Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/IJISRT24MAR246

Temperature-Energy Relationships and Spatial

Distribution Analysis for Nano-Enhanced Phase
Change Materials Via Thermal Energy Storage
Florence Awuor Misawo1; Fredrick O. Nyamwala2 Thomas T. O. Onyango3
Department of Mathematics School of Biological & Physical Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics,
Science Moi University, Eldoret Kenya Technical University of Kenya

Abstract:- Despite the abundance and affordability of challenge to its use in the dark. Solar radiation is intermittent,
solar energy, its adoption in industrial and domestic irregular in nature and its storage is essential in order to
sectors, especially in developing countries, still needs to optimize its usage.
be improved. This study addresses the gap by proposing
integrated storage systems to align energy supply and Collection of solar energy is done by the use of a
demand, essential for various industrial processes. parabolic trough as shown in Figure 1. This is then directed
Investigating Nano-enhanced Phase Change Material to a focal point where the receiver stands to absorb it. Vapor
(PCM), the research formulates governing equations for is generated in the heat absorber at the focal point of the
the phase change process, explores numerical parabolic concentrator and condensed in a coiled tube, which
simulations using MATLAB's Finite Volume Method, is casted into an aluminum plate [22]. Heat transfer is by a
and validates models. The PCM comprises a solid salt thermo-syphon principle, with water as the working fluid at
mixture with Sodium Chloride Nanoparticles. The about 35-bar pressure. The heating plate has heat-conducting
analysis of nano-enhanced PCMs for thermal energy rods extended into a phase change storage system (Nitrate
storage focuses on understanding the interrelationship mixture). Thermal energy is stored in the form of Latent heat
between temperature, energy, and nanoparticle which the research is based via Partial Differential Equations
distribution within the PCM. Visuals based on 3D (PDEs).
surface plots and scatter plots illustrate how energy
storage characteristics vary with temperature and
spatial variables, identifying phase change temperatures
and energy absorption/release points. These
visualizations guide PCM optimization for improved
thermal conductivity and heat capacity, which is crucial
for diverse applications like solar energy systems and
thermal management in electronics. Nano-enhanced
PCM performance can be further enhanced by
employing advanced numerical methods and simulation
tools for accurate prediction and optimization before
experimental validation.

Keywords:- Nano-Enhanced Phase Change Materials;

Phase Change Process; Energy Storage; Finite Volume
Method. Fig 1: Illustration on Collection and Storage of
Solar Energy
I. INTRODUCTION
The basic mechanisms of heat transfer are conduction,
A. Background Information convection and radiation [36]. Conduction is the transfer of
The quest for clean, sustainable sources of energy is energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to
becoming more popular with the concerns over global the adjacent less energetic ones as a result of interaction
warming [32]. Scientists have established that carbon between particles. Convection is the mode of heat transfer
dioxide emissions, from the use of fossil fuels contribute to between a solid surface and adjacent liquid or gas which is
the greenhouse effect. Solar energy is unlimited and in motion and it involves the combined effects of conduction
harnessing it for heating and electricity is pollution free. and fluid motion. According to [34], transfer of solar energy
Development of solar energy equipment among them being by radiation is where the energy emitted by matter is in the
solar cookers can help our environment by decreasing form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
emissions [17]. In addition, solar energy is renewable and changes of the electronics configuration of the atoms or
readily available. One major drawback in harnessing is its molecules.
availability only during sunshine, presenting major

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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There are three forms of heat energy storage namely Alot of studies have been performed on PCMs for the
sensible heat, latent heat and thermo-chemical or last three decades which are found to be very interesting due
combination of these [12]. Sensible heat storage (SHS) is a to their ability to store large amount of energy as latent heat
criterion for storing thermal energy by raising the at a constant phase transition temperature [46, 5, 39, 40].
temperature of a solid or liquid [6]. SHS system utilizes heat However, some of disadvantages such as low thermal
capacity and change in temperature of the material during the conductivity which impedes high rate of charge and
process of charging and discharging. The amount of heat discharge of heat flux were observed. The PCMs have many
stored depends on the specific heat of the medium, the useful properties including heat source at constant
temperature change and the amount of storage material. temperature, heat recovery with small temperature drop,
high storage density, melting point which matches the
Total enthalpy H is computed as the sum of the sensible applications, low vapor pressure (1 bar) at the operational
enthalpy, h and the latent heat △ 𝐻 [44] temperature, and chemical stability and non-corrosiveness.

𝐻 = ℎ +△ 𝐻 (1) The choice of PCM is based on the melting

temperature, the latent heat of fusion, density and other
Where considerations such as toxicity, corrosiveness and cost [15].
As one of the goals of latent energy storage is to achieve a
𝑇 high storage density in a relatively small volume, PCMs
ℎ = ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑓 + ∫𝑇 𝐶𝑝 𝑑𝑇 (2)
𝑟𝑒𝑓 should have a high melting enthalpy 𝑘𝐽/𝐾𝑔 and a high
density (𝐾𝑔/𝑚2 ), that is, a high volumetric melting
In quation (2) ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑓 and 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 denote the reference enthalpy [16]. No single material can have all the required
enthalpy and reference temperature respectively, 𝐶𝑝 properties for an ideal thermal storage media [30]. Practical
represents the specific heat. △ 𝐻 = 𝑓1 𝐿, where L is the latent difficulties include; low thermal conductivity, density
heat of PCM and 𝑓1 is the liquid fraction. change, stability of properties under extended cycling, phase
segregation and sub-cooling of PCM. Among the materials
Latent heat storage (LHS) is based on the heat for phase change are Sodium Nitrate (melting point 3080 𝐶,
absorption or release when a storage material undergoes a density 2.26𝑔/𝑐𝑚3, specific heat 93.05𝑗/(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐾) and
phase change from solid to liquid or liquid to gas or vice Potassium Nitrate (melting point 334 0 𝐶, density 2.11𝑔/
versa at constant temperature [25]. Latent heat is an 𝑐𝑚3 , specific heat 95.06𝑗/(𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐾).
attractive way to store solar thermal energy as it provides
high storage density where a lot of energy can be stored in a In order to increase thermal conductivity of a PCM,
very small volume. The phase change process occurs at several heat transfer enhancement techniques have been
nearly constant temperature, which is a fundamental aspect studied such as incorporating high thermal conductivity
for efficient operation of most thermal systems [31]. An enhancers such as nanoparticles into PCM and porous heat
advantage of LHS relative to SHS is that the temperature of transfer media, extending heat transfer surfaces by fins and
the phase change material (PCM) may be closer to the capsules, using intermediate heat transfer medium or heat
environment temperature thereby minimizing heat loss or pipes and employing multiple PCMs [31]. Heat transfer
gain. In addition, the driving temperature of a LHS system improves when thermal penetration depth or heat diffusion
can remain nearly constant between a heat transfer surface is increased. Other common enhancement techniques
and the PCM during both charging and discharging which include addition of high thermal conductivity materials such
may vary greatly during operation for the SHS system. These as nanoparticles, extended surfaces, structures and heat
properties along with the higher energy density make LHS pipes, as well as utilizing encapsulation and cascaded
an attractive form of thermal storage, particularly for configurations. Combination of two or more of the
portable appliances which is not practical for SHS systems aforementioned techniques, enhances heat transfer rates
[35]. considerably [21].

The principle of thermochemical heat storage uses the B. Contribution

energy from an exothermic reaction for the application, and The low thermal conductivity of PCMs impedes the
charge the storage by running the corresponding high rate of charge and discharge of heat flux. Heat transfer
endothermic reaction [18]. The storage potential of enhancement techniques, such as incorporating nano-
thermochemical energy is very important and research on particles into PCMs, using porous heat transfer media, and
improvements are intensively conducted both for large size employing multiple PCMs improve thermal conductivity.
seasonal and small size modules. PCM is a substance having The choice of PCM is critical, considering factors like
a high heat of fusion which, on melting and solidifying at a melting temperature, latent heat of fusion, density, toxicity,
certain temperature is capable of storing and releasing large corrosiveness, and cost. The criteria for selecting PCMs,
amounts of energy. Solid liquid PCMs have a unique need to emphasize on the need for high volumetric melting
advantage of negligible volume expansion between solid enthalpy. This is because no single material may possess all
crystalline structures along with the elimination of leaks the required properties for an ideal thermal storage medium.
[28]. Practical difficulties in PCM applications such as low
thermal conductivity, density change, stability under
extended cycling, phase segregation, and sub-cooling. This

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Volume 9, Issue 3, March – 2024 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
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can be addressed by achieving an ideal thermal storage 87% effective discharge efficiency and a storage capacity of
medium. Thus addressing these practical difficulties is 12.53 kWh. Using multilayers of PCM with suitable melting
crucial for the successful implementation of PCM-based and solidification temperatures and cost-effective sensible
energy storage systems. concrete, this approach proved to be a viable and economical
TES solution for medium-temperature applications.
II. RELATED WORKS
[1] explored the potential of a cost-effective TES
The finite volume method (FVM), sometimes referred solution for medium-temperature industrial applications like
to as the control volume method, was introduced by [2], chemical processing and beverages. Traditional single-tank
developed for solving heat transfer and fluid flow problems. thermocline TES systems face performance issues due to
FVM is a discretization technique for partial differential thermocline degradation during discharging. This is solved
equations, especially those that arise from physical by the introduction of a novel combined sensible-latent heat
conservation laws and are discretized or transformed into a configuration. It involved using structured, cost-effective,
set of algebraic equations a computer can solve. sensible heat materials with encapsulated phase change
material (PCM) capsules, creating cascaded, layered, packed
The main advantage of FVM over others like the FDM beds within the tank. Numerical simulations evaluated the
and FEM is its close connection to the underlying factors of performance of different configurations, and the results
conservation of laws (conservation of mass, conservation of suggested that the TES system with a volume fraction
energy, conservation of momentum) [37]. FVM ensures that arrangement of (40%-20%-40%) performance was the best,
quantities remain conserved at discrete levels; this agrees followed by (25%-50%-25%) and (10%-80%-10%),
with the law of physics at all discretisation levels. It divides respectively. The single-layered sensible rod with PCM
the domain into a finite number of non-overlapping cells or (SLSPCM) arrangement performance was the least effective.
control volumes over which conservation (piecewise linear This approach, which involved multistage PCMs with
profile between any two points) is enforced in a discrete suitable characteristics and cost-effective structured filler
sense. material, offered an efficient and economical TES
alternative.
FVM can also be applied to various mesh structures and
geometries [20]. It is applied in both unstructured and [41] explored the cascade latent heat thermal energy
structured mesh quite well. Within each node in the mesh, a storage (LHTES) system by combining one unit of erythritol
control volume is constructed over which the governing and two units of paraffin wax with a melting point of
equations are solved discretely. The two components of approximately 600 𝐶, effectively recovering medium-
discretization in FVM are the approximation of the flux temperature industrial waste heat (150–180°C). This system
through a control volume face by numerical integration over addresses the limitations of single-PCM by absorbing waste
the face and the evaluation of the functions and gradients. heat below erythritol's melting point (around 118 °C) during
charging and supplying heat above paraffin wax's melting
PCM-based thermal storage devices offer a versatile, point during discharging. Prototype testing confirmed its
sensible, and latent heat storage solution. They are precious superior performance, increasing waste heat recovery
in applications where temperature control, high energy efficiency from 15.8% to 63.4% at 100 L/h and 160°C
density, and reduced heat loss are essential. Ongoing compared to a single-stage erythritol-based system. An
research and development in PCM technology will likely active discharging strategy also raised the average heat
lead to improved materials and broader adoption in various supply temperature from 37 °C (with a constant flow rate) to
sectors, including renewable energy, buildings, and 53.6 °C. This highly efficient cascade LHTES system
industrial processes. For instance, [27] explores three critical promises to decarbonize building space heating by
parameters: fin arrangement, fin shape, and the number of recovering medium-temperature waste heat.
fins in PCM. Among these parameters, the configuration
with eight fins, where the bottom fin length increases while III. PROPOSED METHOD
compensating for reduced side fin length, is the most
effective. This configuration results in an impressive 60.77% The numerical scheme simulates the solid-liquid phase
reduction in the combined melting and solidification change process using mathematical models described by
duration, showcasing its potential for enhancing the conservation and solving PDE [45]. Mathematical models
efficiency of thermal energy storage systems. were derived by considering a smooth interface enthalpy
method on a fixed grid and structured mesh and formulating
[43] introduced a hybrid sensible-latent thermal energy governing equations for PCM with and without
storage (TES) system to overcome issues with single-tank nanoparticles. FVM did discretization of the domain and
thermocline TES systems, such as quick thermocline governing equations. This was achieved by applying the
degradation and temperature fluctuations during discharge. divergence theorem to convert volume integrals to surface
The study experimentally assesses the system via a integrals for each control volume. Function values and flux
combination of sensible heat concrete with axial holes and were approximated from the centre of control volumes. The
multiple layers of PCMs. Four configurations were tested: PDEs obtained were thus transformed into a set of algebraic
MLSPCM, SLSPCM-1, SLSPCM-2, and SSCB. Results equations to be solved by MATLAB. These specify the
indicated that MLSPCM performance was the best, with an contributions of the Nanoparticles in the heat storage system.

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In physical geometry, solar energy is the source of most applications of interest, simulation of initiation of the
thermal energy conveyed by hot water, transported by transition region is important as it may not be possible to
gravity, then stored in the PCM during the melting process know its location and the precise conditions under which it
as latent heat and released at an appropriate time during the initiates a priori. These limitations have resulted in minimal
solidification process. A small desirable amount of Sodium widespread use of these mathematical models in practical
Chloride volume fractions acting as Nanoparticles is added applications.
to the PCM. A solid salt mixture of Sodium Nitrate and
Potassium Nitrate mixed in the ratio of 3: 2. Heat transfer is  Enthalpy Approach
more enhanced in large surface areas; thus, spherical shapes The enthalpy approach is where the energy equation is
with a diameter of 100 nm nanoparticles are preferred for the recast in terms of enthalpy and temperature, keeping them as
study. dependent variables in the mathematical model [42].
Computations of numerical solutions of the resulting initial
A. Models for Phase Change Process value problem are performed on a fixed discretization. This
The mathematical models are derived by assuming a approach eliminates the energy balance equation at the
smooth interface with thermal conductivity and latent heat of interface used in the sharp interface models and introduces a
fusion being continuous and differentiable functions of finite phase transition region (over a small temperature
temperature. Mathematical modelling of the phase change change) called a mushy region between the liquid and the
process is complex due to the existence of a transition region solid phases. The transport properties are assumed to vary in
[11]. A mixture of solid and liquid phases, in which the phase some manner from one phase to the other phase. The concept
change occurs, results in complex changes in transport of liquid or solid fraction is generally introduced to account
properties such as density, specific heat, conductivity, and for the mushy region being a mixture of solid and liquid
the latent heat of fusion, which depends on temperature. The phases [38]. Due to the assumption of the mushy region
phase transition region propagates in spatial directions (its separating the solid and the liquid phases, the sharp interface
location changes as time elapses), resulting in initial value and the associated problems, such as singularity, are
problems containing singularities at the interfaces and inhibited, giving the approach an advantage over the others
challenging the numerical simulation. in numerical computations of the evolution of phase change
problems. The Darcy law for porous media is adopted to
 Sharp-Interface Models model the flow of PCM in the mushy region [47]. The law is
Sharp-interface models where liquid and solid phases based on the empirical measurement of permeability and is
are assumed to be separated by infinitely thin sharp interface expressed as
[14]. The transport properties such as density, specific heat
and conductivity are assumed to experience a jump at the 𝐾 𝜕𝑃
𝑢𝑖 = − 𝜇 {𝜕𝑥 − 𝜌𝑔𝑥𝑖 } (3)
interface. The latent heat of fusion is assumed to be 𝑖

instantaneously released or absorbed at the interface,

resulting in step (sharp) change in the transport properties, Where 𝐾 is the permeability, in the case of a mushy
and mathematical models for liquid and solid phases are region of commercial material, a function of liquid fraction;
derived individually. Disadvantages of this model are that a in the model, permeability decreases with decreasing liquid
sharp interface leads to a mathematical model in which the fraction; consequently, it forces all the velocities to become
𝐾
initial value problem contains singularity at the interface and zero in the case of a stationary solid. The coefficient 𝜇
that spatial location during evolution requires front-tracking decreases from a significant value in the solid phase to zero
methods. in the liquid phase. As a result, the Darcy source term
vanishes as the liquid fraction becomes 1. The mathematical
 Phase Field Models models derived and presented here are the same as those in
Phase field models where the solid and liquid phases Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions. They are based on the
are also assumed to be separated by a finite width (in first law of thermodynamics using specific total energy and
temperature) transition region, where transport properties are the heat vector augmented by the constitutive equation for
assumed to vary with temperature between the two states the heat vector.
[23]. The method is based on the specification of free energy
density functional, which is the main driving force for the In this study, mathematical models are derived based
movement of the phase transition region. The models on the assumption that the stress field is constant and the
eliminate the sharp interfaces and their tracking, but velocity field is zero in the solid region but nonzero in the
alongside these, there are some disadvantages. A priori liquid region. In the transition zone, the stress and the
knowledge of the free energy density functional for the velocities are assumed to make the transition from a nonzero
application at hand is required; the mathematical model state in the fluid to a constant stress state and zero velocity
cannot simulate the initiation or formation of the solid-liquid in the solid phase based on the temperature with the
interface; hence, the liquid-solid phases and the transition assumption that the solid particles in the transition region
region must be defined as initial conditions. This limitation form a porous medium through which the fluid flows. The
is due to the specific nature of the free energy function. enthalpy approach for the phase change is preferred,
However, if a liquid-solid interface is specified as an initial considering the space-time coupled approximation method.
condition, then the phase field models are quite effective in
simulating the movement of the front during evolution. In

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B. Boundary Conditions C. Discretization of the Partial Differential Equations

There are three types of boundary conditions (BC) FVM is derived based on the integral form of
which can be developed and imposed on the coupled conservation laws. It discretizes the domain into finite
governing equations to make them well-posed and solvable, control volumes and approximates the total integral of flux
namely, Dirichlet boundary condition [3], Neumann over each control volume rather than pointwise
boundary condition [8] and Cauchy boundary condition [7]. approximations at mesh points (see Figure 2). These values
In Dirichlet Boundary conditions, the value of the function are modified on each time step by using the flux through the
is specified on the boundary, and dependent variables of the edges of the grid cells. Discretization of governing equations
governing equations are prescribed in the domain at different follows three steps: Space discretization, Time discretization
points [3]. In Neumann Boundary conditions, the value of and Equation discretization. Space discretization involves
the derivative normal to the boundary is specified. A the definition of a numerical grid, which replaces the
Neumann BC imposed on governing equations specifies the continuous space with a finite number of discrete elements
derivative values of a solution to be taken on the boundary with computational points at their centroids. At these points,
of the domain [8]. In Cauchy Boundary conditions, the the solution of dependent variables is computed. This
values involve a linear combination of Dirichlet and process is termed grid generation. Time discretization
Neumann BC to governing equations [7]. A Cauchy BC assumes the division of the entire time interval into a finite
imposed on governing equations specifies both the values of number of small sub-intervals, called time steps, which
a solution of a differential equation to take on the domain guarantee convergence of the solution. Discretization of
and the normal derivation at the boundary. equations involves the replacement of the individual terms
in the governing equations by algebraic expressions
The PCM is enclosed within annular cavity formed connecting the variable values at computational points in the
between two concentric horizontal cylindrical shells with the grid.
inner shell considered to be of a significantly thinned wall
subjected to a constant heat flux of 225 0 C (1 0C higher than
the melting point of the PCM) on the southern wall keeping
the outer shell (northern wall) at adiabatic condition which
simulates the PCM storing thermal energy during charging.
The inlet velocity of the melt is 0.003cm/s. The western and
eastern walls are also kept at adiabatic condition. The
elementary cross-sectional cavity of dimension 10cm (x
direction) by 1cm (y direction) is used to model the phase
change process as represented by the Fig. 2.

Fig 3: Control Volume

D. Non-dimensionlization and Discretization of the

Governing Equations
Non-dimensionlisation is the partial or full removal of
physical dimensions from an equation involving physical
quantities by a suitable substitution of variables. Reynold's
Number being one of the dimensionless number gives a
measure of the ratio of inertia(resistant to change or motion)
forces to viscous forces. Laminar flows occurs at low
Reynolds's Number whereas turbulent flow occurs at high
Reynold's number. The following variables are used to non-
dimensionalization of the parameters: time, distance,
velocity, temperature and pressure as:

Fig 2: The Elementary Cross-Sectional Cavity of

Dimension 10cm (x Direction) by 1cm (y Direction)
is used to Model the phase Change Process

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𝑡 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 𝑢 𝑣 𝑤 𝑝−𝑝∞ 𝑇−𝑇∞
𝑡 ∗ = 𝐿/𝑈 , 𝑥 ∗ = 𝐿 , 𝑦 ∗ = 𝐿 , 𝑧 ∗ = 𝐿, 𝑢 ∗ = 𝑈 , 𝑣 ∗ = 𝑈 , 𝑤 ∗ = 𝑈 , 𝑝∗ = 2
𝜌/𝑈∞
, 𝑇∗ = Δ𝑇
.
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

E. Non Dimensionlisation and Discretiastion of Conservation of Mass Equation

The flow of molten PCM is governed by continuity equation and momentum equations expressed in cartesian coordinates.
Non dimesionlising, we obtain

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇= 𝑖 𝜕𝑥 + 𝑗 𝜕𝑦 + 𝑘 𝜕𝑧 (4)

⃗ = 𝑢𝑖 + 𝑣𝑗 + 𝑤𝑘
𝑉 (5)
𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
⃗ = + +
∇⋅𝑉 (6)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

In 2-Dimensional, equation 3.8 becomes,

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣
⃗ = + =0
∇⋅𝑉 (7)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Non-Dimesionlizing yields

𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞
+ =0 (8)
𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿

𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝐿
{𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝜕𝑦 ∗} = 0 (9)

𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
+ =0 (10)
𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗

Discretisation of conservation of mass equation

𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑣 ∗
∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 0 (11)
(𝑗− ) (𝑖− ) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− )
2 2 2 2

𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑣 ∗
∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 + ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦} = 0 (12)
(𝑗− ) (𝑖− ) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− )
2 2 2 2

𝑥 1 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑦 1 𝜕𝑣 ∗
△ 𝑡 △ 𝑦 ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑑𝑥 +△ 𝑡 △ 𝑥 ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝑑𝑦 = 0 (13)
(𝑖− ) (𝑗− )
2 2

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
△ 𝑡 △ 𝑦(𝑢(𝑖+1 −𝑢
)
1 ) +△ 𝑡 △ 𝑥(𝑣
(𝑖− )
1 −𝑣
(𝑗+ )
1 ) = 0
(𝑗− )
(14)
2 2 2 2

∗
∗ +𝑢 ∗
𝑢𝑖+1 𝑖
∗
𝑢𝑖−1 +𝑢𝑖∗ 𝑣𝑗+1 +𝑣𝑗∗ ∗
𝑣𝑗−1 +𝑣𝑗∗
△ 𝑦 △ 𝑡{( 2
)−( 2
)} +△ 𝑥 △ 𝑡{( 2
)−( 2
)} = 0 (15)

△𝑡△𝑦 ∗ ∗ △𝑥△𝑡 ∗ ∗
(𝑢𝑖+1 − 𝑢𝑖−1 )+ (𝑣𝑗+1 − 𝑣𝑗−1 )=0 (16)
2 2

Simplifying further we obtain,

∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
△ 𝑦(𝑢𝑖+1 − 𝑢𝑖−1 ) +△ 𝑥(𝑣𝑗+1 − 𝑣𝑗−1 )=0 (17)

F. Non Dimesionlization of Momentum Equations

Non dimensionlizing equation 5, momentum equation in x-direction using the given variables

𝑡 𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝑡 ∗𝐿
𝑡∗ = 𝐿 ⇒ 𝜕𝑡
= 𝐿
and 𝑡 = 𝑈
∞
𝑈∞

𝜕𝑢
Substituting with values of u and t in 𝜕𝑡
, we obtain

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𝜕𝑢 2 𝜕𝑢 ∗
𝑈∞
= (18)
𝜕𝑡 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 ∗

𝜕𝑥 ∗ 1 𝜕𝑦∗ 1 𝜕𝑢 ∗
𝑥 = 𝑥∗𝐿 ⇒ 𝜕𝑥
= 𝐿, 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝐿 ⇒ 𝜕𝑦
= 𝐿, 𝑢 = 𝑢∗ 𝑈∞ ⇒ 𝜕𝑥
=0

𝜕𝑢 𝜕(𝑢 ∗ 𝑈∞ ) 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 1 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗
𝜕𝑥
= 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥
= 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿 = 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
(19)

𝜕𝑢 𝜕(𝑢 ∗ 𝑈∞ ) 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 1 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗
= = 𝑈∞ = (20)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 1 𝜕𝑢 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗
We know = , = , = then we obtain,
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑢 ∗
𝜕𝑥 2
= 𝜕𝑥 (𝜕𝑥 ) = 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥
( 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
= 𝐿2 𝜕𝑥 ∗2
(21)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 1 𝜕𝑢 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗
We also know 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑦
, 𝜕𝑦
= 𝐿, 𝜕𝑦 = 𝐿 𝜕𝑦∗
then we obtain,

𝜕2𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑢 ∗
𝜕𝑦2
= 𝜕𝑦 (𝜕𝑦 ) = 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑦
( 𝐿 𝜕𝑦∗
= 𝐿2 𝜕𝑦 ∗2
(22)

Substituting equations 23-27 in the momentum equation 5, we obtain,

2 𝜕𝑢 ∗
𝑈∞ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝑈 𝜕2𝑢∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑢 ∗
𝜌( 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 ∗
+ 𝑢∗ 𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
+ 𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗
) = 𝜇( 𝐿∞
2 𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝐿2 𝜕𝑦∗2
) (23)

𝐿
Multiply through by 𝜌𝑈 2 , we obtain
∞

𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢∗ 𝜕2𝑢∗
( 𝜕𝑡 ∗ + 𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗) = 𝜌𝐿𝑈 (𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦 ∗2 ) (24)
∞

Equating equation 39 to 0 , we obtain

𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢∗ 𝜕2𝑢∗
( 𝜕𝑡 ∗ + 𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗) − 𝜌𝐿𝑈 ( 𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦 ∗2 ) = 0 (25)
∞

𝜇 1
Which is the Non-dimensionlised momentum equation in x direction and 𝜌𝐿𝑈 = 𝑅𝑒
∞

G. Discretisation of Momentum Equations in x Direction

Equation 30 is discritised as follows,

𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜕𝑢 ∗ 𝜇 𝜕2𝑢∗ 𝜕2𝑢∗
∫𝑡 𝑘+1 ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) { 𝜕𝑡 ∗ + 𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦∗ − 𝜌𝐿𝑈 [ 𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦 ∗2 }𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 (26)
𝑘 (𝑗− ) (𝑖− ) ∞
2 2

Integrating different parts of equation 31 we obtain,

𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑢 ∗
∫𝑡 𝑘+1 ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 =△ 𝑥 △ 𝑦[(𝑢𝑘+1 − (𝑢𝑘 )] (27)
𝑘 (𝑗− ) (𝑖− )
2 2

Replacement of original 34 has been done below 15.5.21( ignore the statement)

(28)

(29)

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(30)

(31)
△𝑦△𝑡 △𝑥△𝑡
Where 𝐴 =△ 𝑦 △ 𝑡, 𝐵 =△ 𝑥 △ 𝑡, 𝐶 =△ 𝑦 △ 𝑥, 𝑄 = Δ𝑥
,𝑅= Δ𝑦
.

Combining equations from 28 to 31 , we obtain discretised momentum equation in x direction as

𝜇
𝐶[(𝑢(𝑘+1)) − (𝑢(𝑘) )] + 0.5𝐴𝑢𝑖∗ (𝑢(𝑖+1)
∗ ∗
− 𝑢(𝑖−1) ) + 0.5𝐵𝑣𝑗∗ (𝑢(𝑗+1)
∗ ∗
− 𝑢(𝑗−1) )− ∗
{𝑄(𝑢𝑖+1 − 2𝑢𝑖∗ + 𝑢𝑖−1
∗ ∗
) + 𝑅(𝑢𝑗+1 − 2𝑢𝑗∗ + 𝑢𝑗−1
∗
)} = 0(32)
𝜌𝐿𝑈∞

Applying Picards Linearisation method to the non linear equation (34) and simplifying it by dropping * which symbolised
non-dmensionlised terms we obtain
𝜇𝑛𝑓
𝐶[𝑢𝑘+1 − 𝑢𝑘 ] + 0.5𝐴𝑢̅𝑖 (𝑢(𝑖+1) − 𝑢(𝑖−1) ) + 0.5𝐵𝑣̅𝑗 (𝑢(𝑗+1) − 𝑢(𝑗−1) ) − {𝑄(𝑢𝑖+1 − 2𝑢𝑖 + 𝑢𝑖−1 ) + 𝑅(𝑢𝑗+1 − 2𝑢𝑗 + 𝑢𝑗−1 )} = 0 (33)
𝜌𝑛𝑓 𝐿𝑈∞

With the presence of nanoparticles and the assumption that they are spherical in shape to guarantee the validity of the Brinkman
model and the maxwell model for heat transfer, we compute the effective viscousity of NEPCMs using Brinkman model as follows,
𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝜇
𝜇𝑛𝑓 = (1−𝜙)2.5 (34)

Where 𝜙 is the volume fraction of nanoparticles, 𝜇𝑃𝐶𝑀 is the dynamic viscosity of pure PCM, and 𝜇𝑛𝑓 is the dynamic viscosity
of NEPCMs.

H. Non Dimensionlization of Momentum Equations in y Direction

Non dimensionlizing equation 6, momentum equation in y-direction using the given variables

𝜕𝑣 2 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝑈∞
= (35)
𝜕𝑡 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 ∗

𝜕𝑣 𝜕(𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ ) 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 1 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝜕𝑥
= 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥
= 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿 = 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
(36)

𝜕𝑣 𝜕(𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ ) 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 1 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝜕𝑦
= 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿 = 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗
(37)

𝜕2𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝜕𝑥 2
= 𝜕𝑥 (𝜕𝑥) = 𝜕𝑥 ( 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
) (38)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 1 𝜕𝑣 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
We know 𝜕𝑥 = 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥
, 𝜕𝑥
= 𝐿, 𝜕𝑥 = 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
then we obtain,

𝜕2𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑣 ∗
𝜕𝑥 2
= 𝜕𝑥 (𝜕𝑥) = 𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝜕𝑥
( 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
= 𝐿2 𝜕𝑥 ∗2
(39)

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝜕𝑦∗ 1 𝜕𝑣 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗
We know 𝜕𝑦 = 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝜕𝑦
, 𝜕𝑦
= 𝐿, 𝜕𝑦 = 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗
then we obtain,

𝜕2𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑣 𝜕 𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑣 ∗
𝜕𝑦2
= 𝜕𝑦 (𝜕𝑦) = 𝜕𝑦∗ 𝜕𝑦
( 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗
= 𝐿2 𝜕𝑦∗2
(40)

Substituting equations from (37-42) in equation 3.6 we obtain,

2 𝜕𝑣 ∗
𝑈∞ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝑈 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝜕 2 𝑣 ∗
𝜌( 𝐿 𝜕𝑡 ∗
+ 𝑢∗ 𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
+ 𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ 𝐿 𝜕𝑦∗
) = 𝜇( 𝐿∞
2 𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝐿2 𝜕𝑦 ∗2
) + 𝛽𝜌𝑔(𝑇 ∗ △ 𝑇 + 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑟 ) (41)

𝐿
Simplyfying further, Multiply through by 2
𝜌𝑈∞

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𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜇 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝐿
(𝜕𝑡 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦∗ ) = 𝜌𝐿𝑈 (𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦 ∗2 ) + 𝑈 2 𝛽𝑔(𝑇 ∗ △ 𝑇 + 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑟 ) (42)
∞ ∞

Rearranging equation 53 , we obtain non dimensionlised momentum equation in y direction

𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜇 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝐿
(𝜕𝑡 ∗ + 𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ) − 𝜌𝐿𝑈 (𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦∗2 ) − 𝑈 2 𝛽𝑔(𝑇 ∗ △ 𝑇 + 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑟 ) = 0 (43)
∞ ∞

I. Discretisation of momentum equations in y direction

Equation (45) is discritised as follows,

𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑣 ∗ 𝜇 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝜕2𝑣 ∗ 𝐿
∫𝑡 (𝑘+1) ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) {𝜕𝑡 ∗ + 𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ − 𝜌𝐿𝑈 [𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦 ∗2 ] − 𝑈 2 𝛽𝑔(𝑇 ∗ △ 𝑇 + 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑟 )}𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 (44)
(𝑘) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− ) ∞ ∞
2 2

Integrating different parts of equation (46) we obtain,

𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝑣 ∗
∫𝑡 (𝑘+1) ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 =△ 𝑥 △ 𝑦[(𝑣(𝑘+1)) − (𝑣(𝑘) )] (45)
(𝑘) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− )
2 2

(46)

Replacement of original (45) is done as follows

(47)

(48)

(49)

𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝐿 𝐿
∫𝑡 (𝑘+1) ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝑈 2 𝛽𝑔(𝑇 ∗ △ 𝑇 + 𝑇∞ − 𝑇𝑟 )𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 =△ 𝑥 △ 𝑦 △ 𝑡{𝑈 2 𝛽𝑔((𝑇 ∗ △ 𝑇 + 𝑇∞ ) − 𝑇𝑟 )} (50)
(𝑘) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− ) ∞ ∞
2 2

Assembling equations from (45) to (50) together , substituting for 𝐷 =△ 𝑡 △ 𝑥 △ 𝑦, Applying Picards Linearisation, discarding
* we obtain,

(51)

J. Non Dimesionlisation and Discretisation of Conservation of Energy Equation

The enthalpy H of PCMs is defined as,

𝐻 = 𝐶𝑝 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 ) + 𝑓𝑙 𝐿 (52)

Where 𝑓𝑙 is the PCM liquid fraction and 𝐿 is the latent heat of the PCMs. By caculating the enthalpy 𝐻 of PCMs, the liquid
fraction and temperature can be updated by the following equations.

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0, 𝐻 ≤ 𝐻𝑠
𝐻−𝐻𝑠
, 𝐻𝑠 ≤ 𝐻 < 𝐻𝑙
𝑓1 = 𝐻𝑙 −𝐻𝑠 (53)
1, 𝐻 ≥ 𝐻𝑠
{
𝐻𝑠−𝐻
𝑇= 𝑐𝑝
, 𝐻 ≤ 𝐻𝑠
𝑇𝑚 , 𝐻𝑠 < 𝐻 < 𝐻
𝑇= 𝐻𝑠 −𝐻
(54)
𝑇+ , 𝐻 ≤ 𝐻𝑠
𝑐𝑝
{

 Non-Dimensionlisation of Conservation of Energy Equation

𝜕(𝜌𝐻 𝜕(𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞ ) (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞) 𝜕 2 (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞) 𝜕 2 (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞ )

) + 𝜌𝑐𝑝 [𝑢∗ 𝑈∞ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝑈∞ ] = 𝑘[ + ] (55)
𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝐿/𝑈∞ 𝐿𝜕𝑥 ∗ 𝐿𝜕𝑦 ∗ 𝐿𝜕𝑥 ∗2 𝐿𝜕𝑦 ∗2

𝑈∞ 𝜕(𝜌𝐻) 𝑈∞ 𝜕(𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞) 𝑈∞ (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞) 𝑘 𝜕 2 (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞) 𝜕 2 (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇+𝑇∞)

𝐿 𝜕𝑡 ∗
+ 𝜌𝑐𝑝 [𝑢∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑥 ∗
+ 𝑣∗ 𝐿 𝜕𝑦 ∗
]=𝐿[ 𝜕𝑥 ∗2
+ 𝜕𝑦 ∗2
] (56)

𝐿
Multiply by 𝑈 ..... 𝑇∞ = 0, we obtain,
∞

𝜕(𝜌𝐻) 𝜕(𝑇 ∗ △𝑇) 𝜕(𝑇 ∗ △𝑇) 𝑘 𝜕 2 (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇) 𝜕 2 (𝑇 ∗ △𝑇)

𝜕𝑡 ∗
+ 𝜌𝑐𝑝 [𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗
+ 𝑣∗ 𝜕𝑦∗
]=𝑈 [ 𝜕𝑥 ∗2
+ 𝜕𝑦 ∗2 )
] (57)
∞

1
Multiply by (58) △𝑇 we obtain,

1 𝜕(𝜌𝐻) 𝜕𝑇 ∗ 𝜕𝑇 ∗ 𝑘 𝜕2𝑇∗ 𝜕2𝑇∗

+ 𝜌𝑐𝑝 [𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗ ] = 𝑈 [𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦 ∗2] (58)
△𝑇 𝜕𝑡 ∗ ∞

Discretisation of conservation of Energy Equations

𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 1 𝜕𝐻 ∗ 𝜕𝑇 ∗ 𝜕𝑇 ∗ 𝑘 𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕2𝑇∗ 𝜕2𝑇∗
∫𝑡 (𝑘+1) ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) [△𝑇 𝜕𝑡 ∗ + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑢∗ 𝜕𝑥 ∗ + 𝜌𝐶𝑝 𝑣 ∗ 𝜕𝑦 ∗] 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 = 𝑈 ∫𝑡 (𝑘+1) ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) [𝜕𝑥 ∗2 + 𝜕𝑦∗2 ]𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡
(𝑘) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− ) ∞ (𝑘) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− ) (59)
2 2 2 2

Integrating separate components below we have,

1 𝑡 𝑦 1 𝑥 1 𝜕𝐻 ∗ △𝑥△𝑦
∫ (𝑘+1) ∫𝑦 (𝑗+12) ∫𝑥 (𝑖+12) 𝜕𝑡 ∗ 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑡 =
△𝑇 𝑡 △𝑇
{𝐻𝑘+1 − 𝐻𝑘 } (60)
(𝑘) (𝑗− ) (𝑖− )
2 2

(61)

(62)

(63)

(64)

Hence discretised energy equation is

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(65)
Δ𝑥Δ𝑦
Where 𝑆 = , the simplified discretised energy equation is,
Δ𝑇

(66)

The thermal conductivity of NEPCM is calculated according to the Maxwell model as

𝑘𝑝 +2𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀−2(𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀−𝑘𝑝 )𝜙
𝑘𝑛𝑓 = 𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀 𝑘𝑝 +2𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀+(𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀−𝑘𝑝 )𝜙
(67)

Where 𝑘𝑃𝐶𝑀 , 𝑘𝑝 , and 𝑘𝑛𝑓 are thermal conductivities of pure PCMs, nanoparticles and NEPCMs respectively. The density of
nano-fluid 𝜌𝑛𝑓 is calculated as

𝜌𝑛𝑓 = (1 − 𝜙)𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 + 𝜙𝜌𝑝 (68)

Where 𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 , and 𝜌𝑝 are densities of pure and nanoparticles. The heat capacitance of NEPCMs (𝜌𝑐𝑝 )𝑛𝑓 is defined as

(𝜌𝑐𝑝 )𝑛𝑓 = (1 − 𝜙)(𝜌𝑐𝑝 )𝑃𝐶𝑀 + 𝜙(𝜌𝑐𝑝 )𝑝 (69)

Where (𝜌𝑐𝑝 )𝑃𝐶𝑀 is the heat capacitance of the PCM, and (𝜌𝑐𝑝 )𝑝 is the heat capacitance of nanoparticles. thermal expansion
volume of NEPCMs (𝜌𝛽)𝑛𝑓 is given as

(𝜌𝛽)𝑛𝑓 = (1 − 𝜙)(𝜌𝛽)𝑃𝐶𝑀 + 𝜙(𝜌𝛽)𝑝 (70)

Where (𝜌𝛽)𝑃𝐶𝑀 and (𝜌𝛽)𝑝 are thermal expansion volume of pure PCM and nanoparticles respectively. The latent heat of
NEPCMs is computed as

(𝜌𝐿)𝑛𝑓 = (1 − 𝜙)(𝜌𝐿)𝑃𝐶𝑀 (71)

Where (𝜌𝐿)𝑃𝐶𝑀 is the latent heat of pure PCM. Then the corresponding enthalpy of NEPCM 𝐻𝑛𝑓 is given as

𝐻𝑛𝑓 = 𝐶𝑝𝑛𝑓 (𝑇 − 𝑇𝑟 ) + 𝑓𝑙 𝐿𝑛𝑓 (72)

IV. RESULTS

A. Parameter Estimation
The numerical simulations depends on the following parameters estimated in Table I.

Table 1: Parameter Estimation (Estimation is based on Sodium Chloride)

Parameter Description Value range Value used Source
𝜌𝑝 Density of nanoparticles (sodium chloride) 2.16 g/cm3 2.16 g/cm3 [19]
𝜌𝑃𝐶𝑀 Density of pure PCM 2.26 g/cm3 2.26 g/cm3 [29, 10]
Cp Heat capacity 0.849-0.9 (J/Kg K) 0.86 [24, 13]
𝛽𝑃𝐶𝑀 Coefficient of Thermal expansion volume of pure PCM - 0.064 (W/m -K) [4]
𝛽𝑝 Coefficient of Thermal expansion volume of nanoparticles 3.96 − 5.63 × 10−5 𝐾 −1 4.5 × 10−5 𝐾 −1 [26]
k Thermal conductivity 3.13-3.87 W/m K 3.5 W/m K [24, 9]

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B. Numerical Simulations

Fig. 1: Surface Plot of Energy vs Temperature and y-Axis

Fig. 4 presents a 3D surface plot illustrating the or layers with varying nano-particle concentrations. The x-
relationship between 'Energy' and 'Temperature' at various axis indicates PCM temperature crucial for phase transitions.
points along the 'y' axis within a thermal energy storage Peaks signify significant energy storage changes, likely
system, potentially involving phase change materials corresponding to phase change temperatures. Color gradient
(PCMs). The plot demonstrates how nano-particles impact (blue to yellow) reflects energy magnitude, aiding in
energy storage characteristics. The z-axis represents thermal identifying efficient energy storage regions. The analysis
energy, indicating energy absorbed or released during phase targets PCM optimization for applications like solar energy
changes like melting. The y-axis denotes material positions and heating systems.

Fig. 5: 3D Surface Plot of Energy Equation

Fig. 5 shows a 3D surface plot representing a function of intense energy interaction, indicating efficient heat
describing energy variation across 'x' and 'y' axes, indicating transfer or latent heat release/absorption. The color bar
spatial dimensions or relevant parameters within a nano- reflects energy change magnitude, from blue (negative
enhanced Phase Change Material (PCM) for thermal energy values) to yellow (positive values), suggesting both energy
storage. The z-axis depicts energy Evaluation, showing absorption and release. These analyses could aid in
energy changes within the material, crucial for PCMs storing optimizing PCM design for applications like passive climate
and releasing energy during phase transitions like melting. control or thermal regulation in electronics, ensuring
The plot indicates regions where energy storage behavior efficient heat absorption and release for stable environments
alters due to nano-particle incorporation. Peaks signify areas or component protection.

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Fig. 6: Energy Against Temperature

Fig. 6 shows a scatter plot illustrating the relationship variation from negative to positive values indicates the
between temperature and energy for nano-enhanced PCMs energy absorption and release phases. These visual data
in thermal energy storage. The data forms curves representations are crucial for the optimization of PCM
representing varied experimental conditions and performance in thermal energy storage systems. They guide
nanoparticle concentrations. The semicircular arrangement improvements in thermal conductivity and heat capacity,
suggests cyclic energy changes with temperature, typical of essential for applications such as solar energy systems,
PCM melting and solidification cycles. Each semicircle heating and cooling, waste heat recovery, and thermal
reflects a phase change cycle, indicating energy absorption management in electronics. Enhanced PCMs have the
or release. Clustering at specific temperatures suggests phase potential to maintain stable temperatures in various
transition points, which are typical of PCM behavior. The applications, contributing to energy efficiency and
plot emphasizes energy absorption, as all values are positive, sustainability.
likely depicting only one side of the phase change process.
This analysis could be vital for optimizing nano- Enthalpy and temperature are directly correlated in
enhancements aiming to improve PCM thermal conductivity nano-enhanced PCMs, with the phase change process
and reduce supercooling, enhancing thermal storage capacity significantly impacting the enthalpy due to heat absorption
and heat transfer efficiency. Such insights aid in optimizing or release. Although velocity is not directly referenced, the
PCM design for applications in heating, cooling, waste heat enhanced heat transfer due to nanoparticles indirectly affects
recovery, and electronics thermal management. the rate of heat transfer, promoting temperature uniformity.
Future recommendations for nano-enhanced PCMs in
V. CONCLUSION thermal energy storage should employ advanced numerical
methods and simulation tools to predict the performance of
The analysis of nano-enhanced PCMs for thermal nano-enhanced PCMs more accurately. This would aid in
energy storage involves understanding the relationship understanding the complex interactions within the PCM and
between temperature, energy, and the spatial distribution of in optimizing the material properties before experimental
nanoparticles within the PCM. Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 present 3D validation
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