Ch- 4: Methods of Data Collection

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 SOURCES OF
INFORMATION

• Data is collected by • Data collected,

researcher himself compiled or
• Data is gathered written by other
through Researchers or
questionnaire, agency
interviews,
observations etc.
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Secondary Sources of data
 The researcher, before using secondary data, must
see the following characteristics.
– Reliability of data:
– Suitability of data:
– Adequacy of data:
Sources of Secondary Data
– Books
– Periodicals
– Government documents
– Organizational reports
– Company publications
– Personal documents (historical studies)
– Others
– Local sources MoFED, CSA,NBE
– International sources WB, IMF, UN,ADB 3
Advantages of Secondary data
• Secondary sources can usually be found
more quickly and cheaply.
• Most research on past events or distant
places has to rely on secondary data
sources.
• It has great exploratory value
 It may be very accurate.
– When especially a government agency has
collected the data, incredible amounts of
time and money went into it. It’s probably
highly accurate.

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 Limitations
 The information often does not meet one’s
specific needs.
– Definitions might differ, units of
measurements may be different and
different time periods may be involved.
 It is difficult to assess the accuracy of the
information b/c one knows little about the
research design or the conditions under
which the research took place.
 Data could also be out of date.
– A study made five years ago may not be
relevant today

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 Primary data
 Primary data – data you collect
– collected afresh and for the first time and
thus happen to be original in character
 Primary data can be collected through
– Experimentation or
– Surveys
Limitations
– Do you have the time and money?
– Uniqueness: May not be able to compare
to other populations

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 Qualitative and Quantitative approaches
 There are two approaches to primary data collection:
– the qualitative approach and
– the quantitative approach
 Quantitative data collection methods produce numbers.
–Harder to develop but Easier to analyze
–want to conduct statistical analysis
–want to be precise
–know what you want to measure
–want to cover a large group
–more structured and allow for aggregation and generalization.
 Qualitative data collection methods produce words.
 Qualitative methods are more open and provide for
- depth and richness.
- want narrative or in-depth information

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 Quantitative and Qualitative
"Not everything that counts can be counted."

Quantitative Qualitative
methods methods
Surveys Focus groups
Questionnair
es
Tests/Experi Unstructured
ments interviews
and
5 (Quantity) Happy observation
(Quality) Kids Case studies

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 Methods of data collection
OBSERVATION METHOD
 Observation: A systematic method of data
collection that relies on a researcher’s ability to
gather data through their senses
 most commonly used method of data collection
especially, in behavioral studies
 Observation includes the full range of monitoring
behavioral and non-behavioral activities
 See what is happening
– traffic patterns
– layout of city and rural areas
– quality of housing
– condition of roads
– who goes to a health clinic
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 Observation...
 To notice using a full range of appropriate senses
 Filtering Observations

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 Observation is Helpful when:
 the subjects are not capable of giving
verbal reports of their feelings
 need direct information
 trying to understand ongoing behavior
 there is physical evidence, products, or
outputs than can be observed
 need to provide alternative when other
data collection is infeasible or
inappropriate
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 Types of observation
 Based on degree of structure
– Structured: Highly systematic and often rely on
predetermined criteria related to the people,
events, practices, issues, behaviours, actions,
situations, and phenomena being observed.
– Semi-structured: Observers generally use some
manner of observation schedule or checklist to
organize observations, but also attempt to
observe and record the unplanned and/or the
unexpected.
– Unstructured: Observers attempt to observe
and record data without predetermined criteria.

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 Types of observation
Depending on the nature of the observer
 Secretive - where the subjects of the study
are unaware that they are being observed
 Non-participant: where the subjects of the
study are aware that they are being
observed but the observer takes no part in
the behavior being observed.
 Participant: In this role, the researcher is,
or becomes, a part of the team, community,
or cultural group they are observing i.e.
when the subject and the observer interact.

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Advantages of observation method
 subjective bias is eliminated, if observation
is done accurately
 the information obtained relates to what is
currently happening; it is not complicated by
either the past behavior or future intentions
or attitudes
 it is independent of respondents’ willingness
to respond and as such is relatively less
demanding of active cooperation on the part
of respondents

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 Limitations
 expensive: requires either human
observers or some type of costly
surveillance equipment
 the information obtained is limited ;
 Limited as a way to learn about the past,
or difficult to gather information on such
topics as intensions, attitudes, opinions
and preferences.

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 Surveys
 Surveying involves gathering information from
individuals using a questionnaire
 Surveys can
– reach a large number of respondents
– generate standardized, quantifiable, empirical data -
as well as some qualitative data
– and offer confidentiality / anonymity
 Designing survey instruments capable of generating
credible data, however, can be difficult
Basic Survey Types
 Surveys can be administered in a number of ways:
– Face to face interview; Telephone interview; Self-
administered questionnaire (schedules)
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 Survey Construction
 Survey construction involves
– formulating questions and response
categories
– writing up background information and
instruction
– working through organization and length
– determining layout and design

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1. Open-ended Questions 2. Close-ended Questions
It ask respondents to – respondents to choose from a
construct answers using their range of predetermined
responses
own words.
– Free-response – Dichotomous question
(Text Open End) – Multiple-choice
– Fill-in relevant – Rank, categorical
information – Scale, numerical
Essentials of a good questionnaire ,catagorical
• Questionnaire should: – Categorical
 be short and simple – Numerical
 proceed in logical sequence moving from easy to more
difficult
 Avoid jargons
 Avoid leading questions
 leave personal questions to the end
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 Recording Responses
 Note taking - this can range from highly
structured to open and interpretive.
 Audio recording - audio recording
allows you to preserve raw data for
review at a later date.
 Video taping - video taping offers the
added bonus of being able to record
visual cues, but is more intrusive; is
prone to more technical difficulties; and
can generate data that is hard to analyse.

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 Modes of Survey Administration

 Questionnaire
 Personal interview
 Telephone interview
Questionnaire
 Quite popular, particularly in case of big inquiries
 self-administered
 a questionnaire can also be sent by post or
delivered in person

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The merits of questionnaire
 it is free from the bias of the interviewer
 respondents have adequate time to give well thought
out answers
 respondents who are not easily approachable can also
be reached conveniently
The demerits of questionnaire
 it can be used only when respondents are educated and
cooperating
 the control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent
 there is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of
amending the approach once questionnaires have been
dispatched
 There is also possibility of ambiguous replies or omission
of replies altogether to certain questions
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 Personal Interview
 Interviewing involves asking respondents a
series of open-ended questions
 Personal interview requires a person
(interviewer) asking questions in a face-to-
face contact to the interviewee.
 Interviews can generate both standardized
quantifiable data, and more in-depth
qualitative data
 However, the complexities of people and the
complexities of communication can create
many opportunities for miscommunication
and misinterpretation

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 Types of personal interview
 Structured: Pre-established questions
 Unstructured: draw out information without the use of pre-
established questions
 Semi-Structured: A mixture of both strategies

Formal: A formal interview is just that, formal. Perhaps the best

analogy is the classic job interview that includes: the office
setting; the formal handshake; appropriate attire; order and
structure; and best professional behavior.

Informal: An informal interview attempts to ignore the rules

and roles associated with interviewing in an attempt to
establish rapport, gain trust, and create a more natural
environment conducive to open and honest communication.

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 Conducting the Interview
Important considerations in interviewing are:
– thorough planning
– considered preparation of an interview
schedule and recording system
– Presentation of self
 Preliminaries
– Be on time!
– Set up and check equipment
– Establish rapport (r/p)
– Introduce the study
– Explain ethics
 Occasional field checks should be made

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 Advantages of personal interviews

 More info and in greater depth

 The interviewer by his own skill can
overcome the resistance.
 There is greater flexibility esp..
unstructured
 personal information can be obtained easily
 non-response generally remains very low
 the language of the interview can be
adopted to the ability of the respondent

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Limitations of personal interview
 It is very expensive
 Bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent
 Certain types of respondents may not be
easily approachable
 It is relatively more time consuming

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 Telephone interviews
 contacting respondents on telephone
 but plays important part in industrial surveys,
particularly in developed countries
Merits of telephone interview
 It is faster ,cheaper, recall is easy, easy recorded,
no filed staff is required than other methods

Demerits of telephone interview

 Little time
– Surveys are restricted to respondents who
have telephone facilities
– It is not suitable for intensive surveys
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 CASE STUDY METHOD
 Case study is a method of in depth study
 more emphasis is given on the full analysis
of a limited number of events or conditions
and their interrelations.
 Schedules are particular types of
questionnaire.
 These methods are very much like
collection of data through questionnaires,
with little difference.
 Enumerator along with schedule
(questionnaires), goes to the respondent
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Importance of enumerator
 Interview survey attains higher response rate than
mail survey. I.e., a properly executed interview
survey can achieve a return rate of at least 80-
85%.
 The presence of enumerator generally decrease the
number of “don’t knows’ and “no answers”
 Enumerator can also reduce confusion of
questionnaires item.
 Clarification must be strictly controlled The
enumerator can observe as well as ask question
 Enumerator can also reduce confusion of
questionnaires item.
 Clarification must be strictly controlled The
enumerator can observe as well as ask question
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General Rule for Interviewing
a) Appearance and Demeanor
– As a general rule, the interviewer should
dress in a fashion similar to that of the
people he will be interviewing.
– Richly dressed enumerator will probably have
difficulty in getting good cooperation from
poor respondent.
– Poorly dressed enumerator will have similar
difficulties with richer respondent.
b) Familiarity with questionnaires
 If the enumerator is not familiar with the
questionnaires, the study suffers

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 …cont’d
c) Record responses exactly:
 No attempt should be made to summarize, rephrase or
correct bad grammar.
d) Probing responses:
 Sometimes the respondent will respond to a question
with inappropriate answer. Here the better probe is that
asking “anything else”.
e) Enumerators should be trained in areas of:
– General description (sponsors, objectives…)
– questionnaires and specifications
– questionnaires and other specifications
– Practice interviewers in the field (Pilot survey)
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Focus Group Discussion
 A focus group is a situation where a focus group
moderator or researcher select a small and
homogeneous group (of 6-12 people).
 Conduct the discussion on a research topic or issue.
 Focus group sessions generally last between one and
three hours and
 The discussion is recorded using audio and/or
videotapes.
 Focus groups are useful for exploring ideas and
obtaining in-depth information about how people think
about an issue
 FGD in combination with other methods, will help us to
apply the fundamental principle of mixed research. 32
Strengths of Focus Groups Discussion

 Useful for exploring ideas and concepts.

 Provides window into participants‟ internal
thinking.
 Can obtain in-depth information.
 Can examine how participants react to each
other.
 Allows probing.
 Most content can be tapped.
 Allows quick turnaround

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Weaknesses of FGD
 Sometimes expensive.
 May be difficult to find a focus group moderator with good
facilitative and rapport building skills.
 May be dominated by one or two participants.
 Difficult to generalize results if small, unrepresentative
samples of participants are used.
 May include large amount of extra or unnecessary
information.
 Measurement of validity may be low.
 Usually should not be the only data collection methods
used in a study.
 Data analysis can be time consuming because of the
open-ended nature of the data.

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 Examples
1. Information from primary sources include/
interviewing community inhabitants to and out their
attitudes towards health services, using
questionnaires to determine the level of job
satisfaction of employees in an organization,
observing students behaviors in class etc
2. of secondary sources include the use of
population census data to obtain information on
age, sex, structure of a population, use of
organizations records, use of hospitals records, and
collection of data from sources such as journals,
magazines, books and other periodicals.
Which method shall I use?

There is no simple answer

There is no ONE best method

It all depends on…
• Nature, scope and object of inquiry
• Availability of funds
• Time
• Precision required

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