the same type of electrical
connecter at both ends, while others have different connectors. Some common
connectors are:
 Solid tips – are used to connect on/with a breadboard or female header

connector. The arrangement of the elements and ease of insertion on a
breadboard allows increasing the mounting density of both components and
jump wires without fear of short-circuits. The jump wires vary in size and
colour to distinguish the different working signals.
 Crocodile clips – are used, among other applications, to temporarily bridge
sensors, buttons and other elements of prototypes with components or
equipment that have arbitrary connectors, wires, screw terminals, etc.
 Banana connectors – are commonly used on test equipment for DC and low-
frequency AC signals.
 Registered jack (RJnn) – are commonly used in telephone (RJ11) and
computer networking (RJ45).
 RCA connectors – are often used for audio, low-resolution composite video
signals, or other low-frequency applications requiring a shielded cable.
 RF connectors – are used to carry radio frequency signals between circuits,
test equipment, and antennas.
 RF jumper cables - Jumper cables is a smaller and more bendable corrugated
cable which is used to connect antennas and other components to network
cabling. Jumpers are also used in base stations to connect antennas to radio
units. Usually the most bendable jumper cable diameter is 1/2".
Jumper
"Wire bridge" redirects here. For jumper wires, see Jump wire. For fly-wires,
see enamelled wire. For patch cables, see patch lead.
Different types and colours of jumpers, with a couple of jumper pins for scale.
In electronics and particularly computing, a jumper is a short length of conductor used
to close, open or bypass part of an electronic circuit. They are typically used to set up or
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configure printed circuit boards, such as the motherboards of computers. The process of
setting a jumper is often called strapping.[citation needed]
A strapping option is a hardware configuration setting usually sensed only during
power-up or bootstrapping of a device (or even a single chip).
Design
Jumper pins (points to be connected by the jumper) are arranged in groups
called jumper blocks, each group having at least one pair of contact points. An
appropriately sized conductive sleeve called a jumper, or more technically,
a shunt jumper, is slipped over the pins to complete the circuit.
A two-pin jumper only allows to choose between two Boolean states, whereas a three-
pin jumper allows to select between three states.
Jumpers must be electrically conducting; they are usually encased in a non-conductive
block of plastic for convenience. This also avoids the risk that an unshielded jumper
will accidentally short out something critical (particularly if it is dropped on a live
circuit).
Jumper shunts can be categorized by their pitch (uniform distance between pins
measured from center to center). Some common pitches are:
 2.54 mm (0.100 in)

 2.00 mm (0.079 in)
 1.27 mm (0.050 in)
Use
Fig. 2.6.1
Red jumper on a pin header
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When a jumper is placed over two or more jumper pins, an electrical connection is
made between them, and the equipment is thus instructed to activate certain settings
accordingly. For example, with older PC systems, CPU speed and voltage settings were
often made by setting jumpers.
Some documentation may refer to setting the jumpers to on, off, closed, or open. When
a jumper is on or covering at least two pins it is a closed jumper, when a jumper is off,
is covering only one pin, or the pins have no jumper it is an open jumper.
Jumper less designs have the advantage that they are usually fast and easy to set up,
often require little technical knowledge, and can be adjusted without having physical
access to the circuit board. With PCs, the most common use of jumpers is in setting the
operating mode for ATA drives (master, slave, or cable select), though this use declined
with the rise of SATA drives and Plug and Play devices. Jumpers have been used since
the beginning of printed circuit boards.
Permanent parts of a circuit

Some printed wiring assemblies, particularly those using single-layer circuit boards,
include short lengths of wire soldered between pairs of points. These wires are
called wire bridges or jumpers, but unlike jumpers used for configuration settings, they
are intended to permanently connect the points in question. They are used to solve
layout issues of the printed wiring, providing connections that would otherwise require
awkward (or in some cases, impossible) routing of the conductive traces. In some cases
a resistor of 0 ohms is used instead of a wire, as these may be installed by the same
robotic assembly machines that install real resistors and other components.
Jumpers setting configuration options not normally meant to be user-configurable can
also be implemented as solder jumpers, typically two (or more) pads positioned closely
together or even with interwoven shapes. Typically non-conductive by default they can
be easily changed into a closed connection due to deliberately placed solder bridge on
top of them. If the closed state is the default state, the PCB designer can superimpose a
thin trace, which would be cut (with a knife) to open the jumper.
Pin header
2 languages
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia
"DuPont connector" redirects here. For "DuPont wire", see Jump wire.
6x1 male pin header (one row)
6x1 female socket header (one row)

A pin header (or simply header) is a form of electrical connector. A male pin
header consists of one or more rows of metal pins molded into a plastic base, often
2.54 mm (0.1 in) apart, though available in many spacings.[1] Male pin headers are cost-
effective due to their simplicity. The female counterparts are sometimes known
as female socket headers, though there are numerous naming variations of male and
female connectors. Historically, headers have sometimes been called "Berg connectors",
[2]
but headers are manufactured by many companies.
Overview
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Red jumper on a 4x1 male pin header
Normally pin headers are through-hole devices (THD / THT), but surface-mount
devices (SMD / SMT) exist too. In the SMD case, the solder side of the pins are bent on
a 90 degree angle so as to be soldered to pads on the PCB. On single row SMD headers
the pins are bent alternating to one side or the other, on dual row SMD headers the pins
are simply bent outwards. If pin headers are optional, the THD variant is often chosen
for ease of manual assembly.
Headers can be either straight (vertical) or right-angle, the latter form is sometimes used
to connect two PCBs together horizontally.[1]
Most often, headers are available in one or two rows, [1] though three or more rows are
available from some manufacturers.
They are often sold as long strips (typically 36 / 40 / 50 pins) which can easily be cut
apart to a required number of pins. Many pin lengths are available to minimize labor
during PCB assembly.
Male pin headers are often associated with ribbon cable connectors.[4] When used alone,
they can be recipients of jumpers, which have spacings of 2.54 mm (0.1 in) and
2.00 mm (0.079 in).[5]
Header types can be categorized by their pitch (uniform distance between pins
measured from center to center). Some common header pitches are:[1]
 5.08 mm (0.200 in)

 3.96 mm (0.156 in)
 2.54 mm (0.100 in) with 0.64 mm (0.025 in) square pins[6] or precision
machined 0.50 mm (0.020 in) round pins[7]
 2.00 mm (0.079 in) with 0.50 mm (0.020 in) square pins[8]
 1.27 mm (0.050 in)
 1.00 mm (0.0394 in)
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2.7 Battery 12 V
Fig. 2.7
A battery is a source of electric power consisting of one or more electrochemical

cells with external connections for powering electrical devices. When a battery is
supplying power, its positive terminal is the cathode and its negative terminal is
the anode. The terminal marked negative is the source of electrons that will flow
through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected
to an external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-
energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the external circuit as
electrical energy. Historically the term "battery" specifically referred to a device
composed of multiple cells; however, the usage has evolved to include devices
composed of a single cell.
Primary (single-use or "disposable") batteries are used once and discarded, as
the electrode materials are irreversibly changed during discharge; a common example is
the alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic
devices. Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple
times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the electrodes can be
226
restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead–acid batteries used in vehicles
and lithium-ion batteries used for portable electronics such as laptops and mobile
phones.
Batteries come in many shapes and sizes, from miniature cells used to power hearing
aids and wristwatches to, at the largest extreme, huge battery banks the size of rooms
that provide standby or emergency power for telephone exchanges and computer data
centers. Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than
common fuels such as gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher
efficiency of electric motors in converting electrical energy to mechanical work,
compared to combustion engines.
2.7.1 Types
Primary and secondary batteries
From top to bottom: a large 4.5-volt 3R12 battery, a D Cell, a C cell, an AA cell, an AAA
cell, an AAAA cell, an A23 battery, a 9-volt PP3 battery, and a pair of button
cells (CR2032 and LR44)
Batteries are classified into primary and secondary forms:
 Primary batteries are designed to be used until exhausted of energy then

discarded. Their chemical reactions are generally not reversible, so they
cannot be recharged. When the supply of reactants in the battery is
exhausted, the battery stops producing current and is useless.
 Secondary batteries can be recharged; that is, they can have their chemical
reactions reversed by applying electric current to the cell. This regenerates
the original chemical reactants, so they can be used, recharged, and used
again multiple times.
Some types of primary batteries used, for example, for telegraph circuits, were restored
to operation by replacing the electrodes. Secondary batteries are not indefinitely
rechargeable due to dissipation of the active materials, loss of electrolyte and internal
corrosion.
Primary Battery
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Fig. 2.7.1
Primary batteries, or primary cells, can produce current immediately on assembly.

These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are used
only intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in
alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently
available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical
reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original
forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting to recharge primary
cells. In general, these have higher energy densities than rechargeable batteries, but
disposable batteries do not fare well under high-drain applications with loads under
75 ohms (75 Ω). Common types of disposable batteries include zinc–carbon
batteries and alkaline batteries.
Secondary Battery
228
Secondary batteries, also known as secondary cells, or rechargeable batteries, must be
charged before first use; they are usually assembled with active materials in the
discharged state. Rechargeable batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current,
which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to
supply the appropriate current are called chargers. The oldest form of rechargeable
battery is the lead–acid battery, which are widely used
in automotive and boating applications. This technology contains liquid electrolyte in an
unsealed container, requiring that the battery be kept upright and the area be well
ventilated to ensure safe dispersal of the hydrogen gas it produces during overcharging.
The lead–acid battery is relatively heavy for the amount of electrical energy it can
supply. Its low manufacturing cost and its high surge current levels make it common
where its capacity (over approximately 10 Ah) is more important than weight and
handling issues. A common application is the modern car battery, which can, in general,
deliver a peak current of 450 amperes. A rechargeable battery, storage battery,
or secondary cell (formally a type of energy accumulator), is a type of electrical
battery which can be charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as
opposed to a disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and
discarded after use. It is composed of one or more electrochemical cells. The term
"accumulator" is used as it accumulates and stores energy through a
reversible electrochemical reaction. Rechargeable batteries are produced in many
different shapes and sizes, ranging from button cells to megawatt systems connected
to stabilize an electrical distribution network. Several different combinations
of electrode materials and electrolytes are used, including lead–acid, zinc–air, nickel–
cadmium (NiCd), nickel–metal hydride (NiMH), lithium-ion (Li-ion), lithium iron
phosphate (LiFePO4), and lithium-ion polymer (Li-ion polymer).
229
Rechargeable batteries typically initially cost more than disposable batteries but have a
much lower total cost of ownership and environmental impact, as they can be recharged
inexpensively many times before they need replacing. Some rechargeable battery types
are available in the same sizes and voltages as disposable types, and can be used
interchangeably with them. Billions of dollars in research are being invested around the
world for improving batteries and industry also focuses on building better
batteries.Some characteristics of rechargeable battery are given below:
1. In rechargeable batteries, energy is induced by applying an external

source to the chemical substances.
2. The chemical reaction that occurs in them is reversible.
3. Internal resistance is comparatively low.
4. They have a high self-discharge rate comparatively.
5. They have a bulky and complex design.
6. They have high resell value.
2.7.2 Performance, capacity and discharge
A battery's characteristics may vary over load cycle, over charge cycle, and over
lifetime due to many factors including internal chemistry, current drain, and
temperature. At low temperatures, a battery cannot deliver as much power. As such, in
cold climates, some car owners install battery warmers, which are small electric heating
pads that keep the car battery warm.
A battery's capacity is the amount of electric charge it can deliver at the rated voltage.
The more electrode material contained in the cell the greater its capacity. A small cell
has less capacity than a larger cell with the same chemistry, although they develop the
same open-circuit voltage. Capacity is measured in units such as amp-hour (A·h). The
rated capacity of a battery is usually expressed as the product of 20 hours multiplied by
the current that a new battery can consistently supply for 20 hours at 68 °F (20 °C),
while remaining above a specified terminal voltage per cell. For example, a battery
rated at 100 A·h can deliver 5 A over a 20-hour period at room temperature. The
fraction of the stored charge that a battery can deliver depends on multiple factors,
including battery chemistry, the rate at which the charge is delivered (current), the
required terminal voltage, the storage period, ambient temperature and other factors.
230
The higher the discharge rate, the lower the capacity. The relationship between current,
discharge time and capacity for a lead acid battery is approximated (over a typical range
of current values) by Peukert's law:
t = \frac {Q_P} {I^k}
Batteries that are stored for a long period or that are discharged at a small fraction of the
capacity lose capacity due to the presence of generally irreversible side reactions that
consume charge carriers without producing current. This phenomenon is known as
internal self-discharge. Further, when batteries are recharged, additional side reactions
can occur, reducing capacity for subsequent discharges. After enough recharges, in
essence all capacity is lost and the battery stops producing power. Internal energy losses
and limitations on the rate that ions pass through the electrolyte cause
battery efficiency to vary. Above a minimum threshold, discharging at a low rate
delivers more of the battery's capacity than at a higher rate. Installing batteries with
varying A·h ratings does not affect device operation (although it may affect the
operation interval) rated for a specific voltage unless load limits are exceeded. High-
drain loads such as digital cameras can reduce total capacity, as happens with alkaline
batteries. For example, a battery rated at 2 A·h for a 10- or 20-hour discharge would not
sustain a current of 1 A for a full two hours as its stated capacity implies.
The C-rate is a measure of the rate at which a battery is being charged or discharged. It
is defined as the current through the battery divided by the theoretical current draw
under which the battery would deliver its nominal rated capacity in one hour. It has the
units h−1. Because of internal resistance loss and the chemical processes inside the cells,
a battery rarely delivers nameplate rated capacity in only one hour. Typically, maximum
capacity is found at a low C-rate, and charging or discharging at a higher C-rate reduces
the usable life and capacity of a battery. Manufacturers often publish datasheets with
graphs showing capacity versus C-rate curves. C-rate is also used as a rating on batteries
to indicate the maximum current that a battery can safely deliver in a circuit. Standards
for rechargeable batteries generally rate the capacity and charge cycles over a 4-hour
(0.25C), 8 hour (0.125C) or longer discharge time. Types intended for special purposes,
such as in a computer uninterruptible power supply, may be rated by manufacturers for
discharge periods much less than one hour (1C) but may suffer from limited cycle life.
As of 2012, lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO battery technology was the fastest-
charging/discharging, fully discharging in 10–20 seconds.
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2.7.3 Lifespan
Battery life (and its synonym battery lifetime) has two meanings for rechargeable
batteries but only one for non-chargeables. For rechargeables, it can mean either the
length of time a device can run on a fully charged battery or the number of
charge/discharge cycles possible before the cells fail to operate satisfactorily. For a non-
rechargeable these two lives are equal since the cells last for only one cycle by
definition. (The term shelf life is used to describe how long a battery will retain its
performance between manufacture and use.) Available capacity of all batteries drops
with decreasing temperature. In contrast to most of today's batteries, the Zamboni pile,
invented in 1812, offers a very long service life without refurbishment or recharge,
although it supplies current only in the nanoamp range. The Oxford Electric Bell has
been ringing almost continuously since 1840 on its original pair of batteries, thought to
be Zamboni piles.
Disposable batteries typically lose 8–20% of their original charge per year when stored
at room temperature (20–30 °C). This is known as the "self-discharge" rate, and is due
to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when
no load is applied. The rate of side reactions is reduced for batteries stored at lower
temperatures, although some can be damaged by freezing. Old rechargeable batteries
self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based
232
batteries; a freshly charged nickel cadmium (NiCd) battery loses 10% of its charge in
the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. However,
newer low self-discharge nickel metal hydride (NiMH) batteries and modern lithium
designs display a lower self-discharge rate (but still higher than for primary batteries).
The active material on the battery plates changes chemical composition on each charge
and discharge cycle; active material may be lost due to physical changes of volume,
further limiting the number of times the battery can be recharged. Most nickel-based
batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first
use. Newer NiMH batteries are ready to be used when purchased, and have only 15%
discharge in a year.
Some deterioration occurs on each charge–discharge cycle. Degradation usually occurs
because electrolyte migrates away from the electrodes or because active material
detaches from the electrodes. Low-capacity NiMH batteries (1,700–2,000 mA·h) can be
charged some 1,000 times, whereas high-capacity NiMH batteries (above 2,500 mA·h)
last about 500 cycles. NiCd batteries tend to be rated for 1,000 cycles before their
internal resistance permanently increases beyond usable values. Fast charging increases
component changes, shortening battery lifespan. If a charger cannot detect when the
battery is fully charged then overcharging is likely, damaging it.
NiCd cells, if used in a particular repetitive manner, may show a decrease in capacity
called "memory effect". The effect can be avoided with simple practices. NiMH cells,
although similar in chemistry, suffer less from memory effect.Automotive lead–
acid rechargeable batteries must endure stress due to vibration, shock, and temperature
range. Because of these stresses and sulfation of their lead plates, few automotive
batteries last beyond six years of regular use. Automotive starting (SLI: Starting,
Lighting, Ignition) batteries have many thin plates to maximize current. In general, the
thicker the plates the longer the life. They are typically discharged only slightly before
recharge. "Deep-cycle" lead–acid batteries such as those used in electric golf carts have
much thicker plates to extend longevity. The main benefit of the lead–acid battery is its
low cost; its main drawbacks are large size and weight for a given capacity and voltage.
Lead–acid batteries should never be discharged to below 20% of their capacity, because
internal resistance will cause heat and damage when they are recharged. Deep-cycle
lead–acid systems often use a low-charge warning light or a low-charge power cut-off
switch to prevent the type of damage that will shorten the battery's life.
Battery life can be extended by storing the batteries at a low temperature, as in
a refrigerator or freezer, which slows the side reactions. Such storage can extend the life
of alkaline batteries by about 5%; rechargeable batteries can hold their charge much
longer, depending upon type. To reach their maximum voltage, batteries must be
returned to room temperature; discharging an alkaline battery at 250 mA at 0 °C is only
half as efficient as at 20 °. Alkaline battery manufacturers such as Duracell do not
recommend refrigerating batteries
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Chapter - 3 Working
3.1 Smart Zebra Crossing

This system aims to protect the pedestrian from road accidents. In this work the
barricades are placed on the zebra crossing when the traffic light flashes red, the piston
actuates the barricades and it is automatically lifted. When the Green signal flashes, the
barricades lay down. the heavy road traffic makes the road crossing unsafe to the
pedestrians. This paper aims to avoid accidents happening in the pedestrian crossing of
traffic signals. The pedestrian collisions occur due to the unethical behaviour of the
234
drivers skipping the signals. The proposed paper prevents these accidents by introducing
automatic barriers for the zebra crossing. These barricades automatically lift during the
pedestrian crossing and lay down during vehicle traffic. The defaulters of traffic signals
are also monitored through the camera. Introduction Road transport is essential for
mobility of people and goods as well as it contribute for India’s development. The risk
of road accidents exposes people to injuries and fatalities. The growth of population and
lack of road infrastructure leads to poor road traffic in India and which results in
unacceptable accidents, injuries and fatalities. In the year 2017, 4,64,910 road accidents
were reported that claimed 1,47,913 human lives and 4,70,975 persons become injured.
Out of four and half lakh lives, 13.8 percentage persons are pedestrians. Safe walking
on the road side and protection of pedestrians are to be promoted considering the risk
factors. Smartphone play a major role in this development a vehicle pedestrian safety
system. Smartphone generally help to reduce the 4, 00,000 fatalities from the pedestrian
collision. This system warned both the pedestrian and the person who drives the vehicle.
With the collaborative effort of two years with the Honda and Qualcomm to leverage
safety system, so that vehicles can easily communicate through mobile phones to
predict the possible collision between the pedestrian and the vehicle. The overview of
the work is to warn both the driver and pedestrian so that they can easily take another
action before the collision. The simulation methodology was developed by for
pedestrian protection system. An autonomous emergency braking system (AEB) was
studied by and which discussed the problems faced by pedestrian safety systems. To
identify the functionality of the attributes of each crash, the camera sensor was used by
AEB system which helps to detects the pedestrian. By changing the field of view (FOV)
and the level of deceleration, the detection influence and AEB system activation were
developed. The majority of the crash scenarios were estimated at the FOV of 35
degrees. At the signalized intersection, most of the pedestrian fatalities are happen
between turning vehicles and pedestrians. This paper analyzes the pedestrian-vehicle
conflict index model. That model establishes the quantitative standard of two or
multiple intersections. Based on the SCI, the categorization is done and the safety
measure is applicable. In the city of Changchun, the SCI model is applied which results
in indicating the model potential in an improved manner. The use of the environmental
sensors with a brake assist system will keep the driver in the alert condition. Pedestrians
are benefited by safety and the fatalities are reduced and the system with environmental
sensors is more advantageous over automatic emergency braking systems. The
pedestrian and automobile interaction model was developed and tested by for the places
with no signals and cross walks. The main aim of the author is to develop the simulation
model to understand the pedestrian and vehicle crossing at un-signalized intersection.
The test and demonstration are done on pedestrian collusion, driver response and the
delay due to pedestrians. The simulation model shows improved safety and efficiency.
The use of the environmental sensors with a brake assist system will keep the driver in
the alert condition. Pedestrians are benefited by safety and the fatalities are reduced and
the system with environmental sensors is more advantageous over automatic emergency
braking systems. Due to vehicular movement, the pedestrians are not able to cross the
road at even at the time for pedestrian crossing. In several cases, several vehicles stop
235
on the zebra crossing, so that pedestrians can able to walk only on the road. Hence, this
proposal is aimed to provide a safety system for the pedestrians for safely crossing the
road during the pedestrian green signal.
3.2 Traffic Lights up on Regular Time Interval

Traffic lights are used to control the vehicular movements in urban areas especially to
avoid road accidents and intersection collision. Generally, Traffic lights consist of three
coloured lights which are red, green and amber. Red colour indicates to stop the vehicle
before the crossing line. Amber signal indicates “get ready for vehicular movement”.
Green light indicates to initiate the vehicle. Traffic signals depend on signal timing. As a
whole, traffic lights flash for 1 minute i.e 30 seconds for Red, 5 seconds for amber and
25 seconds for Green. Traffic lights play a major role when it comes to safety in our
everyday life. The main function of the traffic signals is to provide the proper way for a
particular opposing movement. This great invention also helps the public to cross the
road easily during red signal flashes (where vehicles are going to stop) without any
accidents and also helps in decreasing pedestrian crossing accidents.
We know that navigating the busy streets of India can be a daunting task, especially if
you lack awareness about the country’s traffic signal rules. We’re here to help you
decipher the meaning behind those flickering little red, yellow, and green lights.
Before we ‘drive’ into the subtle nuances of traffic signal rules, let’s take a quick look at
some statistics. Did you know that in 2023, India’s road network has expanded to over
5.5 million kilometres, making it
the second largest road network in the world? With such a vastly interconnected road
network, it’s no surprise that traffic congestion and accidents are a common occurrence.
However, with the implementation of strict traffic signal rules and regulations, the
number of road accidents can be reduced significantly.
Whether you’re a seasoned driver or a novice behind the wheel, it’s very important to
familiarise yourself with these traffic signal rules and abide by them to ensure the safety
of yourself and others on the road. So, let’s get started on this journey and make our
roads safer, one traffic light at a time!
Traffic signal rules are put in place to ensure the safety of all road users and to regulate
the flow of traffic. The most common traffic signals in India are the red, yellow, and
green lights, which are used to indicate when to stop, slow down, and proceed,
respectively.
The red light is the most important signal and indicates that a vehicle must come to a
complete stop. This is because the red light indicates that the intersection is not safe to
cross and that any vehicle proceeding through the intersection could cause an accident.
236
The yellow light is a warning signal and indicates that the red light is about to appear.
This signal is used to alert drivers that they need to slow down and prepare to stop, as
the red light will be activated soon.
The green light indicates that it is safe to proceed and that the intersection is clear.
Drivers should obey the green light and proceed with caution, keeping in mind the
presence of other vehicles, pedestrians, and traffic laws.
In addition to the red, yellow, and green lights, some traffic signals in India also feature
a flashing yellow light. This signal is used to indicate that drivers should proceed with
caution, as the intersection may be busy.
Simply put, traffic signals help regulate the flow of vehicles and pedestrians on roads.
They play a critical role in ensuring the safety of all road users and preventing potential
gridlocks and obstruction. The way in which traffic signals work can be broken down
into several components.
First, there is the controller, which is the brain of the traffic signal. The controller is
responsible for controlling the timing of the traffic signal, and it is typically located at
the intersection or in a nearby installation.
Next, the sensors, which are used to detect the presence of vehicles and pedestrians at
the intersection. Sensors can be placed on the side of the road, and work by detecting
changes in the magnetic field or by using video detection technology.
Third, there are the signal heads or the lights that are visible to drivers and pedestrians.
These signal heads typically consist of red, yellow, and green lights, and are typically
mounted on poles at different intersections.
Finally, there is the power supply, which powers the traffic signals. The power supply
can be provided by an on-site generator or could be latched on to a nearby power
supply.
Traffic lights and signals play a crucial role in ensuring the safe and smooth flow of
traffic on roads and highways. They are designed to regulate the flow of vehicles and
pedestrians, prevent collisions, and reduce the frequency and severity of traffic jams.
According to data from the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, traffic
signals and signs are responsible for reducing the number of accidents by as much as
78%. In 2023, it is estimated that the use of traffic signals and lights have prevented
over 1 million accidents and saved thousands of lives.
When approaching a traffic signal or intersection, it is important to exercise caution

while driving. The Road Transport Authority (RTA) is responsible for ensuring the
smooth functioning of traffic signals and lights on the roads to ensure the safety of all
the individuals on the roads and to help manage increasing traffic. Disregarding traffic
signals can lead to disorder and accidents. Here are some precautions to keep in mind
the next time you’re out on the roads:
237
 Slow down and yield to pedestrians on zebra crossings.
 Keep seat belts fastened even if you have come to a halt at a red light.
 Avoid unnecessary honking, which can be a source of noise pollution and
annoyance for others.
 Be aware of other vehicles and take necessary precautions to avoid collisions at
intersections.
 Follow lane discipline by keeping to the left on a two-way road to allow other
vehicles to pass smoothly on the right lane.
 Use the left or right lanes if you intend to make a turn in that respective direction
and stay in the centre lane to cross the intersection.
3.3 Barricading works

Barricade means an obstruction to deter the passage of persons or vehicles. Barricades
should be inspected daily (or more often) to ensure they are still in place and working as
intended.
A barricade outlines or blocks a dangerous area and warns of a boundary not to be

crossed to ensure employee and public safety. It is an obstruction to deter the passage of
persons or vehicles.
Tapes, screens, cones, rope, wire, chains or signs can be barricades if set up properly.
PURPOSE
Barricades act as warning devices that alert others of the hazards created by
construction activities and should be used to control traffic, both vehicular and
pedestrian, safely through or around construction work sites. Barricades used by
Contractors must comply with OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart G – Signs, Signals and
Barricades regulations wherever necessary to provide for physical protection of NSU
students, faculty, employees, public or property. It is the Contractor responsibility is to
maintain a safe and accessible path for all pedestrians including persons with
disabilities, around and/or through construction sites.
ACTIVITIES
Barricades are required around all construction sites and all excavations, holes,
openings in floors or roofs, raised platforms, for certain types of overhead work,
restriction of access areas and wherever it is necessary to warn people against the
potential of falling. Barricades must be suitable for each area of use. Examples of
barricades are plastic safety fencing, temporary cyclone fencing and portable manhole
barricades. Yellow caution tape and/or cones are not considered acceptable barricades
238
and should be used only temporary until suitable barricades are erected. Signs and
illumination should be used appropriately. The following are examples of activities
where barricades may be required: Wherever construction debris is dropped without the
use of an enclosed chute. Areas with temporary wiring operating at more than 600 volts.
Work areas for electrical equipment with exposed energized parts. The swing radius of
the rotating superstructure of cranes or other equipment. Wherever equipment is left
unattended near a roadway at night. Excavations. Areas used for the preparation of
explosive charges or blasting operations. Street openings – manholes. Construction
areas in energized electrical substations.
RESPONSIBILITIES
Contractors are responsible for providing all barrier materials for both interior and
exterior application including but not limited to appropriate street closing barricades and
signage that meet DOT requirements, and all local, state and federal laws.
1) The Contractor shall ensure the general construction area is protected; barricades
must be erected before any excavation, extended as the excavation progresses and
maintained until the project is completed.
2) The Contractor shall furnish, erect, and maintain all the necessary signs, barricades,
lighting, fencing, bridging, and flaggers that conform to the requirements set forth by
OSHA.
3) Barricaded areas which contain an opening or hole for access must be protected
during working hours and must be secured at the end of each day.
4) All holes or openings through floors or decking at all elevations must be immediately
covered or barricaded. Material or equipment must never be stored in an excavation
cover or inside an excavation area.
5) Hole covers must be secured or cleated so they CANNOT slip, and must extend
adequately beyond the edge of the hole.
6) Barricades shall not create a trip hazard.
7) The type of barricading system, whether it is fencing, caution tape, or some other
means, the Contractor must discuss the barricades system to be used with the EH&S
office to ensure protection for the campus community.
8) Warning signs should be placed on barricades/fences for the duration of the

construction project.
9) Upon completion of the project, barricades shall be removed promptly when no

longer needed.
239
REGULATIONS
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart G Signs, Signals, and Barricades
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart T Demolition
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart K Electrical
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart N Cranes, Derricks, Hoists, Elevators,

and Conveyors
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart O Motor Vehicles, Mechanized

Equipment, and Marine Operations
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart P Excavations
OSHA 29 CFR 1926 Subpart U Blasting and Use of Explosives
OSHA 29 CFR 1910 General Industry Standards
ANSI Standard D6.1 Uniform Manual of Traffic Control
ACCOUNTABILITY
All contactors will be responsible for complying with the guidelines as described above.
Contractors are to communicate to their employees and Subcontractors all the
guidelines and relevant information. All work shall be performed in accordance with
University policies and procedures as well as all applicable laws and regulations.
The automatic lifting of the barricade is done successfully in the heavy traffic roads
when the signal goes red and the detection of the vehicle hit against the steel plate is
detected by the vibration sensor and that, in turn, actuates the camera and captures the
defaulters.
Fig. 3.3
Barricading in construction is a general term
for a wide range of traffic control, pedestrian safety, and perimeter security equipment.
This includes both permanent and temporary barricading, but most commonly
temporary, as is the nature of construction sites.
Barricading is also done both outside and indoors. It’s utilized for large-scale projects as
well as short-term renovations. And it can be as specific as a single piece of tape or as
general as a mile-long roadside barrier.
240
In terms of both permanent and temporary barricading in construction, you’ll need to
identify the potential hazards. But the next step isn’t necessarily choosing a barricade,
demarcation, or sign, it’s deciding whether or not that hazard needs to exist. Can it be
eradicated, replaced, or minimized to a safe degree? If so, then doing that is best
practice.However, if the hazard is not reasonably preventable, then barricading is
required, as well as signage that clarifies the precautions that should be taken if
applicable.In most cases, barricading in construction zones should stay in place around
hazards indefinitely. So, if the hazard becomes non-existent, then the barricading is no
longer needed. However, another risk assessment should be performed to ensure new
hazards have not arisen in the wake of the previous.If the hazard is permanent, then
permanent barricading needs to be put in place.On a highly related note to the above,
temporary barricading needs to be updated on an ongoing basis. The frequency of the
maintenance will depend on weather conditions, frequency of use, general wear and
tear, and so on. The more durable the product, the less you’ll need to maintain it. On the
flipside, the more economical, the more often you’ll have to do repairs. To lessen the
burden of barricade maintenance, consider factors making a long-term investment
instead of a short-term investment (e.g., better quality products, buying instead of
renting, etc.).
Another important consideration is ongoing productivity and potential interruptions. If

you can’t legally operate when barricading requirements aren’t met due to maintenance
concerns, that can be an extremely costly hiccup. On top of buying the highest quality
products from a trusted brand, recognizing when a piece of equipment is close to
breaking down can make a big difference. Best of all, it requires little more than regular
inspections.The figure shows the mounting of the barrier on the road. The barrier itself
acts as the road; vehicle can easily run without any disturbance during green signal.
This prototype concentrates on north side of the road
241
The figure shows how the barrier acts at the time of red signal. When the traffic signal
flashes red then automatically the barrier lifts and the vehicles are indicated to stop.
Unfortunately any vehicles hit the barrier then the camera which located at the corner
will capture the number plate of that vehicle and send that to control room. Barricading
should keep folks as far away from the hazard as they need to be to stay safe. That’s
certainly general, but each hazard has unique circumstances. For example, things like
sparking and leaking can have a specific radius that you can barricade around.
Another great example is a construction site as a whole. The amount of space needed to
protect traffic and pedestrians from the work is a much more clear-cut delineation. Keep
that general concept in mind when determining the barricading needed for a more
specific hazardous area.
It’s also important to expect the unexpected. If there’s a chance that a falling object
might deflect off of something, for example, it’s crucial to take that into account.
3.4 Escalator Working

The escalators generally move at the speed of 1-2 ft per second. The usual angle is 30
degrees from the ground. Most of the escalators have single-piece aluminum steps that
move along the track by electric motors.In addition, the escalators have different
configurations. Parallel, multiple parallel, and criss-cross configuration. The moving
handrails move along the escalator providing support to passengers. You can
permanentlyset the direction of travel. Even you can control it manually according to
the requirement or flow of the crowd. Sometimes even you have the option of automatic
control.Escalators are very helpful in this fast-paced world. They help to commute
faster to save your time. They also help differentially abled or people having difficulty.
Escalators can work as a normal stair during a power outage. It’s suitable in areas
having large crowds. It can act as a mass mover. Helpful on large airports as some times
distances from the entrance to the boarding gate are too much.
From a mechanical point of view, an escalator is a simple yet attractive vertical

transportation system. Peak Escalator Hand-selected escalator technicians are trained to
provide escalator maintenance services for optimum performance.
We also take feelings of pride in creating opportunities for customers to learn about the
inner workings of their equipment. Escalators are made up of a set of interlocking steps,
which are driven by an electric motor. A pair of chains rotate to move the steps with
two pairs of gears, while a large metal structure called a truss surrounds the entire
mechanism for connecting the floors.
242
Today escalators are installed around the world to take pedestrian traffic to places where
lifts would be impractical. They are used in the department store, shopping malls,
airports, transits systems, conventions centers, hotels, arenas, stadiums, train stations,
subways, and public buildings.Escalators are capable of moving large numbers of
people and can be placed in the same physical space as stairs, which guide people
toward the main exit, special display, or simply up or down a floor. And you usually
don’t have to wait for the Escalator, unlike the elevator.
Safety is a majors concern in escalator design. Clothes can get tangled in machinery,
and children wearing certain types of shoes are at risk of a foot injury. The fire
protection of an escalator can be provided by adding dust collection and automatic fire
detection and suppression systems inside the engineered pit. These are in addition to any
water sprinkler system installed on the roof.
Spiral parallel escalators are the arrangement that forces the users to move because they
are installed in places where the walking area is very long. The roaming feature saves
the user from being disturbed. Other types of parallel escalators are stacked parallel
escalators, which are mostly used in places like malls, metro stations and are limited to
only two stories.At the same time, they are easily found in public buildings or any other
heavy traffic areas, which all run in the same direction. Stacked parallel escalators
provide an option to reverse a specified direction during rush hours when everyone is
traveling in a particular direction. These escalators are commonly knowns as they can
be installed at a comparatively low cost and can take up a very small amount of floor
space with minimal structural requirements. A spiral crisscross is one in which the stairs
rest into each other and provide a fast and comfortable journey at very little cost and
space.
Chapter 4 Circuit Diagram and Code
4.1 Code of Project
#include<Servo.h>
#include<AFMotor.h>
int a;
Servo servo1;
Servo servo2;
AF_DCMotor M1(1);
AF_DCMotor M4(2);
243
void setup()
{
M1.setSpeed(50);
M4.setSpeed(50);
servo1.attach(9);
servo2.attach(10);
pinMode(13,OUTPUT);
pinMode(7,OUTPUT);
pinMode(5,OUTPUT);
}
void loop()
{
digitalWrite(13,HIGH);
delay(2000);
for(int a = 90; a >=0; a -= 1){
servo1.write(a);
servo2.write(a);
delay(35);
}
#include<Servo.h>
#include<AFMotor.h>
M1.run(FORWARD);
M4.run(BACKWARD);
delay(10000);
M1.run(RELEASE);
M4.run(RELEASE);
delay(1000);
digitalWrite(13,LOW);
delay(5000);
for(int a = 0; a<=90; a += 1){
servo1.write(a);
servo2.write(a);
delay(35);
}
244
delay(8000);
}
4.2 Picture of Project
245
Fig. 4
Chapter 5 - Result / Conclusion
The results of a smart zebra crossing using Arduino Uno, servo motor, barrier,
walkway, IC, and traffic lights can be significant in terms of pedestrian safety and
efficiency. Here are some of the benefits:
Improved safety: The system will provide a clear and automated way for drivers and
pedestrians to cross the road, reducing the risk of accidents and improving overall
safety.
246
Increased efficiency: The system will reduce the time taken for pedestrians to cross the
road by automating the process of opening and closing the barrier, and by providing a
clear indication of when it is safe to cross.
Cost-effective: The system can be built using relatively inexpensive components such as
Arduino Uno board, servo motor, barrier, and IC, making it a cost-effective solution for
pedestrian safety.
Easy to maintain: The components used in the system are easy to maintain and replace,
reducing the downtime and maintenance costs associated with the system.
Overall, a smart zebra crossing using Arduino Uno, servo motor, barrier, walkway, IC,
and traffic lights can provide an efficient and cost-effective solution to improve
pedestrian safety and efficiency at crossings.
5.1 Benefits
While still emerging, we can already see many potential benefits to the use of smart
crosswalks depending on their complexity:
 Reduced number of accidents due to their improved visibility

 The ability to deeply manage urban traffic, reducing traffic jams and pollution
 They are adaptable to different types of streets and traffic situations
 They can be remotely and dynamically managed
 LED-based designs can be turned on and off on demand
 Requires very little maintenance.
 Increases visibility of the crossing beacon to vehicle drivers.
 Probably the cheapest way to increase the safety of a crossing, compared to
other options.
5.2 Why is pedestrian safety important?
We are all pedestrians. Virtually every trip begins and ends with walking even if you
use public transport or your personal vehicle. According to the World Health
Organization, more than 270,000 pedestrians are killed on roads each year. Pedestrians
constitute 22% of all road deaths. Moreover, millions of people become permanently
disabled due to severe injuries caused by traffic-related crashes while they were
walking. Road accidents, however, should not be considered inevitable as they are both
predictable and preventable.
247
Moving safely ought to be a fundamental and inalienable right. It is an essential
condition for the social participation of all. The feeling of insecurity causes the most
vulnerable people to stay at home. This concerns children, the elderly and more
generally all people with disabilities or reduced mobility. Moreover, walking should be
promoted as an important mode of transport given its potential to improve health and
preserve the environment.
Because they have social, psychological and physical consequences, pedestrian fatalities
and injuries generate costs for society. It is difficult to estimate the economic impact of
pedestrian road traffic crashes precisely, but road traffic crashes in general are evaluated
between 1 and 2% of gross national product.
All around the World, dozens of leading cities have committed to Vision Zero with one
strong objective: eliminating all traffic fatalities and severe injuries on roads. They have
developed Vision Zero action plans which consist in identifying the most hazardous
traffic areas, implementing new regulations, and redesigning safer streets.
Key risks to pedestrians are both related to driver behavior (speed, mobile phone use
during driving, alcohol, drugs…) and infrastructure (lack of pedestrian facilities in
roadway design, lack of visibility…).
Pedestrian crossing points are particularly dangerous because they include a large
number of conflicts between pedestrians and other modes of transport: cars, busses,
bikes, but also Personal Light Electric Vehicles (PLEVs), such as electric scooters,
hoverboards, Segways, etc. Crossing streets safely is even more challenging for visually
impaired and blind people.
5.3 How to improve pedestrian safety?
Pedestrian safety measures for visually impaired and blind people
To travel independently, people with visual impairment mainly use auditory and tactual
information. Some of them can use their remaining sight and are very sensitive to
brightness contrast. Roadway design must take their needs into account to enable them
to identify safe pedestrian paths, detect streets and know the proper time to cross. For
further information about techniques visually impaired and blind people use to travel
safely, read our article: How Do the Blind Safely Cross the Road?
Here are some tools that really improve the orientation and safety of people with visual
disability:
⊗ Detectable warning surfaces or truncated domes are textured ground surface

indicators which alert people when they reach the edges of pavements or steps.
248
Detectable warning surfaces are particularly useful at lowered curbs when the sidewalk
grade is equal to the grade of the street.
⊗ Accessible Pedestrian Signals (APS) help visually impaired and blind people to
identify the WALK interval at intersections. When well set up and positioned,
accessible pedestrian signals are also helpful to locate crosswalks and maintain
alignment while crossing.
⊗ Tactile paving can also be used to lead pedestrians with low vision towards safe
crossing places. Guidance path surfaces are generally made of raised flat-topped bars
that can be followed by walking on the surface or maintaining contact with a white
cane. They indicate the right direction to cross the road.
⊗ Pedestrian crossings must contrast with the surrounding surface so that visually
impaired people with remaining sight can see them. Zebra crossings with white stripes
on a dark surrounding surface are mostly well recognized and recommended for their
high visibility.
5.4 Other safety measures for all pedestrians
Visually impaired and blind pedestrians also benefit from measures that are taken to
improve the safety of all walkers. Pedestrian crossings are a major issue because there
are pedestrian and vehicle conflict points. Road safety good practice can really improve
the situation.
⊗ Motor vehicle speed is a major risk factor for road safety. Speed reduction has been
proven to lower the number of pedestrian fatalities and injuries. Raised platforms,
pavement narrowings, optical treatments, roundabouts are effective measures to reduce
speed at intersections. However, it is important to keep markings and auditory clues for
pedestrians with a visual impairment.
⊗ Simple measures can be taken to simplify crossing location, increase visibility

between pedestrians and motorists, and shorten crossing distances. Concrete curb
extensions, clearer intersection geometry, markings improvements pedestrian fencing
and upgrading pedestrian ramps are among them.
⊗ Raised medians and pedestrian refuge islands allow pedestrians to cross one
direction of traffic at a time. These make the crossing task much easier. Moreover,
medians and refuge islands provide a space to install improve lighting which reduces
the nighttime pedestrian fatalities on crosswalks. It is also important to install pedestrian
signals with auditory systems on these islands.
249
⊗ Bike lanes should be separated from sidewalks using raised elements so that
pedestrians do not fear any collisions.
⊗ Right-Turn-on-Red (RTOR) allows motorists to turn right on a red signal after

stopping and yielding. While this measure may improve the traffic flow, it has increased
pedestrian and bicyclist accidents. RTOR should be avoided as far as possible.
⊗ Parking areas, trees and street furniture that impede visibility at pedestrian crossings
should be removed.
5.5 Pedestrian Safety:
5.5.1
major features and benefits of Accessible Pedestrian Signals (APS)
What is an Accessible Pedestrian Signal (APS)?
Crossing the street when you are a blind person is a real challenge on a daily basis.
Among the many existing solutions, Accessible Pedestrian Signals (APS) represent the
best option to secure and facilitate the crossing for visually impaired and blind people.
An APS is an integrated device that sends an audio signal to indicate to pedestrians if
they can cross the road safely. This device allows blind pedestrians to cross the road at
the right time, more quickly and safely while maintaining their orientation throughout
the crossing.
Accessible Pedestrian Signals (APS) began to emerge in the 1970s in the United States
and have since largely evolved to adapt to their environment and their users. APS are
known by different names around the world such as: acoustic signals, audio-tactile
signals, audible pedestrian signals, audible traffic signals, audible pedestrian traffic
signals or audible crossing indicators.
From a legal point of view, the APS must comply with local laws of each country. In
America, for example The Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21)
states that pedestrian safety considerations should be included in new transportation
plans and projects. The Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD)
includes guidance for APS installation, location and standards.
5.5.2 How Accessible Pedestrian Signals (APS) features improve pedestrian safety?
APS greatly contribute to securing the road network. The audio signal indicates the
right moment to engage on a pedestrian crossing. Although listening to traffic flow is
essential to avoid the risk of an accident, the acoustic signal makes decision-making a
lot easier. By installing APS in your city, join the Vision Zero movement that has
already conquered 250 cities around the world.
250
In addition to pedestrian safety, there are many other features and advantages that make
APS an attractive solution for both local decision-makers, installers and end-users:
⊗ Easy to install: APS are easy solutions to implement compared to road works to
comply with accessibility requirements. In addition, the electronic card can be easily
inserted into the pedestrian signal already installed,
⊗ Inexpensive: the overall cost ratio (maintenance, installation, purchase) compared to

the functionalities provided is attractive,
⊗ Useful: in addition to the WALK/WAIT signal essential for blind pedestrians to

know when to cross, some APS also indicate the names of parallel and perpendicular
streets to better get their bearings,
⊗ Reducing noise pollution: recent APS offer an alternative to continuous noise by

allowing the pedestrian to trigger the audio signal with a remote control on demand,
⊗ Customizable: some APS have been designed to adapt to the city and to users by
modulating the sound volume according to the ambient noise. Other parameters may
also be added depending on models.
As we know hearing is the first sense used to compensate for the lack of vision and
visual and tactile cues to locate a pedestrian crossing are not enough. Therefore the use
of an audio signal is essential. APS is also the ideal solution to compensate for the road
installation defects and the lack of local safety measures by creating safe road
environment for pedestrians and drivers.
Chapter 6 References
1.Automatic detection of zebra crossings from mobile LiDAR data- B Riveiro, H

González-Jorge… - Optics & Laser …, 2015 – Elsevier
2. Boudet, L. and Midenet, S., 2009. Pedestrian crossing detection based on evidential
fusion of video-sensors. Transportation research part C: emerging technologies 17(5),
pp. 484-497.
251
3. Dalal, N. and Triggs, B., 2005. Histograms of oriented gradients for human detection.
In: Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition,2005. CVPR 2005. IEEE Computer
Society Conference on, Vol. 1, IEEE, pp. 886-893.
4. Frequency filtering and connected components characterization for zebra-crossing
and hatched markings detection” G Thomas, N Jérôme, S Laurent - IAPRS, 2010 -
isprs.org
5. Haralick, R. M., 1989. Monocular vision using inverse perspective projection
geometry: analytic relations. In: Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, 1989.
Proceedings CVPR'89., IEEE Computer Society Conference on, IEEE, pp. 370-378.
6. Haussler, D., 1992. Overview of the probably approximately correct (pac) learning
framework. Information and Computation 100(1), pp.78-150.
7. Kim, S., Park, S., Lee, S., et al., 2012. Design of high-performance pedestrian and
vehicle detection circuit using Haarlike features. In: TENCON 2012-2012 IEEE Region
10 Conference, IEEE, pp. 1-5.
8. Kuchment, A., 2013. Probably Approximately Correct: Nature's Algorithms for
Learning and Prospering in a Complex World. Scientific American, Incorporated, pp.
88.
9. Lienhart, R. and Maydt, J., 2002. An extended set of Haar-like features for rapid
object detection. In: Image Processing. 2002. Proceedings. 2012 International
Conference on, Vol. 1, IEEE, pp. I-I.
10. Pedestrian crossing behaviour analysis at intersections by Akash Jain1, Ankit
Gupta21, Rajat Rastogi3 Stud
252

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A

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Dr. A P J ABDUL KALAM TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY,

Under the Supervision of

SUPERVISIOR MUSKAN ABID

ASST.PROF. MR ASHISH SINGH Roll No: 1906950310017

Prof. Mr. Ashish Singh

The smart zebra crossing is an essential technology for enhancing pedestrian

I express my gratitude to Mrs. Kanupriya , Head of Department of Electronics &

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION ………………………………………..9-11

Chapter 2 COMPONENTS AND MATERIALS USED……………12-60

2.3 L293D Motor Driver………………………………….32

2.4 Servo Motor…………………………………………39

2.5 Light Emitting Diodes(LED)………………………. 43

2.6 Jumper Wires………………………………………..50

2.7 Battery 12V………………………………………….57

Chapter 4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM AND CODE…………………….71-72

Chapter 5 RESULT / CONCLUSION………………………………73-77

2. COMPONENTS AND MATERRIALS USED

When we refer to new technologies applied to roads, we tend to refer to autonomous

Under such social needs, with the development of lighting intelligence/smart

Rise in the world

2.1 Arduino Uno

Fig. 2.1 Arduino Uno

2.1.1 Technical specifications

2.1.4 Special pin functions

Servo Motor Working Mechanism

It is a closed-loop system where it uses a positive feedback system to control motion

Servo Motor Working Principle

Interfacing Servo Motors with Microcontrollers:

Controlling Servo Motor:

 Servo motor tester circuit

 Servo motor interfacing with 8051 microcontroller

 Servo motor control using Arduino

 Servo control with Arduino Due

 Servo Control with Flex Sensor

 Raspberry Pi Servo Motor Tutorial

A coil of wire with a current running through it generates an electromagnetic field

2.2.5 Permanent magnet stators

2.2.6 Wound stators

2.2.7 Series connection

2.2.8 Shunt connection

2.2.9 Compound connection

2.3 L293D Motor Driver

2.3.1 L293D pinout

Pin 16 will the Power we will provide to the L293D to activate it or to

2.3.2 L293D Pin Configuration Details

3) 6 Header Male pins

4) 12 Volt battery or source

7) Arduino (Any) to test the Driver

8) Computer with arduino IDE

9) Misc itmes like soldering iron , soldering Wire etc

2.3.4 How to Use L293D?

Pin No. - Pin Characteristics

Why 4 grounds in the IC?

Working Mechanism and Arduino Code

Motor Control Pins

2.3.6 APPLICATIONS of L293D

 It could be used to control stepper and DC motor direction and Speed.