CHAPTER

1 Vector Analysis

1.1 VECTOR ALGEBRA

1.1.1 Vector Operations

If you walk 4 miles due north and then 3 miles due east (Fig. 1.1), you will have
gone a total of 7 miles, but you’re not 7 miles from where you set out—you’re
only 5. We need an arithmetic to describe quantities like this, which evidently do
not add in the ordinary way. The reason they don’t, of course, is that displace-
ments (straight line segments going from one point to another) have direction
as well as magnitude (length), and it is essential to take both into account when
you combine them. Such objects are called vectors: velocity, acceleration, force
and momentum are other examples. By contrast, quantities that have magnitude
but no direction are called scalars: examples include mass, charge, density, and
temperature.
I shall use boldface (A, B, and so on) for vectors and ordinary type for scalars.
The magnitude of a vector A is written |A| or, more simply, A. In diagrams, vec-
tors are denoted by arrows: the length of the arrow is proportional to the magni-
tude of the vector, and the arrowhead indicates its direction. Minus A (−A) is a
vector with the same magnitude as A but of opposite direction (Fig. 1.2). Note that
vectors have magnitude and direction but not location: a displacement of 4 miles
due north from Washington is represented by the same vector as a displacement 4
miles north from Baltimore (neglecting, of course, the curvature of the earth). On
a diagram, therefore, you can slide the arrow around at will, as long as you don’t
change its length or direction.
We define four vector operations: addition and three kinds of multiplication.

3 mi

4
mi 5 mi
A −A

FIGURE 1.1 FIGURE 1.2

1
2 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

B −B

A (A+B) (B+A) A (A−B) A

FIGURE 1.3 FIGURE 1.4

(i) Addition of two vectors. Place the tail of B at the head of A; the sum,
A + B, is the vector from the tail of A to the head of B (Fig. 1.3). (This rule
generalizes the obvious procedure for combining two displacements.) Addition is
commutative:
A + B = B + A;
3 miles east followed by 4 miles north gets you to the same place as 4 miles north
followed by 3 miles east. Addition is also associative:
(A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
To subtract a vector, add its opposite (Fig. 1.4):
A − B = A + (−B).
(ii) Multiplication by a scalar. Multiplication of a vector by a positive scalar
a multiplies the magnitude but leaves the direction unchanged (Fig. 1.5). (If a is
negative, the direction is reversed.) Scalar multiplication is distributive:
a(A + B) = aA + aB.
(iii) Dot product of two vectors. The dot product of two vectors is defined by
A · B ≡ AB cos θ, (1.1)
where θ is the angle they form when placed tail-to-tail (Fig. 1.6). Note that A · B
is itself a scalar (hence the alternative name scalar product). The dot product is
commutative,
A · B = B · A,
and distributive,
A · (B + C) = A · B + A · C. (1.2)
Geometrically, A · B is the product of A times the projection of B along A (or
the product of B times the projection of A along B). If the two vectors are parallel,
then A · B = AB. In particular, for any vector A,
A · A = A2 . (1.3)
If A and B are perpendicular, then A · B = 0.
1.1 Vector Algebra 3

2A
A

A θ
B

FIGURE 1.5 FIGURE 1.6

Example 1.1. Let C = A − B (Fig. 1.7), and calculate the dot product of C with
itself.
Solution

C · C = (A − B) · (A − B) = A · A − A · B − B · A + B · B,

or

C 2 = A2 + B 2 − 2AB cos θ.

This is the law of cosines.

(iv) Cross product of two vectors. The cross product of two vectors is de-
fined by

A × B ≡ AB sin θ n̂, (1.4)

where n̂ is a unit vector (vector of magnitude 1) pointing perpendicular to the

plane of A and B. (I shall use a hat ( ˆ ) to denote unit vectors.) Of course, there
are two directions perpendicular to any plane: “in” and “out.” The ambiguity is
resolved by the right-hand rule: let your fingers point in the direction of the first
vector and curl around (via the smaller angle) toward the second; then your thumb
indicates the direction of n̂. (In Fig. 1.8, A × B points into the page; B × A points
out of the page.) Note that A × B is itself a vector (hence the alternative name
vector product). The cross product is distributive,

A × (B + C) = (A × B) + (A × C), (1.5)

but not commutative. In fact,

(B × A) = −(A × B). (1.6)

4 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

A C A

θ θ
B B

FIGURE 1.7 FIGURE 1.8

Geometrically, |A × B| is the area of the parallelogram generated by A and B

(Fig. 1.8). If two vectors are parallel, their cross product is zero. In particular,

A×A=0

for any vector A. (Here 0 is the zero vector, with magnitude 0.)

Problem 1.1 Using the definitions in Eqs. 1.1 and 1.4, and appropriate diagrams,
show that the dot product and cross product are distributive,
a) when the three vectors are coplanar;
! b) in the general case.

Problem 1.2 Is the cross product associative?

?
(A × B) × C = A × (B × C).

If so, prove it; if not, provide a counterexample (the simpler the better).

1.1.2 Vector Algebra: Component Form

In the previous section, I defined the four vector operations (addition, scalar mul-
tiplication, dot product, and cross product) in “abstract” form—that is, without
reference to any particular coordinate system. In practice, it is often easier to set
up Cartesian coordinates x, y, z and work with vector components. Let x̂, ŷ, and
ẑ be unit vectors parallel to the x, y, and z axes, respectively (Fig. 1.9(a)). An
arbitrary vector A can be expanded in terms of these basis vectors (Fig. 1.9(b)):

z z

A
z Azz
x Ax x
y y y

x (a) x Ayy (b)

FIGURE 1.9
1.1 Vector Algebra 5

A = A x x̂ + A y ŷ + A z ẑ.

The numbers A x , A y , and A z , are the “components” of A; geometrically, they

are the projections of A along the three coordinate axes (A x = A · x̂, A y = A · ŷ,
A z = A · ẑ). We can now reformulate each of the four vector operations as a rule
for manipulating components:

A + B = (A x x̂ + A y ŷ + A z ẑ) + (Bx x̂ + B y ŷ + Bz ẑ)

= (A x + Bx )x̂ + (A y + B y )ŷ + (A z + Bz )ẑ. (1.7)

Rule (i): To add vectors, add like components.

aA = (a A x )x̂ + (a A y )ŷ + (a A z )ẑ. (1.8)

Rule (ii): To multiply by a scalar, multiply each component.

Because x̂, ŷ, and ẑ are mutually perpendicular unit vectors,

x̂ · x̂ = ŷ · ŷ = ẑ · ẑ = 1; x̂ · ŷ = x̂ · ẑ = ŷ · ẑ = 0. (1.9)

Accordingly,

A · B = (A x x̂ + A y ŷ + A z ẑ) · (Bx x̂ + B y ŷ + Bz ẑ)

= A x B x + A y B y + A z Bz . (1.10)

Rule (iii): To calculate the dot product, multiply like components, and add.
In particular,

A · A = A2x + A2y + A2z ,

so

A= A2x + A2y + A2z . (1.11)

(This is, if you like, the three-dimensional generalization of the Pythagorean

theorem.)
Similarly,1
x̂ × x̂ = ŷ × ŷ = ẑ × ẑ = 0,
x̂ × ŷ = −ŷ × x̂ = ẑ,
ŷ × ẑ = −ẑ × ŷ = x̂,
ẑ × x̂ = −x̂ × ẑ = ŷ. (1.12)
1 These signs pertain to a right-handed coordinate system (x-axis out of the page, y-axis to the right,
z-axis up, or any rotated version thereof). In a left-handed system (z-axis down), the signs would be
reversed: x̂ × ŷ = −ẑ, and so on. We shall use right-handed systems exclusively.
6 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

Therefore,
A × B = (A x x̂ + A y ŷ + A z ẑ) × (Bx x̂ + B y ŷ + Bz ẑ) (1.13)
= (A y Bz − A z B y )x̂ + (A z Bx − A x Bz )ŷ + (A x B y − A y Bx )ẑ.
This cumbersome expression can be written more neatly as a determinant:
 
 x̂ ŷ ẑ 

A × B =  A x A y A z  . (1.14)
 B x B y Bz 

Rule (iv): To calculate the cross product, form the determinant whose first row
is x̂, ŷ, ẑ, whose second row is A (in component form), and whose third row is B.

Example 1.2. Find the angle between the face diagonals of a cube.
Solution
We might as well use a cube of side 1, and place it as shown in Fig. 1.10, with
one corner at the origin. The face diagonals A and B are
A = 1 x̂ + 0 ŷ + 1 ẑ; B = 0 x̂ + 1 ŷ + 1 ẑ.

z
(0, 0, 1)
B

θ
A (0, 1, 0)
y

x (1, 0, 0)

FIGURE 1.10

So, in component form,

A · B = 1 · 0 + 0 · 1 + 1 · 1 = 1.
On the other hand, in “abstract” form,
√ √
A · B = AB cos θ = 2 2 cos θ = 2 cos θ.
Therefore,
cos θ = 1/2, or θ = 60◦ .
Of course, you can get the answer more easily by drawing in a diagonal across
the top of the cube, completing the equilateral triangle. But in cases where the
geometry is not so simple, this device of comparing the abstract and component
forms of the dot product can be a very efficient means of finding angles.
 1.1 Vector Algebra 7

Problem 1.3 Find the angle between the body diagonals of a cube.

Problem 1.4 Use the cross product to find the components of the unit vector n̂
perpendicular to the shaded plane in Fig. 1.11.

1.1.3 Triple Products

Since the cross product of two vectors is itself a vector, it can be dotted or crossed
with a third vector to form a triple product.
(i) Scalar triple product: A · (B × C). Geometrically, |A · (B × C)| is the
volume of the parallelepiped generated by A, B, and C, since |B × C| is the area
of the base, and |A cos θ | is the altitude (Fig. 1.12). Evidently,

A · (B × C) = B · (C × A) = C · (A × B), (1.15)

for they all correspond to the same figure. Note that “alphabetical” order is
preserved—in view of Eq. 1.6, the “nonalphabetical” triple products,

A · (C × B) = B · (A × C) = C · (B × A),

have the opposite sign. In component form,

 
 Ax Ay Az 
 
A · (B × C) =  Bx By Bz .
 (1.16)
 Cx Cy Cz 

Note that the dot and cross can be interchanged:

A · (B × C) = (A × B) · C

(this follows immediately from Eq. 1.15); however, the placement of the parenthe-
ses is critical: (A · B) × C is a meaningless expression—you can’t make a cross
product from a scalar and a vector.

z
3
n

A
n
2 y θ
1 C
x B

FIGURE 1.11 FIGURE 1.12

8 Chapter 1 Vector Analysis

(ii) Vector triple product: A × (B × C). The vector triple product can be
simplified by the so-called BAC-CAB rule:

A × (B × C) = B(A · C) − C(A · B). (1.17)

Notice that

(A × B) × C = −C × (A × B) = −A(B · C) + B(A · C)

is an entirely different vector (cross-products are not associative). All higher vec-
tor products can be similarly reduced, often by repeated application of Eq. 1.17,
so it is never necessary for an expression to contain more than one cross product
in any term. For instance,
(A × B) · (C × D) = (A · C)(B · D) − (A · D)(B · C);
A × [B × (C × D)] = B[A · (C × D)] − (A · B)(C × D). (1.18)

Problem 1.5 Prove the BAC-CAB rule by writing out both sides in component
form.

Problem 1.6 Prove that

[A × (B × C)] + [B × (C × A)] + [C × (A × B)] = 0.

Under what conditions does A × (B × C) = (A × B) × C?

1.1.4 Position, Displacement, and Separation Vectors

The location of a point in three dimensions can be described by listing its
Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z). The vector to that point from the origin (O)
is called the position vector (Fig. 1.13):

r ≡ x x̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ. (1.19)

z
Source point

r r
(x, y, z)
r r⬘
z
y r Field point
O O
x
x y

FIGURE 1.13 FIGURE 1.14

1.1 Vector Algebra 9

I will reserve the letter r for this purpose, throughout the book. Its magnitude,

r = x 2 + y2 + z2, (1.20)

is the distance from the origin, and

r x x̂ + y ŷ + z ẑ
r̂ = = (1.21)
r x 2 + y2 + z2
is a unit vector pointing radially outward. The infinitesimal displacement vector,
from (x, y, z) to (x + d x, y + dy, z + dz), is

dl = d x x̂ + dy ŷ + dz ẑ. (1.22)

(We could call this dr, since that’s what it is, but it is useful to have a special
notation for infinitesimal displacements.)
In electrodynamics, one frequently encounters problems involving two
points—typically, a source point, r , where an electric charge is located, and
a field point, r, at which you are calculating the electric or magnetic field
(Fig. 1.14). It pays to adopt right from the start some short-hand notation for
the separation vector from the source point to the field point. I shall use for this
purpose the script letter r:

r ≡ r − r . (1.23)

Its magnitude is

r = |r − r |, (1.24)

and a unit vector in the direction from r to r is

r r − r
r̂ = = . (1.25)
r |r − r |
In Cartesian coordinates,

r = (x − x  )x̂ + (y − y  )ŷ + (z − z  )ẑ, (1.26)


r = (x − x  )2 + (y − y  )2 + (z − z  )2 , (1.27)

(x − x  )x̂ + (y − y  )ŷ + (z − z  )ẑ

r̂ =  (1.28)
(x − x  )2 + (y − y  )2 + (z − z  )2
(from which you can appreciate the economy of the script-r notation).

Problem 1.7 Find the separation vector r from the source point (2,8,7) to the field
point (4,6,8). Determine its magnitude (r), and construct the unit vector r̂.