CHAPTER 3: CLAUSES

Aims of Chapter 3

•Students can identify what a clause is.

•Students can identify forms of different
types of clauses.
•Students can identify functions of
different types of clauses.
•What is a clause?
•What are different types of clauses?
•Give examples of different types of
clauses.
 I. Definition
A clause
• is a group of words that includes a subject and a
verb
• forms a simple sentence or part of a non-simple
sentence
For example:
The children are playing on the beach.
When he saw his mother, he burst into tears.
 II. Types of clauses

1. Co-ordinate Clauses

2. Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses

EX
 1. Co-ordinate Clauses
• are parts of a sentence
• are of equal importance in the sentence
• are joined by a coordinating conjunction (AND, BUT, OR,
NOR, SO, FOR, YET)
For example:
• You can travel by bus, you can drive or you can take the
train.
• I need life insurance, I need a vacation, I need a home in
this city.
2. Main Clauses and Subordinate Clauses
 2.1. Main Clause
•is sometimes known as an independent
clause
• usually expresses a complete thought
•can stand alone as a sentence
For example:
We can all go for ice cream if I can find my
wallet.
My sister who lives in Moscow is getting
married.
 2.1. Main Clause
but if the slot filled by the subordinate clause is an
obligatory slot, the main clause cannot form a
complete sentence
For example:
What you say sounds very encouraging.
I did not know that you were here.
I know what you did last summer.
The underlined clauses are main clauses but
cannot stand alone to form complete sentences.
 2.2. Subordinate Clause
- does not express a complete thought and cannot stand
alone as a separate grammatical entity
- depends on the main clause
- gives additional information to the main clause
For example:
We can all go for ice cream if I can find my wallet.
My sister who lives in Moscow is getting married.
What you say sounds very encouraging.
I did not know that you were here.
I know what you did last summer.
 2.3. Types of Subordinate Clauses

•Noun Clauses
•Relative Clauses
•Adverbial Clauses
•Non-finite Clauses
•Verbless Clauses
•Ellipsis
Work in groups, answering the questions.

1.What is a noun clause?

2.What are functions of a noun clause?
Give examples.
 2.3.1. Noun Clause
2.3.1.1. Definition
• is a subordinate clause
• can have the same function or fill the same slot in a
sentence as a noun (phrase) or pronoun
• may begin with
+ the subordinating conjunction that, if, whether, how, when,
where and why
+ the interrogative pronouns who, whose, what and which
+ the interrogative determiners what, which and whose
 2.3.1. Noun Clause
2.3.1.1. Definition
For example:
I was confused about her speech. (Noun phrase)
I was confused about what she said.
His arrival at the party surprised me. (Noun phrase)
That he arrived at the party surprised me.
Take whichever you need.
I’ll give whoever answers the question correctly a
prize.
 2.3.1. Noun Clause
2.3.1.2. Functions of Noun Clauses
- The subject of the sentence
What he said was unforgettable.
That he came to class late was quite unusual.
- The direct object
I didn’t know that he used to live in my neighborhood.
- The indirect object
He offered whoever came to the shop on the opening day
a discount.
 2.3.1. Noun Clause
2.3.1.2. Functions of Noun Clauses
- The subject complement
The problem is that he is frightened of being home
alone at night.
- The object complement
You can call him whatever you like.
- The complement of a preposition
The policemen came into whatever house they
suspected there were criminals.
 Group work (5-6 students)
Answer some of the following questions by making sentences in which noun
clauses have different functions.
1. Should students be able to grade their teachers?
2. Does gym help students perform better in all their classes?
3. Does technology make us more alone?
4. Is online learning as good as face-to-face learning?
5. What role will robots play in our future?
6. Do boys have less intense friendships than girls?
7. When do you become an adult?
8. Is it good to eat meat?
9. Can money buy you happiness?
Work individually, answering the questions.

1.What is a relative clause?

2.Give examples of relative clauses.
3.What are functions of a relative clause?
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.1. Definition & Characteristics
- is a subordinate clause
- identifies someone or something or provides
information about them
- is sometimes called an adjectival clause because, like
an adjective, it modifies or describes a noun.
- is introduced by a relative pronoun or a conjunction
like where, when and why
- functions as an adjectival modifier (modifies the
preceding noun)
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.1. Definition & Characteristics
For example:
1. He needs someone whom / who he can trust.
2. I have a friend whose mom is a doctor.
3. She's going to the museum, which is full of
interesting artifacts.
4. Let's go to a theme park where there are lots of
rollercoasters.
5. I like to sit in the garden on the day when it's sunny.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.1. Definition & Characteristics
- The relative pronoun may be preceded by a
preposition.
Can you see the man to whom she is speaking?
- The relative pronoun may be preceded by both a
preposition and a word such as some, several, all,
both, most, etc. or a number.
She was attacked by a group of boys, most of whom
were in their teens.
I bought a dozen eggs, five of which were broken on
my way home.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.1. Definition & Characteristics
When can a relative pronoun be omitted?
- The relative pronoun who / whom, which or that
can be omitted when it functions as the object of
the relative clause.
For example:
She is the woman (who/that) I always admire.
Is this the book (that/which) you are looking for?
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.1. Definition & Characteristics
-But if they are the subject of the clause, they
cannot be omitted.
Is that the man who wrote this report?
He is interested in the book which is about
natural disasters.
He likes the picture that is painted by an Italian
artist.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.2. Reduced Relative Clauses
Is that the man who wrote this report?
He is interested in the book which is about natural
disasters.
He likes the picture that is painted by an Italian artist.
→
Is that the man writing this report?
He is interested in the book about natural disasters.
He likes the picture painted by an Italian artist.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.3. Restrictive and Non-restrictive Relative Clauses

1. Her mother, who works in a bank, is very easy-

going.
2. She doesn’t like the guy who lives next to her
house.
3. Please return the book I lent you last week.
4. That is his favorite book, which is about
dinosaurs.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.3. Restrictive and Non-restrictive Relative Clauses
A restrictive clause identifies or describes a particular
person / thing.
Please return the book I lent you last week.
She doesn’t like the guy who lives next to her house.
A non-restrictive clause doesn’t identify or describe a
particular person / thing but provide some further
information about them.
Her mother, who works in a bank, is very easy-going.
That is his favorite book, which is about dinosaurs.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.4. That as a Subordinating Conjunction and
as a Relative Pronoun
Relative Pronoun: has an antecedent
This is the book that she is looking for.
Subordinating Conjunction: has no antecedent
They said that they wanted to go back to their
home country.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.4. That as a Subordinating Conjunction and
as a Relative Pronoun
Relative Pronoun: can be replaced by which / who
/ whom
This is the book which she is looking for.
Subordinating Conjunction: cannot be replaced
by which / who / whom
They said that they wanted to go back to their
home country.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.4. That as a Subordinating Conjunction and
as a Relative Pronoun
Subordinating Conjunction: what follows it can
make a complete statement
They said that they wanted to go back to their
home country.
Relative Pronoun: what follows it cannot make a
complete statement
This is the book that she is looking for.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.5. Appositive Clause vs. Relative Clause
Appositive Clauses provide information about a
preceding noun such as belief, thought, saying,
possibility, and feeling.
The belief that the world is flat was widespread in
the Middle Ages.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.5. Appositive Clause vs. Relative Clause
In an appositive clause, that is a subordinating
conjunction, so cannot be replaced by which.
I have a feeling that something is wrong.
In a relative clause, that is a relative pronoun, so
it can be replaced by which.
I don’t like the feeling that / which I have when I
stay home alone.
 2.3.2. Relative Clause
2.3.2.5. Appositive Clause vs. Relative Clause
In an appositive clause, the words that follow that
make a complete statement.
I have a feeling that something is wrong.
In a relative clause, the words that follow that do
not make a complete statement.
I don’t like the feeling that I have when I stay home
alone.
Work in groups, answering the questions.

1.What is an adverbial clause?

2.What are different types of adverbial
clauses?
3.What are functions of an adverbial
clause? Give examples.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.1. Definition
-An adverbial clause is a subordinate clause that
functions as an adverbial in the main clause.
-Call me as soon as you get home.
- An adverbial clause can be modified by adverbs.
She left just before you came in.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2. Types of Adverbial Clauses
1. Adverbial clause of time
2. Adverbial clause of place
3. Adverbial clause of manner
4. Adverbial clause of reason
5. Adverbial clause of purpose
6. Adverbial clause of result
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2. Types of Adverbial Clauses
7. Adverbial clause of concession /
Adverbial clause of contrast
8. Comment clause
9. Adverbial clause of comparison
10. Adverbial clause of proportion
11. Adverbial clause of condition
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.1. Adverbial clause of time
-is a subordinate clause that says when
something happens
-is introduced by conjunctions such as after,
as, as soon as, before, once, since, till, until,
when, whenever or while
For example:
I’ll come when I’m ready.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.2. Adverbial clause of place
-is a subordinate clause that says where
something happens
-is introduced by conjunctions where and
wherever
For example:
People often buy a house where they work.
You can go wherever you want.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.3. Adverbial clause of manner
-is a subordinate clause that says how
something happens
-is introduced by conjunctions such as as, as
if, as though, how, however and like
For example:
I didn’t do like I intended.
She is dressing as though it were winter.
You must do it exactly as I told you.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.4. Adverbial clause of reason
- tells you why something happens or why it should
happen
- is introduced by conjunctions such as as, because,
in case, seeing, seeing as, seeing that and since
For example:
1. Since I have a lot of homework to do, I can’t go
with you.
2. She had to support him, seeing that she had
chosen him herself against the opinion of many.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.5. Adverbial clause of purpose
- tells you why something is happening
- states the aim or purpose of it rather than the reason
for it or cause of it
- is introduced by conjunctions such as so, so that
and in order that
For example:
Wear sunglasses so your eyes can be protected.
He decided to study Korean so that he can
communicate with his boss.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.6. Adverbial clause of result
-tells you what results from something happening
-is introduced by that and is linked to a so or
such in the main clause
For example:
He was so tired that he couldn’t walk an inch.
This is such a difficult exercise that it took me
much time to solve it.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.7. Adverbial clause of concession / contrast
- is introduced by conjunctions such as although, even if,
even though, however, no matter what/who/where etc.,
though, whatever, wherever, while, whilst, whoever,
whereas and whether…or
- may imply that there is something surprising about what
is said in the main clause in the light of what is being said
in the subordinate clause
For example:
However she tries, she’ll never please the people
surrounding her.
She decided to leave him no matter what he did for her.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.7. Adverbial clause of concession / contrast
- may make a contrast with something said in the
main clause

For example:
He is an outstanding footballer whereas his
brother doesn’t know how to kick a soccer ball.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.8. Comment clause
- functions as a disjunct or a conjunct and makes
some comment on what is said in the main clause
For example:
As you know, she has a passionate interest in
music.
The moon is, as it is well known, closer to the
earth than the sun.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.9. Adverbial clause of comparison
-is used to make a comparison between
something mentioned in the main clause and
something in the subordinate clause
- is introduced by as or than
For example:
He runs much faster than his brother does.
Life in his hometown is not as easy as it used to
be.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.10. Adverbial clause of proportion
- indicates that the more or less one thing
happens, so the more or less something else
happens
For example:
The more we destroy the environment, the worse
our lives will become.
As the wind became more and more violent, so it
rained more and more heavily.
 2.3.3. Adverbial Clause
2.3.3.2.11. Adverbial clause of condition
-states the conditions or circumstances that are
necessary for what is talked about in the main
clause to happen or apply
- is introduced by conjunctions such as as long
as, if, on condition that, provided (that),
providing (that), so long as and unless
 2.3.3.2.11. Adverbial clause of condition
First conditionals
- states simple facts about what will or may
happen in the future if something else happens or
unless something else happens
- The main clauses may also be imperatives.
For example:
If you don’t want to fail the exam, study harder.
 2.3.3.2.11. Adverbial clause of condition
Second conditionals
- express greater uncertainty than first
conditionals , unreal or hypothetical conditions,
and imagined situations
For example:
If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't
have his number now, so it's impossible for me to
call him).
If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I
probably won't win the lottery)
 2.3.3.2.11. Adverbial clause of condition
Third conditionals
- refer to something that has not happened or was
not the case
For example:
If you had worked harder, you would have passed
your exam.
I would have believed you if you hadn't lied to me
before.
Work in groups, answering the questions.

1.What is a non-finite clause?

2.What are functions of a non-finite
clause? Give examples.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.1. Revision of Finite and Non-finite Verbs
-A finite verb is one that agrees with its subject.
For example:
My sister has a pair of new shoes.
-Non-finite verbs are verbs that do not have to
agree with a subject.
-Infinitives, present participles and past
participles, and verbal nouns are non-finite
verbs.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.1. Revision of Finite and Non-finite Verbs
To buy (non-finite) a new car, they need (finite) to
save (non-finite) more money.
Seeing (non-finite) me from a far distance, he
waved (finite) his arm to greet (non-finite) me.
Exhausted (non-finite) from the hard-working
day, he couldn’t walk (finite) an inch.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.2. Definition and Features of Non-finite Clauses
-is a subordinate clause that has only a non-finite
verb, and no finite verb in it
- may be formed with a to-infinitive
For example:
He wanted to go home soon.
He decided to study English in order to get a good
job.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.2. Definition and Features of Non-finite Clauses
-may be formed with a bare infinitive
For example:
All he wanted to do is go home as soon as
possible.
Her mother had that man repair her car.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.2. Definition and Features of Non-finite Clauses
- may be formed with a participle
For example:
The young man arrested yesterday is from
Scotland.
Walking along the street, I ran into a high school
friend of mine.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.2. Definition and Features of Non-finite Clauses
- may be formed with a verbal noun
For example:
He kept on talking during the class.
Because of missing the bus, she got to the
morning’s class late.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.3. Functions of Non-finite Clauses

Non-finite Clauses function as noun clauses,

adverbial clauses or relative clauses and have the
same functions in sentences as other subordinate
clauses.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.3. Functions of Non-finite Clauses
-The subject
For example:
Reading books is one of his favorite things to do.
The direct object
He loves reading books in his free time.
She wanted her son to study abroad.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.3. Functions of Non-finite Clauses
The indirect object
For example:
He gave writing this book a lot of thoughts.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.3. Functions of Non-finite Clauses
-The subject complement
For example:
The biggest problem is to decide on which place to
celebrate their anniversary.
-The object complement
They elected her to be the spokesperson.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.3. Functions of Non-finite Clauses
- The object of preposition
For example:
Without knowing the answer, the student remained silent for
more than 5 minutes.
He kept on talking during the class.
Because of missing the bus, she got to the morning’s class
late.
- Adverbial
He took the English course in order to get a promotion at
the workplace.
To be honest, I don’t want to reply to his email.
 2.3.4. Non-finite Clause
2.3.4.3. Functions of Non-finite Clauses
-Adjectival modifier
For example:
The man giving the speech is the city’s mayor.
The house built by his grandparents needs
repairing.
Work in groups, answering the questions.

1.What is a verbless clause?

2.What are functions of a verbless clause?
Give examples.
Thank you!