Introduction to Signals

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 What is a signal?
• A signal is a set of information. What information?
• A signal contains information about the status and/or variations of the quantities of
any physical phenomena.

• As depicted in the figure, the variations over time of the applied force f and the
resulting automobile velocity v are signals.

• In the circuit, variation over time in the source voltage

vs and capacitor voltage vc are examples of signals.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 What is a signal?
• Voltages on wires
• Electromagnetic waves emanating from radio or
television transmitters
• As another example, speech signal.
A microphone converts variations of acoustic
pressure to electrical signal.
The figure illustrate a recording of a speech signal.
As can be seen in the figure, different sounds
correspond to different patterns in the variations
of acoustic pressure.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 How can we describe a signal?
x(t) y(t)
Math Function Math Model Math Function
for Input of System for Output

• Signals are represented mathematically as functions of one or more independent

variables. A signal x(t) might be described by a function x(t)=50sin(200πt) of
continuous time t.
• The signal can also be described graphically.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Classification of signals
• There are several classes of signals.
• Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• Analog and digital signals
• Periodic and aperiodic signals

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
• If a signal is defined for every value
of time t, it is a continuous-time signal.

• If a signal is defined at discrete values of time t,

it is a discrete-time signal.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Analog and digital signals
• A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous range is an
analog signal.
• An analog signal amplitude can take on an infinite number of values.
• A digital signal is one whose amplitude can take on only a finite number of values.
• The concept of continuous time is often confused with that of analog and the
concept of discrete time is often confused with that of digital.
• The terms continuous time and discrete time qualify the nature of a signal along
the time (horizontal) axis. The terms analog and digital, on the other hand, qualify
the nature of the signal amplitude (vertical axis).

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Periodic and aperiodic signals
• A signal x(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant T0
for all t.
• The smallest value of T0 that satisfies the periodicity condition is the fundamental
period of x(t).
• A periodic signal must start at t = - ∞ and continue forever (everlasting signal).
• Some common examples of periodic functions are
real or complex sinusoids and combinations of
real and/or complex sinusoids.
• A signal is aperiodic if it is not periodic.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Examples
• , Which of these functions are
periodic and, if one is, what is its fundamental period?
o CT sine wave: is a periodic signal with period
o CT complex exponential: is a periodic signal with period

o CT linear relationship: is an aperiodic signal;

• One period of a periodic signal with fundamental period

is graphed in the figure. What is the value of at time
ms?
o Using ,

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Elementary Operations on Signals
• Amplitude Scale: y(t) = ax(t), where a is a real 1.5x(t)
(or possibly complex) constant. 2

• Amplitude Shift: y(t) = x(t) + b, where b is a real 1

(or possibly complex) constant 0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

0.7+x(t)
• Addition: y(t) = x(t) + z(t) 2

• Multiplication: y(t) = x(t)z(t) 1

x(t) 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
2
x(t)+z(t)
1.5
2
1

0.5 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

z(t) x(t)z(t)
2
2

1.5 1

1
0
0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Elementary transformations
• A central concept in signal and system analysis is that of the transformation of a
signal.
• Time shifting
• Time scaling
• Time reversal
• These are operate on independent variable t.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Time shifting
• The time-shifting operation delays or advances forward the input signal in time.

• These waveforms are identical except its location on time.

• Signals that are related in this fashion arise in applications such as radar, sonar,
and seismic signal processing, in which several receivers at different locations
observe a signal being transmitted through a medium (water, rock, air, etc.). In this
case, the difference in propagation time from the point of origin of the transmitted
signal to any two receivers' results in a time shift between the signals at the two
receivers.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Time scaling
• The time-scaling operation compresses or expands the input signal in the time
domain.
• A CT signal x(t) scaled by a factor c in the time domain is denoted by x(ct). If c > 1,
the signal is compressed by a factor of c. On the other hand, if
0 < c < 1 the signal is expanded.
• If we again think of the example of x(t) as a tape
recording, then x(2t) is that recording played at
twice the speed, and x(t/2) is the recording played
at half-speed

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Example

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Time reversal
• The signal x(-t) is obtained from the signal x(t) by a reflection about the vertical
axis t = 0.
• Thus, if x(t) represents an audio tape
recording, then x(-t) is the same tape recording
played backward.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Example

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Examples

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Simultaneous transformation
• All three function transformations, amplitude scaling, time scaling and time
shifting, can be applied simultaneously

• To understand the overall effect, it is usually best to break down a multiple change
into successive simple changes

𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑥 −𝑡 + 2 , 𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑥 −𝑡 → 𝑥 −(𝑡 − 2 )

𝑡 → −𝑡 𝑡 →𝑡−2

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Simultaneous shifting and scaling
𝑡+2
𝑔 𝑡 → −2𝑔 = 𝑧(𝑡)
4

−1 + 2
𝑡 = −1, 𝑧 −1 = −2𝑔 = −2𝑔 0.25 = −2
4
0+2
𝑡 = 0, 𝑧 0 = −2𝑔 = −2𝑔 0.5 = −2
4
1+2
𝑡 = 1, 𝑧 1 = −2𝑔 = −2𝑔 0.75 = 0
4

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Simultaneous shifting and scaling
𝑔 𝑡 → 3𝑔 −2𝑡 − 1 = 𝑧(𝑡)

𝑡 = −1, 𝑧 −1 = 3𝑔 −2 −1 − 1 = 3𝑔 1 = 3
𝑡 = −0.5, 𝑧 −0.5 = 3𝑔 −2 −0.5 − 1 = 3𝑔 0 = 1.5
𝑡 = 0, 𝑧 0 = 3𝑔 −2 0 − 1 = 3𝑔 −1 = 0
𝑡 = 1, 𝑧 1 = 3𝑔 −2 1 − 1 = 3𝑔 −3 = 0

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Mathematical Description of Signals
• In signal and system analysis, signals are described by mathematical functions.
• We will define some basic mathematical functions that can be used to describe
signals.
• These are
• Sinusoids
• Exponentials
• Signum Function
• Step Function
• Ramp Function
• The Impulse
• They not only serve as a basis for representing other signals, but their use can
simplify many aspects of the signals and systems.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Continuous-Time Sinusoids
• Real-valued sinusoids functions
should already be familiar.
• A is the amplitude, T0 is the
fundamental period, f0 is the
fundamental cyclic frequency
and w0 is the fundamental radian
frequency of the sinusoid, t is time.
All these parameters can be any real number.

() ( ) (
g t = Acos 2p t / T0 + q = Acos 2p f0t + q = Acos w 0t + q ) ( )
­ ­ ­ ­ ­
Amplitude Period Phase Shift Cyclic Radian
(s) (radians) Frequency Frequency
( Hz) (radians/s)

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Continuous-Time Sinusoids
• Sinusoidal signals are also used to describe the characteristics of many physical
processes - in particular, physical systems in which energy is conserved. For
example the natural response of an LC circuit is sinusoidal, as is the simple
harmonic motion of a mechanical system consisting of a mass connected by a
spring to a stationary support. The acoustic pressure variations corresponding to a
single musical tone are also sinusoidal.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QzC4z_7ucm0

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Continuous-Time exponential function
• A CT exponential function st , with complex frequency , is represented
by st ( )

• Since s* = (the conjugate of s), then

∗ ( )

and
∗ t

• Depending upon the presence or absence of the real and imaginary components,
there are two special cases of the complex exponential function.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Continuous-Time exponential function
• Case 1 Imaginary component of s = is zero ( )
the exponential function takes the following form: , which is referred to
as a real-valued exponential function.
• For σ = 0, the exponential function has a constant
value.
• For positive values of ( ), the exponential
function increases with time t and is referred to
as a rising exponential function. This is used
in describing many different physical processes,
including chain reactions in atomic explosions
and complex chemical reactions.
• When the value of σ is negative (σ < 0) then the
exponential function decays with increasing time t.
This is used to describe a wide variety of phenomena,
including the process of radioactive decay and the
responses of RC circuits and damped
mechanical systems.
Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Continuous-Time exponential function
• Case 2 Real component of s = is zero (σ = 0)
When the real component σ of the complex frequency s is zero, the exponential
function is represented by

This is complex sinusiod, the real and imaginary parts of the complex exponential
are pure sinusoids.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Example
• Plot real and imaginary components of the complex exponential .
for .
. . .

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 The unit step function
• This is unit step function.

• It is a very useful function. If we want a signal to start at t= 0 (so that it has a value
of zero for t < 0), we need only multiply the signal by u(t). For instance, the signal
e-at represents an everlasting exponential that starts at t=-∞. The causal form of this
exponential can be described as e-atu(t).

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 The unit step function
• The unit step can mathematically represent a common action in real physical
systems, fast switching from one state to another. In the circuit, the switch moves
from one position to the other at time t = 0.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 The unit step function
• A rectangular pulse can be expressed as the sum of the two delayed unit step
functions as shown in the figure.

𝑢(𝑡 − 2)

−𝑢(𝑡 − 4)

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 − 2 − 𝑢(𝑡 − 4)

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 The unit step function

7 7 7

0 0 0 0

7
1

0 0 0 0

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 The unit ramp function

• The unit ramp function is the integral of the unit-step function

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 The unit rectangle function

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 The unit impulse function
• The unit impulse function δ(t) is one of the most important functions in the study
of signals and systems. This is defined in terms of two properties as follows:

• We can visualize an impulse as a tall, narrow,

rectangular pulse of unit area.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Properties of impulse function
• Integrating a unit impulse function results in one, provided that the limits
of integration enclose the origin of the impulse. Mathematically

• When an arbitrary function is multiplied by a shifted impulse function,

the product is given by

Then

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Examples

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Combinations of functions
• In some cases a single mathematical function may completely describe a signal.
But often one function is not enough
for an accurate description. An
operation that allows versatility
in the mathematical representation
of arbitrary signals is combining two
or more functions. The combinations
can be sums, differences, products
and/or quotients of functions.

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Simultaneous shifting and scaling

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Examples

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Examples

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts
 Examples

Principles of Linear Systems and Signals by Lathi, Continuous and Discrete Time Signals and Systems by Mandal and Amir Asif, Signals and Systems by M. J. Roberts