Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, A Grammar (PDFDrive)
Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, A Grammar (PDFDrive)
Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian, A Grammar (PDFDrive)
a Grammar
Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian,
a Grammar
Ronelle Alexander
www.wisc.edu/wisconsinpress
3 Henrietta Street
London WC2E 8LU England
Copyright © 2006
Ronelle Alexander
All rights reserved
2 4 5 3 1
ISBN 0-299-21194-0
ISBN-13 978-0-299-21194-3
Preface xvii
GRAMMAR
CHAPTER 1
1. Alphabets 1
1a. The Cyrillic alphabet 2
1b. The Latin alphabet 2
1c. Spelling of proper names 3
2. Pronunciation 3
2a. Pronunciation of vowels and consonants 3
2b. Accent 4
3. Ekavian and ijekavian 4
4. Conventions of citation used 5
5. Nouns and gender 5
5a. Recognizing a noun’s gender 5
5b. Gender in nouns of profession or nationality 6
6. Personal pronouns 7
7. Present tense of verbs 8
7a. Verb conjugation, introduction 8
7b. The verb biti 8
8. Questions 9
8a. Questions with question words 9
8b. “Yes-no” questions 10
9. Presentative statements (ovo je, etc.) 10
10. Conjunctions 11
11. Adjectives, introduction 11
11a. Possessive pronominal adjectives 12
11b. Demonstrative pronominal adjectives (ovaj, taj, onaj) 12
12. Word order 13
12a. The role of clitics 13
12b. The “XYZ” model of clitic placement 14
CHAPTER 2
13. Verb conjugation: the present tense 16
14. Relationship between infinitive and present tense 17
14a. Potential accent shifts 17
14b. Type pisati 17
14c. Type vidjeti / videti 18
14d. Type piti 18
14e. Type kupovati 18
14f. The verb moći 18
15. Verb forms of politeness 18
16. Adjectives, continued 19
16a. Adjectives with single-syllable stems 19
16b. “Fleeting -a-” in adjectives; voicing assimilation 19
16c. Adjectives in -o 19
17. Short and long forms of adjectives 20
17a. “Indefinite” vs “definite” 20
17b. “Short vs. long” and “indefinite vs. definite” 21
18. Cases of nouns, introduction 21
v
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 3
30. Present tense, continued 34
30a. Type davati 34
30b. Type teći 34
31. Feminine nouns ending in a consonant 34
31a. Nouns with more than one gender 35
32. Nominative plural 35
32a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 36
32b. Consonant shifts before -i 36
32c. Fleeting -a- in masculine nouns 37
32d. Accent shifts in the plural 38
32e. Addition of -ov- / -ev- 38
32f. “Soft” consonants 39
32g. Plurals of nouns ending in -in 39
32h. Added syllable in neuter plurals 40
33. Accusative plural 40
34. Prepositions, continued 40
34a. The preposition kroz 41
34b. The preposition uz 41
34c. The preposition na, continued 41
35. Adverbs 41
36. Pronominal adjectives, continued 42
36a. Interrogative pronominal adjectives 42
36b. Descriptive pronominal adjectives 43
36c. Jedan and the idea “one” 44
vi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 4
40. Present tense, continued 48
40a. Type ići 48
40b. Type kazivati 48
40c. Type jesti 48
40d. The verbs sedeti and sjediti 48
41. Possessive pronominal adjectives, continued 49
41a. Possessive adjectives referring to non-humans 49
41b. Derived possessive adjectives referring to humans 49
42. Case forms, continued: the genitive case 50
42a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 50
42b. Changes in the stem of masculine nouns 51
42c. Short, long and longer adjective forms 52
42d. Genitive forms of pronoun objects 53
42e. Genitive forms of interrogative pronouns 53
43. The genitive with prepositions 53
43a. Prepositions meaning “from”: iz, od, s(a) 53
43b. Prepositions meaning “to, by”: do, pored, kod 54
43c. The prepositions bez, između and oko 55
44. The genitive without prepositions 55
44a. The adnominal genitive 55
44b. The idea of possession 56
44c. Location indicators: evo, nema 57
44d. Identification of colors 58
45. Accusative vs. genitive objects and partitive meaning 58
46. Numbers: 2, 3, 4 58
46a. The “counting form” 59
47. Masculine nouns ending in -o 59
48. Subjectless sentences, introduction 60
49. Adverbs and question words, continued 61
50. Conjunctions, continued 62
51. Word order: embedded questions 62
CHAPTER 5
52. Present tense, continued 64
52a. Type držati 64
52b. Type doći 64
52c. The budem present of biti 64
52d. The verb htjeti / hteti 64
52e. Type pisati, continued 65
52f. Type uzeti 65
53. Aspect, continued 65
53a. Aspect pairs related by suffixation 65
53b. Aspect pairs related by prefixation 66
53c. Usage of aspect in present tense forms 66
54. Aspect pairs of motion verbs 67
55. Motion verbs used with prepositions and adverbs 68
55a. Prepositions and the idea of motion 68
vii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 6
65. Present tense, continued 84
65a. Type pisati, continued 84
65b. Verbs which make no consonant shift 84
65c. Type slati 84
66. Locative and dative cases 85
66a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 85
66b. Short, long, and longer adjective forms 86
66c. Dative-locative, interrogative pronouns 86
66d. Full form object pronouns, dative-locative 87
66e. Clitic form object pronouns: dative only 87
66f. Names of countries and languages 87
67. The prepositions u and na with the locative case 88
67a. The prepositions u and na in the meaning “location” 88
67b. Specific nouns as “u-words” or “na-words” 89
67c. Case choice and ideas of motion vs. location 90
67d. Time expressions: the preposition u + months of the year 91
68. Other prepositions with the locative case 91
68a. The prepositions o, po and pri 92
69. Past tense, introduction 92
70. Aspect, continued 93
70a. Aspect and the past tense 93
70b. Aspect and conjunctions 94
71. Time expressions: the idea of duration 94
72. Types of reflexive pronominal forms 95
viii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 7
77. Present tense, continued 106
77a. Type razumjeti 106
77b. Type donijeti / doneti 106
78. The imperative mood 106
78a. Endings of the imperative mood 106
78b. Use of singular and plural imperative forms 107
78c. The “inclusive” imperative and the form hajde 108
78d. The form neka 108
78e. Negative imperatives: aspect choice in the imperative mood 109
79. The instrumental case 110
79a. Endings of nouns and adjectives 110
79b. The instrumental ending -u in feminine nouns 111
79c. The instrumental of interrogative pronouns 112
79d. Instrumental forms of pronoun objects 112
80. Prepositions with the instrumental and other cases 113
80a. The preposition s(a) meaning “with” 113
80b. Prepositions referring to location 113
81. The instrumental without prepositions 114
81a. The instrumental of means 114
81b. The instrumental in time expressions 115
81c. The instrumental of space 116
81d. Verbs which take instrumental objects 116
82. Se-verbs, continued 117
82a. “Inclinational” se-verbs 117
82b. “Desiderative” se-verbs 117
83. Aspect, continued 118
83a. Bi-aspectual verbs 119
84. Verbs and adverbs of movement, continued 119
84a. Verbs of transport 120
84b. Prepositions and adverbs referring to motion and destination 120
85. Word order 121
85a. “Starting over” with the XYZ model 122
85b. Word order and dependent infinitives 122
CHAPTER 8
86. Dative – locative – instrumental plural 124
87. Se-verbs, continued 124
ix
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 9
94. Present tense, continued 142
94a. Type prati 142
94b. Type krenuti 142
94c. Infinitives in -ći 142
94d. Type stati 142
94e. Infinitives in -sti 143
95. Future tense 143
95a. Forms of the future tense and their spelling 143
95b. Negation and questions 145
95c. The verbal ideas “want” and “will” 146
95d. Future tense of existentials and subjectless sentences 147
95e. Verbal aspect and future meaning 147
96. Derivation of aspect partners 149
96a. Aspect partners differentiated by suffixation 149
96b. Aspect partners differentiated by prefixation 150
97. Reflexive verbs 150
98. Review of se-verbs 152
99. Object clauses, introduction 153
100. Time expressions, continued 154
101. Vocabulary building: the stati / stajati group 154
102. Word order and the future tense 155
CHAPTER 10
103. Verb conjugation, review 156
103a. Verb types 156
104. Past tense, continued 158
104a. Forms of the L-participle, continued 158
104b. Statements, negation and questions in the past tense 159
104c. Clitics and word order in the past tense 160
104d. Agreement in the past tense 161
104e. Past tense of existentials and subjectless sentences 162
105. Subjectless sentences with accusative logical subject 163
106. Verbal tense and verbal aspect 164
106a. Past and present, and scope of tense meanings 164
106b. Aspect and the past tense 165
107. Vocabulary building: verbs of transport 166
108. Verbal nouns, introduction 167
x
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 11
112. The system of consonant “softenings” 173
112a. Type A softening 173
112b. Type B softening 174
112c. Type C softening 174
113. Comparison of adjectives and adverbs 176
113a. Comparison expressed by suffixes 176
113b. Comparison expressed by consonant softening 177
113c. Comparison expressed by a different word 179
114. Usage of comparative and superlative forms 179
114a. Što and sve with the comparative 181
115. Collective nouns 181
116. Verbal nouns, continued 183
117. Participles 185
117a. Forms of the passive participle 185
117b. Active and passive participles used as adjectives 187
118. Passive sentences, introduction 187
119. The verbal idea “need” 189
120. Verbs of body position 190
121. Titles 191
121a. Proper names used in apposition 191
121b. Names of professions 192
CHAPTER 12
122. Past tense, continued 195
122a. Forms of the aorist and imperfect tenses 195
122b. Usage of the aorist and imperfect tenses 196
123. Numbers, review 197
123a. Cardinal numbers 197
123b. Ordinal numbers 198
123c. Collective numbers and numerical nouns 199
123d. Fractions and approximative numbers 200
124. Usage of numbers 201
124a. Agreement with cardinal numbers 201
124b. Ordinal numbers, and their use in dates 203
124c. Numbers referring to groups 204
124d. Distributive expressions 205
124e. Age 205
125. Review of time expressions 206
125a. Locating an event in time 206
125b. Identifying duration of time 207
125c. Times of the day 208
126. Adverbs and adjectives of time and place 209
127. Verbs meaning “should, ought” 210
128. Koji as interrogative and relative 212
129. Verbal adverbs, introduction 213
130. “Exact” future, introduction 214
xi
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 13
131. The conditional mood, introduction 215
132. Conditional sentences 216
132a. Real conditions 216
132b. Potential conditionals 218
132c. Unreal conditions 218
132d. Conditional sentences, summary 220
133. The conditional of politeness 221
133a. “Toned-down” statements 221
133b. Politeness formulas 222
134. Other uses of the conditional 222
134a. The conditional of repetition 222
134b. The conditional of purpose 223
135. Indirect discourse 224
136. Relative conjunctions, continued 225
136a. Relative clauses with koji 225
136b. Other relative conjunctions 228
137. Word order, continued 229
CHAPTER 14
138. Verbal adverbs, continued 230
138a. Present verbal adverb 230
138b. Past verbal adverb 231
138c. Adjectives and adverbs formed from verbal adverbs 232
139. Passive sentences, continued 233
140. Impersonal sentences 236
141. Subjectless sentences, review 237
141a. True subjectless sentences 238
141b. Subjectless sentences with dative logical subject 239
141c. Subjectless sentences with genitive logical subject 240
142. Modal verbs 240
143. Conjunctions, continued 243
143a. Coordinating conjunctions: and, but 243
143b. Compound conjunctions 244
143c. The conjunction kako 247
143d. The conjunction da and statements 247
143e. The conjunction da and potential actions 249
143f. The conjunction da as infinitive replacement, continued 251
143g. The conjunctions što and da 252
143h. Subject and object clauses, continued 253
143j. Doubled conjunctions expressing comparison 256
143k. “Indefinite” conjunctions and pronouns 257
CHAPTER 15
144. Expressions of future meaning 259
144a. The exact future, continued 260
145. Aspect usage, continued 261
145a. Specific meanings of the imperfective aspect 261
145b. Specific meanings of the perfective aspect 263
145c. Aspect use in narrative contexts 265
146. Prefixation and verbal meaning 268
146a. The prefixes of BCS 268
146b. Concrete and abstract meaning of verbal prefixes 269
146c. Prefixes and perfectivization 271
xii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 16
148. Verbal nouns, continued 282
149. Compound verbal tenses, review 283
150. Simplex verbal tenses, review 284
150a. Forms of the aorist continued 284
150b. Forms of the imperfect, continued 285
151. Tense use in narrative contexts 286
152. Verbal conjugation, review 290
153. Full verb paradigms 291
153a. Type 1 (gledati) 292
153b. Type 2 (nositi) 292
153c. Type 3 (videti / vidjeti) 293
153d. Type 4 (držati) 293
153e. Type 5 (pisati) 294
153f. Type 6 (piti) 294
153g. Type 7 (krenuti) 294
153h. Types 8a-8b (kupovati, kazivati) 295
153j. Type 9 (davati) 296
153k. Type 10 (brati) 296
153m. Type 11 (uzeti) 297
153n. Type 12 (umeti / umjeti) 297
153p. Type 13 (jesti) 298
153q. Type 14 (tresti) 298
153r. Types 15a-15b (teći, stići) 299
153s. Type 16 (doći) 300
153t. The verb hteti / htjeti 300
153u. The verb biti 301
CHAPTER 17
154. Cases of nouns, review 302
155. The nominative and vocative cases 302
155a. The nominative case 302
155b. The vocative case 303
156. The accusative case 304
156a. The accusative without a preposition 304
156b. The accusative with prepositions 306
156c. The accusative with prepositions in idiomatic usage 310
157. The genitive case 311
157a. The genitive without a preposition 312
157b. The genitive with prepositions 314
157c. The genitive with prepositions in idiomatic usage 318
158. The dative and locative cases 319
158a. The dative without a preposition 319
158b. The dative with prepositions 321
158c. The locative case 321
159. The instrumental case 324
159a. The instrumental without a preposition 324
159b. The instrumental with prepositions 326
160. Expressions with “jedan drugi” 328
xiii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 18
161. Word formation 330
162. Word formation in verbs 331
162a. Verbs derived by suffixation 332
162b. Verbs derived by prefixation 334
163. Word formation in nouns and adjectives 335
163a. Prefixation and compounding in nominal derivation 336
163b. Suffixation in nominal derivation 339
163c. Examples of suffixed nouns and adjectives 341
CHAPTER 19
164. Clitic placement and BCS syntax: rhythmic constituents 350
164a. Obligatory rhythmic constituents 350
164b. Optional rhythmic constituents 352
165. Accent in BCS 353
165a. The nature of the four accents 354
165b. Accent and prescriptivism in BCS 355
165c. Non-initial falling accents 356
165d. Variant accentuation 357
166. Accent shifts in BCS 357
166a. Accent shifts in verbs 359
166b. Accent shifts in nouns and adjectives 361
166c. Accent shifts between words 363
CHAPTER 20
167. The sound structure of BCS 365
167a. Palatalization 365
167b. Vowel shifts from ancient “ablaut” 367
167c. Vowel shifts akin to palatalization 368
167d. The shift of l to o 368
167e. Voicing assimilation 369
167f. Cluster simplification 371
167g. Fleeting vowels 373
167h. Inserted vowels 374
167j. Sound structure and spelling 376
SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 21
168. Sociolinguistic commentary, introduction 379
169. Writing systems 380
169a. The Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets 380
169b. The Latin alphabet 381
170. Language standardization 382
170a. Vuk Karadžić and language reform 382
170b. The Illyrian movement and language reform 383
170c. Vienna and beyond 384
170d. Novi Sad and beyond 385
xiv
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 22
171. Dialect differences 387
171a. Štokavian, čakavian, and kajkavian dialects 388
171b. Literary štokavian, čakavian, and kajkavian 389
171c. Ekavian, ikavian, and (i)jekavian dialects 391
171d. Dialect divisions and language change 393
172. East vs. west 395
172a. The eastern and western variants 395
172b. Gradations between east and west 398
173. Distinguishing Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian 400
173a. Same vs. different 400
173b. Parameters of differentiation 401
173c. Vocabulary lists and differential dictionaries 402
CHAPTER 23
174. Defining Bosnia 404
175. The role of language in the “Protectorate” 405
176. Bosnians in Yugoslavia 406
176a. The Bosnian idiom 407
176b. Bosnian Muslims as a national group 407
177. The Bosnian / Bosniak language 408
CHAPTER 24
178. Defining Croatia 410
179. Language standardization in the pre-Yugoslav Croatian lands 410
180. Croatia and the Yugoslav idea 411
180a. Language in Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941 412
181. The Independent State of Croatia 412
182. Croatia in Titoist Yugoslavia 413
182a. The Croatian “Declaration” and the Croatian Spring 414
183. The Croatian language 415
CHAPTER 25
184. Defining Serbia 416
185. Language standardization in the pre-Yugoslav Serbian lands 416
186. Serbia and Yugoslavia 417
187. The Serbian language 418
187a. Alphabet and spelling 419
187b. Ekavian / ijekavian 419
187c. The Committee for the Standardization of Serbian 420
188. Defining Montenegro 420
188a. Montenegro and Njegoš 421
189. Montenegro in Yugoslavia 422
189a. A Montenegrin language? 422
CHAPTER 26
190. One language or more than one? 424
INDEXES
INDEX to Grammar 427
INDEX to Sociolinguistic Commentary 439
INDEX of words (BCS) 443
INDEX of words (English) 462
xv
PREFACE
1
Two additional points are necessary: 1) Bosnian is also called Bosniak in some circles; 2) some have pro-
posed adding a fourth language, Montenegrin, a move which depends upon the proclamation of Montene-
gro as an independent state. As of this writing Serbia-Montenegro is still a single state, one whose official
language is Serbian.
xvii
always been a pluricentric language – a single basic system with several different local imple-
mentations, each of which was accepted as the norm in the relevant part of the country. Indeed,
this state of affairs had already been elevated to law in 1974. In that year, a newly promulgated
Yugoslav constitution had allowed each of the component republics of that country to define its
own internal medium of communication for administrative purposes. The separate standard idi-
oms recognized at that point in Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina embody much of what is now
Croatian and Bosnian. Serbia, by contrast, did not recognize any standard idiom other than Serbo-
Croatian, and today’s Serbian does not differ markedly from the variety of Serbo-Croatian that
was used in Serbia in those days. This is not to say there has been no change, but rather that the
change has been not so much in linguistic elements themselves as in the type of focus and empha-
sis placed on these elements. Namely, those features which marked each of the three as separate
from one another have taken on much greater significance: most differences that were once pos-
sible variants have become the prescribed norm, and many features that once were perceived as
local color are now strongly imbued with national significance.
There were (and are) three basic types of differences. One of these is alphabet. Serbo-
Croatian was written in two different alphabets, one of which (Cyrillic) was more frequently used
in the eastern regions while the other (Latin) was more frequently used in the western regions.
Both, however, were standard and both were taught in schools. Now, Croatian and Bosnian use
the Latin alphabet exclusively, while Serbian uses both freely. A second major difference is that
of pronunciation. Although there are a number of regional “accents”, the most notable pronuncia-
tion difference is also reproduced in the spelling. This difference concerns a frequently occurring
sound which in the “ekavian” pronunciation is spoken (and written) as e, but which in the
“ijekavian” pronunciation is spoken (and written) either as je or ije. Standard Bosnian and Croa-
tian use only ijekavian pronunciation, while Serbian uses ekavian predominantly but not exclu-
sively: Montenegrins and Bosnian Serbs all use ijekavian, as do some speakers in the southern
and western parts of Serbia proper.
Both these differences are of the “either – or” sort. On any one occasion, a person writes in
either one alphabet or the other; and any one speaker uses either ekavian or ijekavian pronuncia-
tion consistently. But the third difference – that of vocabulary – is more fluid. Some vocabulary
items are clearly marked as belonging to either Croatian or Serbian, but others carry mixed mark-
ings. Sometimes the affiliation of a word is a matter of personal preference. Other times, a word
can be clearly identified as “preferred” by one side, but as it is also used by the other, there is no
exclusive marking. Bosnian is a case in point: there are a few vocabulary items which are specifi-
cally Bosnian, but in the majority of cases Bosnian uses both the Serbian and the Croatian words
interchangeably. Finally, there are a few differences sometimes called “grammatical” (different
ways to express the idea “infinitive”, variant spellings of the future tense, etc.).
Because this book describes the grammar of BCS in detail, it of necessity contains a great
many examples. The citation of these examples addresses the paradox of one language (BCS) vs.
more than one (Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian) in the following manner:
• Alphabet. All items in paradigms and word lists are given in the Latin alphabet. Of the
remaining examples, which comprise full sentences, 20% are given in Cyrillic and 80% in Latin.
• Pronunciation. Some examples are given in ekavian and others in ijekavian; the choice is
more or less random. Whenever this is done, a paired set containing the form in question and the
“other” form is given immediately below the particular group of examples. The abbreviation E
refers to the ekavian partner of any one pair and the abbreviation J refers to the ijekavian partner.
xviii
How this book is organized
Each of this book’s two components, the Grammar (chapters 1-20) and the Sociolinguistic
Commentary (chapters 21-26), has its own index, and the entire book is amply cross-referenced,
enabling the reader to move among the different sections at will. There is also a detailed word
index, which includes every instance of a BCS word mentioned in the text, in vocabulary or
grammar listings, or as an alternate vocabulary item in example set footnotes; a supplementary
index lists English words mentioned in the text. Although there is a logical progression to the 26
chapters, readers can approach them in various orders. For instance, one need not have internal-
ized all the grammar in order to profit from the sociolinguistic commentary, and one may pick
and choose the areas of grammar one wishes to consult.
The grammar is intended to serve several functions. For those beginning to learn one or
more of the languages, it is best used in conjunction with the book it has been designed specifi-
cally to accompany, Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian: a Textbook with Exercises and Basic Grammar.
That book, intended for classroom use, contains interactive dialogues, extensive exercises, vo-
cabulary lists keyed to dialogues and exercises, brief grammar explanations, reading selections,
and full glossaries. For those who need only the rudiments of grammar, that book is a self-
contained textbook. This book is for those who wish more detailed grammar explanations, and to
better understand the social, cultural, and political context of the languages. The order of presen-
tation in the first 16 chapters of this book (Grammar) corresponds directly to the order of material
in the corresponding lessons of that book (Textbook). Bold-faced numbers in the brief grammar
sections of that book refer one directly to the relevant section in this book.
For those who wish to review grammar once learned or to have a reference aid at hand, this
book can stand alone. The organization is that of a review grammar, in that cases and tenses are
presented gradually throughout the first ten chapters; in later chapters, the presentation takes on
the form of a reference grammar, one which gives full details about aspect (chapter 15), case us-
age (chapter 17), word formation (chapter 18), accent (chapter 19), and phonological structure
(chapter 20). Full paradigms of nouns, pronouns and adjectives are found in chapter 8, and full
paradigms of verbs in chapter 16. The presence of numerous cross-references in grammar discus-
sions, together with the several detailed indexes, should make the book fully accessible to those
accustomed to the ordering of topics within traditional reference grammars.
The sociolinguistic commentary which concludes the book can be read alone or as a sup-
plement to the grammar presentation. The first two sections (chapters 21-22) review the history of
standardization and discuss the question of linguistic differentiation. Each of the subsequent three
chapters is devoted to the relationship between language and identity – in the case of Bosnian
(chapter 23), Croatian (chapter 24), and Serbian (chapter 25, also discussing Montenegrin). The
book concludes (chapter 26) with a statement of the status quo as of the end of 2005.
xix
(Zagreb, 2003); L. Hudeček et al., eds., Hrvatski jezički savjetnik (Zagreb, 1999); Morton Benson
(with the collaboration of Biljana Šljivić-Šimšić), Serbocroatian-English Dictionary (Belgrade
and Philadelphia, 1971), and the six-volume Rečnik srpskohrvatskog književnog jezika (Matica
srpska, 1967-1976). The marks used in this book present the full detail of this accentual system,
in a manner which allows the acquisition either of this fuller system, or of the more simplified
system actually in use by most Serbs and Croats. The marks are defined briefly in chapter 1 and
explicated fully in chapter 19, where the issue of the difference between prescribed and actual
usage is also discussed.
Other analytic innovations which are useful both to the learner and the scholar include a
clear system of verb types (presented in chapter 10 and elaborated on in chapter 16) and new
treatments of what traditional grammars call “reflexive verbs” and “impersonal sentences”. In the
first instance, true reflexive verbs are distinguished from the larger category called “se-verbs”:
this allows a more precise and workable analysis of the different functions fulfilled by the particle
se. In the second instance, impersonal sentences are viewed as a sub-category of what are here
called “subjectless sentences”, which in turn are defined in a manner that allows students to grasp
a basic grammatical structure more easily and to see the ways in which it embraces a much larger
category of sentence types.
Perhaps the most valuable innovative contribution of this book concerns clitic ordering. On
the pedagogical side, this consists of a new framework bearing the deceptively simple title “XYZ
model”: in this system, any one group of clitics is referred to as “Y” (a rubric with specific subdi-
visions), and the particular portion of the sentence preceding them in any one instance is referred
to as “X”. The use of these simple labels helps clarify this troublesome part of BCS grammar for
both students and teachers. On the analytic side, this book provides a new definition of the “first
position in the sentence” (the unit referred to as “X” in the pedagogical model). This definition,
presented in chapter 19, introduces the term “rhythmic constitutent”, which in turn is based on an
interpretation of clitic ordering as determined not only by syntax but also by speech rhythm.
xx
Thomas Magner, Vasa Mihailovich, and Biljana Šljivić-Šimsić. For input on sociolinguistic
issues I am grateful to Midhat Riđanović and Damir Kalogjera, and especially to Ranko Bugarski,
who read the entire sociolinguistic commentary several times and gave numerous helpful
suggestions.
Another essential part of the process is work with native language consultants. Although I
referred frequently to published language manuals, it was not possible to produce an adequate
description of the current differences between Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian without the help of
educated native speakers of the three current standards. I am deeply grateful to Mirza Fehimović,
Miralem Jakirlić, Anto Kneževic, Natalie Novta, Darko Poslek, Milorad Radovanović, Jasmina
Riđanovic and Jelena Simjanović for their insightful comments and their patience with endless
questions about usage. I have not incorporated every one of their suggestions, due to the simple
fact that they did not always agree among themselves as to which element was more characteris-
tic of their own Bosnian, Croatian or Serbian speech. In each such instance, I have tried to make
the best judgment, and I thank them all for their input. At the more impersonal level, I and co-
workers also consulted the following electronic corpora:
http://www.tekstlab.uio.no/Bosnian/Corpus.html
http://www.hnk.ffzg.hr/korpus.html
xxi
Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian,
a Grammar
GRAMMAR
CHAPTER 1
1 Alphabets
Two different alphabets are used within the territory covered by BCS. One is based on the
Cyrillic alphabet, known worldwide primarily from its variant used in Russian. The other is a
variant of the alphabets used to write nearly all European languages, including English, and is
known (as are other alphabets derived from the Roman writing system) as the Latin alphabet.
Croatian is written exclusively in the Latin alphabet, while Bosnian and Serbian officially accept
both alphabets. Outside the Serbian entity of Bosnia-Herzegovina, however, Bosnians almost al-
ways use only the Latin alphabet. Within that entity, and throughout Serbia and Montenegro, both
alphabets are regularly used: official documents are printed in Cyrillic only, but in all other con-
texts the Latin alphabet is used freely alongside the Cyrillic. For more on the history of these al-
phabets, see [169a-b].
Although it would appear from the above that to function anywhere in the broader BCS area
one need only learn the Latin alphabet, it is highly advisable that anyone with an interest in the
area learn to read both alphabets. For instance, much material that was published during the
course of Yugoslavia’s life is printed in both alphabets (or in one or the other), and it often occurs
that the only copy available might be the Cyrillic one. Students who will be functioning in a
Croatian or Bosnian context need only learn to write the Latin letters. Students who will be func-
tioning in a Serbian or Montenegrin context should obviously learn to read Cyrillic (preferably as
their primary script), and should also take the trouble to learn to write Cyrillic. Fortunately it is
relatively easy to learn the alphabets together since there is almost a perfect one-to-one corre-
spondence between the letters.
Learning to read and pronounce BCS is easy. This is because (with very few exceptions)
each letter corresponds to only one sound, and each sound is represented by only one letter.
Therefore, one need only learn the basic letter-sound correspondences. Those who know the Rus-
sian Cyrillic alphabet already will need to learn six new letters (ђ, j, љ, њ, ћ, џ). Those who are
seeing the Cyrillic alphabet for the first time should not despair – it is simpler than it looks. As to
the Latin alphabet, it is largely the same as that used in English, but with several significant addi-
tions. Five new letters are created by the addition of diacritic marks to existing letters (č, ć, đ, š,
ž), and three additional letters consist of a combination of two already known letters (dž, lj, nj).
These look like sequences, but each represents a single sound.
1
CHAPTER 1
A A А а father L L Л л left
B B Б б bet Lj lj Љ љ million
C C Ц ц its M m М м met
Č Č Ч ч church N n Н н net
Ć Ć Ћ ћ chick [gotcha!] Nj nj Њ њ canyon
D D Д д dent O o О о or
Dž dž Џ џ junk P p П п speck
Đ đ Ђ ђ ginger [didja see it?] R r Р р [trilled r]
E e Е е met S s С с sent, center
F f Ф ф fed Š š Ш ш sugar
G g Г г get T t Т т step
H h Х х Bach U u У у flute
I i И и machine V v В в vet
J j Ј ј yes, boy Z z З з zen
K k К к sketch Ž ž Ж ж treasure
2
CHAPTER 1
2 Pronunciation
Moving from writing to speech (and from speech back to writing) in BCS is relatively
straightforward: by and large each letter corresponds to a single sound, and vice versa (for more
details on the letter-sound correspondence, see [164c-d, 164g]). The accentual system is some-
what more complex, but its components are straightforward.
3
CHAPTER 1
The BCS pair đ and dž (in Cyrillic, ђ and џ) are related in exactly the same way, as English
speakers can verify by pronouncing jeep and juice. It is even better, of course, to listen to those
native speakers of BCS who still make the distinctions themselves (though there are now quite a
few who pronounce these consonant pairs exactly alike, or at least think they do). The meaning of
each such word will be clear however it is pronounced, but one must spell it correctly.
2b. Accent
Every BCS word has one accent (although some very small words are unaccented and are
pronounced together with the adjacent word, “sharing” its accent, and some much longer words
have a second, less noticeable accent). As in most other languages, the accented vowel is pro-
nounced slightly louder, higher, and longer than other syllables in the word. But in BCS there are
two additional facts about the accent, which will be noted in all examples in this book. In brief,
most vowels are either long or short, and any accented vowel is either falling or rising. In a few
instances, the length of the vowel is all that distinguishes two otherwise identical words. Other
than these few instances, however, the foreign learner need only learn the place of accent in order
to communicate successfully. Many speakers of Serbian and Croatian no longer observe all the
tone and length distinctions, in fact. Bosnian does observe them all, and this gives Bosnian a spe-
cial, very melodic flavor. For more detailed discussion, see [165a-b].
EKAVIAN IJEKAVIAN
где gde гдје gdje where
о̀вде òvde о̀вдје òvdje here
леп lep лијеп lijep beautiful, nice
врѐме vrème вријѐме vrijème time (also weather)
дѐте dète дијѐте dijète child
рѐка rèka ријѐка rijèka river
речник rečnik рјечник rječnik dictionary
The correspondences are not completely regular: for instance, the ijekavian form corre-
sponding to ekavian beležnica “notebook” is not the expected *bjelježnica but rather bilježnica.
It must also be noted that not every instance of -e- is defined as “ekavian”, nor is every sequence
4
CHAPTER 1
of -ije- defined as ijekavian (although nearly all sequences of -je- are in fact ijekavian). Rather,
the words in question must be learned as such.
Whenever the vowel -e- in ekavian words corresponds to the sequence -ije- in ijekavian
words, the sequence -ije- is treated not as two vowels but as a single complex vowel (as if it were
a diphthong written ie). Accentual information for this single complex vowel always appears on
the final segment. Thus, the word lijep is considered to be a single syllable, with (obligatory) fal-
ling accent on its “only” vowel.
5
CHAPTER 1
means “zero”. That is, the final consonant of a masculine noun is equivalent to the absence of an
“ending”. For more discussion of zero endings, see [161].
MASCULINE NEUTER FEMININE
-Ø -o / -e -a
muškàrac man sèlo village žèna woman
òtac father pìsmo letter majka mother
brat brother pivo beer sèstra sister
Jòvan [name] grlo throat Màra [name]
pas dog more sea mačka cat
pròzor window pìtanje question kuća house
pàpir paper polje field òlovka pencil
There are exceptions, of course. First, some masculine nouns can end in a vowel. Those
ending in -o or -e are almost always men’s names; an exception is the common noun auto “car”.
Those ending in -a are men’s names, affectionate terms for family members, or words for roles
(historically) played by men. Second, there are feminine nouns which end in a consonant (that is,
whose ending is -Ø); for more on these nouns, see [31].
MASCULINE FEMININE
-o / -e -Ø
Đorđe [name] stvar thing
àuto car ljùbav love
-a
Nìkola [name]
tata Dad
vođa leader
slùga servant
6
CHAPTER 1
Plural forms of the above nouns follow essentially the same rule, except that the masculine
plural takes on a third meaning. Not only can it refer both to a group of males and to the generic
idea of plural, but it can also refer to a group of mixed genders. The feminine plural, by contrast,
can refer only to a group of females. For discussion of plural endings, see [32].
6 Personal pronouns
There are ten possible subject pronouns in BCS (as opposed to seven in English). These are
given below. The differences consist in the fact that BCS has two possible ways to say you, and
three possible ways to say they.
The distinction between singular and plural you is like that of most other European lan-
guages. The singular ti is used to address children, animals, God, and people one knows well and
is on familiar terms with (family members, spouses, lovers, classmates, etc.). The plural form vi
is used to address a person of a higher rank or in situations when politeness requires a certain dis-
tance. In this meaning it refers to a single person, and is normally capitalized when written in
Serbian; Croatian and Bosnian do so only in very formal style. The pronoun vi is also the only
form one can use to address a group of people; in this meaning it is not capitalized.
singular plural
first person ja I mi we
second person ti you vi you
third person
(masculine) on he, it òni they
(neuter) òno it òna they
(feminine) òna she, it òne they
Third-person pronouns are used when referring to a noun, and must specify that noun’s gen-
der. Thus, any noun of masculine gender in BCS must be referred to as on, and any noun of femi-
nine gender as ona. This may cause problems for English speakers, for whom the masculine and
feminine pronouns he and she normally refer only to humans, and the unmarked pronoun it is
used elsewhere. In BCS, by contrast, it is the grammatical gender of the noun which determines
the form of the pronoun referring to it.
Plural pronouns follow the “specific vs. generic” rules outlined in [5b]. The plural pronoun
one refers to a group of females (or of feminine nouns) only, and the plural pronoun ona refers to
a group of neuter nouns only. The plural pronoun oni, by contrast, refers either to a group of
males or masculine nouns, or to a group of mixed gender (or of nouns of more than one gender).
Finally, personal pronouns are usually used as subjects of the verb in BCS only for empha-
sis, or when the subject is changed. Otherwise it is the norm to omit them, since the verb carries
the necessary markings for person and number.
7
CHAPTER 1
SINGULAR PLURAL
English verbs have two other forms of the present tense. One is made with the auxiliary be
and the other with the auxiliary do. The first indicates an action in progress, as in I am reading,
and the second indicates either a question, as in Do I know you?, or communicates emphasis, as in
Yes, I do know you! In BCS, the single present tense form carries ALL these meanings. No addi-
tional verb form is needed, and none should be added. Rather, the context of usage determines
which meaning is intended. Since BCS verb forms normally occur without subject pronouns, they
are always listed that way in conjugation charts. The verb’s ending identifies the subject as to
person (first, second or third) and number (singular or plural).
Here is an example of a BCS verb presented according to this model. All verb conjugations
listed in this book will include the infinitive of the verb at the top left hand corner, and the general
meaning at the top right. The verb given here means literally “to be
called”, and is used most frequently in the expression my name is… zvati se be called
and the like. This verb has the special characteristic that it must al-
zòvem se zòvemo se
ways be accompanied by the particle se. This particle obeys particu-
zòveš se zòvete se
lar word order rules, the most important of which is that it can never
zòve se zòvu se
begin a sentence. For more on these rules, see [12].
8
CHAPTER 1
The clitic forms are used in most instances. They are always unaccented, and are subject to
particular word order rules, the essence of which is that clitic forms must immediately follow the
first significant unit in the sentence (for more discussion, see [12]). The other two forms are fully
accented and can occur in any position in the sentence. Negated forms express negation, and the
full forms are used in questions, in single-word answers, and to convey emphasis. Note that in
questions a different form of the 3rd singular “full” form is required; for more examples, see [8b].
CLITIC Ja sam stùdent, a ti si profesor. I’m a student, and you’re a professor.
On je Ènglez, a i òna je Èngleskinja. He’s English, and she is English [too].
FULL
short answer – Ti si stùdent? – Jèsam. “You’re a student?” “Yes, I am.”
emphasis Mi jès mo stùdenti! [Yes,] we ARE students!
question Jèste li stùdenti? Are you students?
NEGATED Vi ste stùdenti, ali mi nìsmo. You are students, but we aren’t.
Òna nìje Èngleskinja. She’s not English.
8 Questions
There are two basic kinds of questions. One type begins with a question word such as who,
what, where, when, or the like, and requests concrete information. The structure of these BCS
sentences is similar to that of their English counterparts. The other type expects either yes or no as
an answer. These BCS questions normally contain the particle li.
The question word kako, generally similar to English how, also appears frequently in the question
phrase kako se kaže…, best translated as “how do you say…”.
The question words meaning who and what have slightly different forms throughout the
BCS area. In Bosnian and Serbian these words are ko and šta, respectively, while in Croatian
they are tko and što, respectively. These words are used as in English: who requests information
about persons and what requests information about animals, things, facts or concepts. Note, how-
9
CHAPTER 1
ever, that when the BCS word for what refers to a person, it requests information about the per-
son’s profession or nationality. An English parallel in the first instance would be What do you
do?, and in the second (in the appropriate context), What are you?.
In a colloquial setting one can ask a question simply by using rising intonation. It is also
possible, but only in the spoken language and only the colloquial format, to use the sequence je li
(often shortened to jel’) in place of da li.
10
CHAPTER 1
10 Conjunctions
BCS has two words meaning and, each of which consists of a single letter. One, spelled i,
implies that the two items or concepts which are connected are similar or on a parallel level. The
other, spelled a, implies contrast. When used at the beginning of a question, the conjunction a
emphasizes that the speaker does not expect equivalence (but is rather keeping an open mind). A
comma must always be placed before the conjunction a. The conjunction i has two other mean-
ings. When it is used alone, especially at the beginning of a sentence, it means even or also. When
used in this meaning, it must be placed immediately before the word it refers to. When it is dou-
bled, it means both … and. The conjunction ali means but; the conjunction ili means or. When
doubled, it means either … or. For more discussion of these conjunctions, see [143a].
11 Adjectives, introduction
The BCS category “adjective” comprises different sorts of words. Their common feature is
that, as in English, they refer to specific nouns, and give information about these nouns. BCS ad-
jectives also occur in the same sentence slots as in English – either directly before a noun (at-
tributive position), or after a form of the verb “to be” (predicative position). The examples below
illustrate this with the pronominal possessive adjective form moja “my”.
What is different about BCS adjectives is that they change in form to match the gender of
the noun to which they refer. In the sentences above, moja is in the feminine form because it re-
fers to the feminine noun olovka. As the examples below illustrate, the adjective must agree with
its noun regardless of whether it is placed in attributive or in predicative position.
11
CHAPTER 1
One must take care to note that the agreement is with the gender of a noun and not its form.
For instance, although most nouns ending in -a are feminine, some are masculine. Thus one says
moja mama “my Mom” but moj tata “my Dad”.
The vowel in a single syllable word ending in -j (such as moj) is often long, and usually
shortens when another syllable is added. The accent in any word of one syllable is of necessity
falling; when another syllable is added this accent can sometimes shift to rising. For more on ac-
cent shifts in adjectives, see [166b].
12
CHAPTER 1
The fact of this three-way distinction in BCS, vs. a two-way one in English, means that the neutral
member of the trio, taj, corresponds either to this or that depending on the context. The chart on
the left presents this in schematic terms, reckoning the distinction in terms of physical distance
from the speaker. The endings of the demonstrative pronominal adjectives, presented in the chart
on the right, are similar to those of the possessive pronominal adjectives. The masculine form
contains the syllable -aj, which is not present in the feminine or neuter forms.
Note also that while the neuter forms of taj and ovaj look exactly like the unchangeable presenta-
tive forms ovo and to, they do not mean the same thing. Pronominal adjectives always refer to a
specific noun, and identify it as this or that specific one, while presentatives simply introduce the
idea that something will be discussed. Here are examples of the difference:
12 Word order
In English sentences, the subject almost always precedes the verb, a predicate adjective or
noun almost always follows the verb to be, and nearly every sentence must contain both a subject
and a verb. In BCS, however, things are much more fluid. Pronoun subjects are often omitted,
and the order of the predicate noun or adjective and verb to be is often reversed. The meaning of
the sentence must be derived not so much from the order in which words occur but rather from
the individual words, and from the case endings added to them (see [18] for an introduction to the
concept of case). This point is very important for those whose native language is English.
13
CHAPTER 1
take practice. This is because the learner must remember both to place clitics in the right position
and to pronounce them without any accent. In addition, because clitics must come in second posi-
tion regardless of the meaning of the sentence, it sometimes will seem to an English speaker that
they occur in “unnatural” positions.
A new model has been designed to help English-speaking learners acquire this complex part
of BCS grammar. It is presented initially below, and developed gradually throughout the book.
X Y Z
first significant unit clitics remainder of sentence
The central point of this model is that clitics always come in slot Y no matter what the meaning of
the sentence is. Slot Z can on occasion be empty, but slots X and Y are always occupied if clitics
are present. Below are examples of sentences with one clitic each. Clitics learned so far include
the clitic forms of biti, the question particle li, and the verbal particle se.
X Y Z
Òna je Amerìkanka. She is an American.
Amerìkanka je. [same]
Zòvem se Sanja Làlić. My name is Sanja Lalić.
Ja se zòvem Sanja Làlić. [same]
Jèste li stùdent? Are you a student?
Kàko se òna zòve? What is her name?
B,C,S jeste li / S,B da li ste
When a sentence contains more than one clitic, they must follow a strictly prescribed order.
In particular, the particle li must always precede any other clitic. Indeed, although one could view
the question phrase Da li as a fixed unit, it is more in accord with the structure of BCS to view it
as an X-Y sequence, with li in second position (this is because the conjunction da, to be seen sub-
sequently in a number of other meanings, always occupies slot X). In the examples below, which
illustrate the operation of word order rules in sentences containing li, the subject pronouns ti, on,
and ona are given in parentheses, as a reminder that the sentence may or may not include them,
depending on whether or not the identity of the subject is clear from the context (review [6]).
X Y Z
Zòve li se (òna) Vesna? Is her name Vesna?
Da li se (òna) zòv e Vesna? [same]
Da li si (ti) stùdent? Are you a student?
Jèsi li (ti) stùdent? [same]
Da li je (on) Bosàn ac? Is he Bosnian?
Je li (on) Bosàn ac? [same]
C,B zove li se / S,B da li se zove; S,B da li si / C,B jesi li; S,B da li je / C,B je li
14
CHAPTER 1
Although the occupant of slot X is usually a single word, this will not always be the case. For in-
stance, the two conjunctions meaning and cannot occupy slot X alone, but must instead always be
followed by another word.
X Y Z
И ја сам сту̀дент. I’m a student, too.
А је ли он сту̀дент? But is he a student?
Note that slot X does not always occur at the actual beginning of what is a printed sentence on a
page. Whenever there is a pause in speech, the reckoning of XYZ starts anew. The examples be-
low illustrate the kind of clear pause that is introduced in writing by a comma. Other times, the
sentence may be long enough so as to occasion a pause which is all but imperceptible in speech
but which nevertheless requires the XYZ reckoning to “start over”; for examples see [85a, 164b].
X Y Z
15
CHAPTER 2
The 1st singular (1sg.) form is made by adding the ending -m to the basic (3sg.) form, and
the 1st plural (1pl.) form is made by adding the ending -mo to the basic (3sg.) form. In like man-
ner, the 2nd singular (2sg.) form is made by adding -š to the basic form, and the 2nd plural (2pl.)
form is made by adding -te to this same basic form. Here are these forms for the same verbs:
a-conjugation e-conjugation i-conjugation
2sg. čìtaš you read pišeš you write gòvoriš you speak
2pl. čìtate you read pišete you write gòvorite you speak
It is only the 3rd plural (3pl.) form that poses difficulty. In this instance, one must simply
learn that a-conjugation verbs have the ending -aju, e-conjugation verbs have the ending -u, and
i-conjugation verbs have the ending -e. These same verbs have the following forms:
All verb forms consist at least of a stem and an ending. The most basic part of the stem is
the root, which may have one or more prefixes in front of it, and one or more suffixes following it.
The root is the part of the word which carries its dictionary meaning (for example, čit- “read” or
govor- “speak”). The ending is that which carries the grammatical information. For example, the
16
CHAPTER 2
endings -m, -š, -mo, -te identify a verb form as 1sg., 2sg., 1pl., or 2pl., respectively. The 3sg.
ending is always zero. For more on roots, prefixes, suffixes and endings, see [96, 161-163].
In most verbal forms, there is a vowel connecting the stem and the ending, which is called
the theme vowel. In the present tense, the theme vowel is that which gives each present tense con-
jugation its name. The reason it is important to be aware of the theme vowel is that this vowel is
distinctively long. This is the case for all verbs of the a- and i-conjugations, and for nearly all
verbs of the e-conjugation. Exceptionally, the 3pl. form of a-conjugation verbs has a short theme
vowel and a long final vowel: -aju. Here are the three conjugations in standard format:
17
CHAPTER 2
singular plural
18
CHAPTER 2
16 Adjectives, continued
Adjectives refer to a specific noun: in technical terms, they modify that noun. Adjectives
must also carry all the same grammatical markings as the noun they modify: again in technical
terms, they must agree with that noun. This means that any adjective form must specify gender,
number and case. That is, it must be marked as either masculine, feminine or neuter; as either sin-
gular or plural; and as expressing one of several cases. For more on gender, see [11]; for more on
number see [32a]; for more on case see [18].
16c. Adjectives in -o
The masculine singular form of most adjectives ends in a consonant. Several adjectives,
however, have a masculine singular form ending in -o; this o is replaced by -l in all other forms of
19
CHAPTER 2
the adjective. Phrased differently, if an adjective stem ending in -l is followed by the zero ending
(-Ø), then this final -l is replaced by -o (for more, see [167d]). If the root vowel of such an adjec-
tive is one with ekavian and ijekavian variants, the ijekavian forms sometimes follow one pattern
and sometimes another. The final -l does not always shift to -o before the zero ending. In some
adjectives (such as bijel) it never does, and it others (such as cijel) it has both shifted and non-
shifted forms. If it does shift to -o, then the regular ijekavian sequence -ije- is replaced by -i-.
The examples below illustrate these shifts. The feminine singular form stands for what hap-
pens in all other forms. Note that the first three items in the left-hand chart also have fleeting -a-.
masculine feminine masculine feminine
In the written language, the distinction between short and long forms is seen only in the
masculine singular: the short form has the zero ending, and the long form has the ending -i. By
definition, therefore, only the short form can contain a fleeting -a-. In neuter and feminine adjec-
tives, short and long forms are distinguished only in speech. The vowels in the endings of the
short forms are short, and those of the long forms are long. In addition, the accent of the short-
form stem vowel may shift from rising to falling in the long form, or (more rarely), may shift to a
rising accent on the preceding syllable. Speakers of Bosnian regularly distinguish long and short
forms in this way, but only some speakers of Serbian do. In Croatian, the distinction is sporadic at
best (and is nearly lost). For more on length distinctions throughout the BCS area, see [165d].
20
CHAPTER 2
John has a new car (4) now. His car (1) is the center of his life. He goes
everywhere he can by car (6). He often checks the tires of the car (2), and
sometimes he just sits in his car (7) and talks to his car (3). “Oh, car (5)!”
he says. “What did I do before you came into my life?”
Each of the seven BCS cases has a separate form in the singular, and six of the seven have a sepa-
rate form in the plural. Here are the names of these seven cases, together with two sets of abbre-
viations. One is frequently used to refer to the general case meaning, and the other to the case
form that expresses that meaning.
21
CHAPTER 2
From the above it would appear that every noun has fourteen different forms. Fortunately,
there are fewer, as endings are shared within different noun classes in numerous instances. For
instance, dative and locative singular share the same form (discussed in [66a]), abbreviated
DLsg. Additionally, dative, locative and instrumental plural share the same form (discussed in
[86]), abbreviated DLIpl. Most grammars still retain the idea of seven separate case meanings,
however. To aid learning, case endings are presented gradually throughout this and the subse-
quent six chapters. The full set of case endings which a noun takes is called a declension.
There are three declensions in BCS. Masculine and neuter nouns (other than masculine
nouns in -a) follow the same basic declension, with certain internal variations. Nouns ending in -a
(both feminine and masculine) follow another declension. The third declension (discussed in
[31]) is restricted to feminine nouns with a zero ending. For complete declensions of all three
types of nouns, see [89].
22
CHAPTER 2
occur after the verb značiti “to mean” and certain other linking verbs. When a noun is in predica-
tive position, it is almost always the case that another noun (also in the nominative case) is the
subject. All adjective and noun forms seen till now have been in the nominative case, singular
number. For review, here are examples of usage; more discussion of the nominative case can be
found in [155a]. To illustrate clearly the distinction between nouns as subject and nouns as predi-
cates, the same nouns are used in both sets of examples.
Noun as subject
masculine Moj muž se zòve Radovan. My husband is called Radovan.
neuter Njègovo ime je Vladimir. His name is Vladimir.
feminine Majka dànas nè radi. Mother isn’t working today.
Òva tajna je naša. This secret is ours.
Noun as predicate
masculine Radovan je moj muž. Radovan is my husband.
neuter Vladimir je njègovo dète. Vladimir is his child.
feminine “Mama” znàči “majka”. “Mom” means “mother”.
Naša idèja je velika tajna. Our idea is a big secret.
E dete / J dijete
The feminine and neuter Asg. adjective endings are the same as the noun endings. Adjec-
tives modifying masculine nouns are more complex, partly because of the short / long distinction
(review [17]), and partly because of the animate / inanimate one. If the noun is inanimate, the
Asg. adjective ending is the same as the Nsg. one. But if the noun is animate, the adjective ending
is different – not only from the Nsg. one, but also from that of the noun it modifies. That is, the
Asg. ending of masculine animate nouns is -a, but for adjectives it is -og. If the stem-final conso-
nant is soft, this ending is -eg (for the definition of soft consonants, see [32e]; for more detail see
[167c]). The vowels in these endings are always long.
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CHAPTER 2
The chart above gives both short and long endings for Nsg. adjective forms, but only long
endings for Asg. adjective forms. In principle, both short or long adjective endings are possible in
Asg. as in Nsg. In practice, however, short forms are rarely used in cases other than nominative
(but see [42c, 66c]). For simplicity, charts comparing noun and adjective case endings will show
both short and long endings in nominative, but only long endings in other cases.
Students may memorize endings alone according to charts like those given above. But they
may find it easier (and more effective) to learn case forms using actual adjective + noun combina-
tions. This will be particularly helpful when the noun and adjective endings do not match (as will
be the case with nearly all endings yet to be learned). The pairs below give Nsg. and Asg. forms
of the masculine nouns pas “dog” [anim.] and grad “city” [inan.], the neuter noun ime “name”
and the feminine noun žena “woman”. Each is paired with an adjective. One of these (dobar
“good”) contains a fleeting vowel, and the other three do not. Of these, two end in soft consonants
(loš “bad”, smeđ “brown”) and the third (siv “gray”) ends in what is called a hard consonant.
Both short and long adjective forms are given for Nsg. and only long adjective forms for
Asg. The masculine noun gazda “landlord” is also included, to reinforce the fact that agreement
is determined by gender and not by form. This noun takes the same endings as the feminine noun
žena. But because it is masculine in gender, adjectives modifying it must be masculine.
masc.anim. masc.inan. neuter feminine
Nsg. short dobar pas dobar grad dòbro ime dòbra žèn a
Nsg. long dobri pas dobri grad dobro ime dobra žèn a
Nsg. short smeđ pas siv grad lòše ime lòša žèna
Nsg. long smeđi pas sivi grad loše ime loša žèna
Nsg. short loš gazda
Nsg. long loši gazda
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CHAPTER 2
The accentuation of certain animate masculine nouns may also change in the accusative
form. Specifically, if the final vowel is long and the preceding vowel carries a rising accent, the
accent in the accusative form may shift forward one syllable towards the end. What was a short
rising accent on the first syllable is now a long rising accent on the second syllable, a change
which is quite noticeable in pronunciation. For a more precise statement of this accent shift, see
[166], and for other accent shifts in nouns, see [166b].
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CHAPTER 2
✩ ZA Majka radi sve za sina. Mother does everything for [her] son.
Kùpujem òvo za prijatelja. I’m buying this for a friend.
To je vrlo korisno za zdravlje. This is very good for [one’s] health.
Još je rano za rùčak. It’s early yet for lunch.
Òvo je šòlja zà čaj. This is a teacup [ = a cup for tea].
On ùči za inženjèra. He’s studying to be an engineer. [ = He’s
working for an engineering degree.]
To je sve za dànas! That’s all for today!
B,C,S za prijatelja / S,B za druga; S,C za zdravlje / B zà zdravlje; S,B šolja / C šalica; B zà čaj / S,C za čaj
✩U – Žèliš li pògledati film u srijedu? “Do you want to see the film on Wednesday?”
– Ne mògu. Ali mògu u četvr̀tak. “I can’t. But I can on Thursday.”
– Vidimo se u četvr̀tak onda. “See you on Thursday, then.”
B,C želiš li / S,B da li želiš; J u srijedu / E u sredu
✩ NA Nè znam odgovor na vaše pìtanje. I don’t know the answer to your question.
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CHAPTER 2
– Vidiš li ga? Tamo je. “Do you see him? He’s over there.”
– Vidim ga. I òna ga vidi. “I see him. She sees him too.”
Gdje su mòje knjige? Tko ih čìta? Where are my books? Who’s reading them?
Tvòja knjiga nìje tu. Ja je čìtam. Your book isn’t here. I’m [the one who’s] reading it.
C,B vidiš li ga / S,B da li ga vidiš; J gdje / E gde; C tko / S,B ko
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As the examples below illustrate, the full form pronoun objects occur primarily after prepo-
sitions. However, they can also be used to convey a strong sense of contrast or emphasis.
Mi radimo sve zà njega, a šta We do everything for him, but what
on radi zà nas? does he do for us?
– Vidiš li Ànu i njenog muža? “Do you see Ana and her husband?”
– Nju nè vidim, vidim samo njega. “I don’t see her, only him. But him,
A njega jasno vidim. I [can] see clearly.
B zà njega / C,S za njega; S,B šta / C što; B zà nas / C,S za nas; C,B vidiš li / S,B da li vidiš; B,C,S njenog
/ C,B njezinog
The sense of full form pronouns is hard to convey in written English translation. For in-
stance, in the first sentence of the final English examples above, one would need to put heavy
contrastive stress on the pronouns her and him in order to reproduce the intended meaning of the
BCS original. English speakers, with only one set of object pronouns at their disposal, should use
BCS full form pronouns sparingly until they get a good sense of the usage. Except as objects of
prepositions (where full form pronouns are required) learners should focus on using the clitic
pronoun objects.
25 Negation
Negation is expressed by the segment ne. It functions both as a separate word (correspond-
ing to English no), and as a particle preceding other words (corresponding to English not). When
it is a particle, it follows different accentual rules depending on whether the following word is a
verb or some other part of speech.
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CHAPTER 2
The strength of this spoken bond (between the negative particle and the verb it negates) is
such that nothing can come between them. What this means in terms of clitics and XYZ word or-
der model is that the entire sequence must come either before the clitics or after them. In other
words, the sequence ne + verb must occupy either slot X or slot Z. Here are examples:
X Y Z
Не зо̀ве се Љѝљана. Her name is not Ljiljana.
О̀на се не зо̀ве Љѝљана. [same]
Не чѝт а га. She’s not reading it.
О̀на га не чѝта. [same]
26 The conjunction da
The word da has a number of meanings in BCS. When used as a conjunction, it has two
primary meanings. One of these is to join two clauses into a single sentence; this meaning is dis-
cussed briefly in [26a] and more extensively in [143d]. The other expresses the general idea of
the English infinitive; this is discussed briefly in [26b] and extensively in [143e].
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CHAPTER 2
sentence 1 sentence 2
(a) I want We want
(b) we study together on Saturday Tomislav also has lunch
BCS joins the two clauses simply by adding the conjunction da. If the subject of clause (b)
is clear from the context, it may be omitted (as in BCS sentence 1, where the verb ending clearly
conveys the fact that the subject is mi “we”). English, however, must do two things: it must re-
place the verb of clause (b) with an infinitive, and it must move the subject of that clause up into
clause (a) and turn it into an object. This is why the English translation of example 1 replaces we
with us. What is important to note is that the BCS structure is clear and logical, and that it is the
more complex rules of English grammar which may cause interference.
27 Infinitives
As in English, the BCS infinitive functions as the dictionary form of the verb. Infinitives in
English are usually (but not always) preceded by the particle to. BCS infinitives have one of two
endings: either -ti or -ći.
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CHAPTER 2
Most of the time BCS infinitives will correspond to English infinitives. English speakers
must remember that when the verbs can, must, and should are used in English as infinitives, they
do not have the marker to. Consequently, English speakers must pay attention to use the BCS in-
finitive form after the corresponding BCS verbs moći “can” and morati “must”. One can remem-
ber this by thinking of moći as “be able to” and morati as “have to”.
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CHAPTER 2
sioned by the speaker. The verb kupovati, by contrast, refers either to an action of purchase in
progress (one which has not yet been completed), or to the idea of repeated actions of purchasing.
It is in the nature of verbal tenses that perfective verbs would occur more frequently in other
tenses than the present. This is because the general idea of completion or closure is more conge-
nial to the meaning of the past tense (in which one speaks of a completed action) or the future
tense (in which one envisions, and assumes, the eventual completion of an action). By the same
token, imperfective verbs occur more frequently in the present tense, since the general meaning of
“present tense” is to describe actions in progress or actions as a general fact. Yet perfective verbs
are not limited only to past and future tenses. If the idea of potential closure can be expressed
grammatically, then the perfective aspect can be used. The most frequent such context is as an
infinitive following another verb. Perfective verbs can also occur in the present tense after the
subordinating conjunction da.
Imperfective: – Vidim da kùpuješ hrànu. Možeš “I see you’re buying food. Can you
li kùpiti nešto i za mene? buy something for me too?”
action in progress
Perfective: – Svakako. Šta žèliš da kupim? “Sure. What do you want me to buy?”
specific action,
projected completion
B,C možeš li kupiti / B možeš li da kupiš / S,B da li možeš da kupiš; S,C za mene / B zà mene; B,S šta / C što
29 Word order
The XYZ rules of word order require clitics to come after the first significant unit. To apply
these rules precisely, one must of course be able to define the meaning of “first significant unit”.
The meaning of this label will become clear through practice (for detailed discussion and a pre-
cise definition, see [164]). One clear instance concerns subordinating conjunctions. These always
fill the X position completely: they require clitics to follow them directly, without exception. The
most frequent such conjunction is da (review [26a]).
But if the definition of the X position must remain for now somewhat fluid, that of the Y po-
sition is quite clear: clitics must all be in the Y slot. The rule requiring clitics to be placed in this
slot outweighs any word order rules related to the general meaning of a sentence.
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CHAPTER 2
(1) Nè zna da je to tvòje ime. He doesn’t know that that’s your name.
(original independent statement) (same statement after da)
To je tvòje ime. ... da je to tvòje ime.
X Y Z
infinitive Zaista ga žèlim vidjeti. I really want to see him.
Ja ga zaista žèlim vidjeti. [same]
Žèlim ga zaista vidjeti. [same]
da-replacement Zaista žèlim da ga vidim. [same]
E videti / J vidjeti; C,B želim vidjeti / S,B želim da vidim
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CHAPTER 3
34
CHAPTER 3
feminine in -Ø feminine in -a
For such nouns, one must generally learn the gender along with the noun. One helpful aid to vo-
cabulary building, however, lies in the fact that nouns with the suffix -ost all belong to this group
(as do certain nouns in -est); furthermore, all of these nouns refer to abstract ideas or categories.
Feminine nouns in a consonant
nouns in -ost, -est others
32 Nominative plural
The Npl. endings are straightforward for all nouns and adjectives. However, there are a
number of additional complexities connected with certain nouns, primarily masculines in -Ø.
35
CHAPTER 3
Nsg. -Ø -a -o / -e -a -Ø
Npl. -i -e -a -e -i
NOMINATIVE PLURAL, adjectives
masculine neuter feminine
Nsg. -Ø, -i -o / -e -a
Npl. -i -a -e
The following chart gives sample pairs of nominative singular and nominative plural forms.
Both short and long forms are given for all adjectives. It is important to note that the Nsg. and
Npl. long form masculine adjectives are identical in form, and to be aware that in such instances,
a noun must be present in order to know which meaning is intended.
NOMINATIVE PLURAL
masculine neuter feminine
Nsg.short loš đak dobar gazda dugo pìsmo dòbra knjiga slatka stvar
Nsg.long loši đak dobri gazda dugo pìsmo dobra knjiga slatka stvar
Npl.short loši đàci dobri gazde duga pìsma dòbre knjige slatke stvari
Npl.long loši đàci dobri gazde duga pìsma dobre knjige slatke stvari
bad pupil(s) good landlord(s) long letter(s) good book(s) sweet thing(s)
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CHAPTER 3
There is one group of nouns in which this set of changes is quite complex. These include
the noun otac “father” and nouns ending in -tak or -dak. When the fleeting -a- is lost, sequences
of -tc-, -tk- or -dk- are created (and the sequence -dk- immediately assimilates to -tk-). When the
final -k of this latter sequence shifts to -c before Npl. -i, this causes the sequence -tc- to appear in
all of these nouns. Because this sequence is pronounced as c, it is also spelled that way (for more
discussion, see [167f]). The Npl. forms of these nouns, therefore, are somewhat hard to recognize
despite the fact that they are formed according to a predictable sequence of rules. The chart below
outlines the processes involved, which must occur in the order given as (a) - (d). Examples of the
results follow.
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CHAPTER 3
According to the general rule, monosyllabic masculine nouns add -ov- / -ev- in the plural,
and polysyllabic ones do not. There are two sets of exceptions to this rule – monosyllabic nouns
which do not add it, and disyllabic ones which do. Some members of the first group, such as
monosyllabic nouns denoting nationality names, are predictable; others must simply be learned.
The second group contains several disyllabic masculine nouns, usually with fleeting -a in their
second syllable. These plurals are not predictable, but must be learned. In addition, some nouns
38
CHAPTER 3
have both plurals. Usually there is no difference in meaning, but sometimes (as in the case of otac
“father”), there is a distinction. Below are examples of both types.
Monosyllabic nouns, Npl. -i
Nsg. Npl.
nationality names Grk Grci Greek(s) [ = person / people]
Čeh Česi Czech(s) [ = person / people]
Rus Rusi Russian(s) = [person / people]
other gost gosti guest(s)
đak đàci pupil(s)
konj kònji horse(s)
dan dani day(s)
prst prsti finger(s), toe(s)
“soft” consonants: č š ž ć đ dž nj lj j + c
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CHAPTER 3
33 Accusative plural
Feminine and neuter nouns and adjectives use the same form in both Npl. and Apl. Mascu-
line nouns and adjectives, however, take the Apl. ending -e. The chart below highlights masculine
nouns in order to draw attention to this. As in earlier charts, nominative forms give both short and
long adjective forms, and accusative only long; recall that some adjectives occur in only short or
only long forms (review [17b]). Examples of usage are below.
Accusative plural
Vaše žène zòvu naše žène. Your women call our women.
Naši muževi zòvu njihove muževe. Our husbands call their husbands.
Dobri đàci pišu dobra pìsma. Good pupils write good letters.
Nè znaju svi đàci sve riječi. Not all the pupils know all the words.
Dobri nàstavnici traže dobre đàke. Good teachers seek good pupils.
Strani jèzici su vrlo zanìmljivi. Foreign languages are very interesting.
Jako volim strane jèzike. I really like foreign languages.
J riječi / E reči
34 Prepositions, continued
Many of the prepositions used with the Acc. refer to the idea of motion – sometimes seen as
occurring through actual physical space, and sometimes perceived in metaphorical terms.
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CHAPTER 3
✩ KROZ Kòja rijèka tèče kroz vaš grad? Which river flows through your city?
Mačka često gleda kroz pròzor. The cat often gazes out the window.
Što vidiš kad gledaš kroz pròzor? What do you see when you look out the window?
J rijeka / E reka; C što / S,B šta
✩ UZ Рѐка тѐч е уз др̀жавну гра̀ницу. The river flows along the state border.
Шта жѐлиш да пијеш у̀з јело? What do you want to drink with your meal?
Лепо је шѐтати уз обалу. It’s nice to walk along the coast.
E reka / J rijeka; S,B šta / C što; S,B želiš da piješ / C,B želiš piti; B ùz jelo / S,C uz jelo; E lepo / J lijepo
35 Adverbs
As in English, adverbs provide information about the place, time, or manner of a state or an
action. On paper, BCS adverbs look identical to the NAsg. neuter of the corresponding adjective,
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CHAPTER 3
although sometimes there are accentual differences. The most important of these concerns vowel
length. Most neuter singular adjectives can be either long or short (distinguished by the length of
the final vowel). An adverb, however, only has one form: its final vowel is either long or short.
The chart below gives examples of neuter adjectives (each modifying a neuter noun), together
with the adverbs derived from them (each given as a verbal modifier). As the examples show, the
BCS adverb usually precedes the verb, although it can also on occasion follow it. The sentence
below the chart illustrates the fact that forms with the masculine Nsg. ending -ski can also be
used as adverbs. All others, however, take the neuter Nsg. form.
Adjective Adverb
dòbro ime a good name dobro govòriti speak well
čèsto pìtanje a frequent question često pìtati ask often
òdlično pìsmo an excellent letter òdlično pìsati write very well
br̀zo čìtanje speed reading ràditi brzo work fast
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CHAPTER 3
For review, the chart below gives Nsg. and Npl. forms for these three interrogative pronominal
adjectives. Note that the first has the short form, and the other two have the long form.
Singular Plural
masc. neuter fem. masc. neuter fem.
short form kàkav kàkvo kàkva kàkvi kàkva kàkve what
long form kòji kòje kòja kòji kòja kòje which
long form čìji čìje čìja čìji čìja čìje whose
The pronominal adjective expressing the idea of English all is declined like kakav. The
masculine and feminine singular forms are not widely encountered, although sometimes they can
be used with a particular noun in the meaning the entire. Both the neuter singular and masculine
plural forms are widely used, however, as they are the all-purpose words meaning everything and
everyone. In addition, all genders of the plural are frequently in use as a regular pronominal ad-
jective modifying nouns, usually translated as all [the].
Singular Plural
masc. neut. fem. masc. neut. fem.
short form sav sve sva svi sva sve all
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CHAPTER 3
Singular Plural
masc. neut. fem. masc. neut. fem.
one Jèdan pas je vèliki, a drugi je malen. One dog is big and the other is little.
Jèdna mačka je cr̀na, a druga nìje. One cat is black but the other isn’t.
On čìta jèdno pìsmo, a ja čìtam He’s reading one letter and I’m
drugo. reading the other.
Òna ìma samo jèdnu pticu. She has only one bird.
a, an To je jèdna vrlo lijèpa pjesma. That’s a very beautiful song.
To je vrlo lijèpa pjesma. [same]
Tražim jèdnu òsobu. I’m looking for a [particular] person.
Neka dèvojka te čeka. Some [ = a] girl is waiting for you.
[plural] Jèdni kažu òvo, drugi òno. Some say this, others [say] that.
Tamo rade neke nepoznate žèn e. Some [sort of] women unknown [to us]
are working there.
“the one” – Kòji kàput je tvoj? “Which [one] is your coat?”
– Òv aj plavi. “This blue one.”
Naš pròzor je ònaj vèliki tamo. Our window is that big one over there.
J lijepa pjesma / E lepa pesma; E devojka / J djevojka
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Òvaj čòvjek je naš dobar prijatelj. This man / person is our good friend.
Ko su ti ljudi? Da li ih pòznaješ? Who are these people? Do you know them?
– Vidiš li òne ljude tamo? “Do you see those people over there?”
– Ne, vidim samo jèdnog čòveka. “No, I see only one person.
Zašto pitaš? Why do you ask?
– Pitam zàto što tražim jèdnu òsobu. “I ask because I’m seeking a [certain] individual.”
Napolju čeka neko sùmnjivo lìce. There’s a suspicious person waiting outside.
J čovjek / E čovek; S,B ko / C tko; S,B da li ih poznaješ / C,B poznaješ li ih; C,B vidiš li / S,B da li vidiš;
E čoveka / J čovjeka; S,B napolju / C,B vani; S lice / B,C,S osoba
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CHAPTER 3
zvati Majka zòve sina svaki dan. Mother calls [her] son every day.
(transitive) Njègovi prijatelji ga zòvu Tòma. His friends call him Toma.
Često nas zòvu kad nìsu tu. They often call us when they’re away.
zvati se Ja se zòvem Àna, a on – Tòma. My name is Ana and his – Toma.
(intransitive) Svi ùčesnici se zòvu Smith. All the participants are called Smith.
S,B svi učesnici / C svi sudionici; C,B Smith / S Smit
A second way in which the addition of se focuses more attention on the verbal idea itself is
by making an active verb passive. Here, the central point is that a transitive verb is one with a
direct object. When that which would have been the verb’s object is expressed as a subject, the
sentence has become passive. For example, the verb kazati means “say [something]”. That which
is said is not always explicitly stated, but it is always present in the speaker’s mind in the
meaning of the verb. When that which is said becomes the subject of the verb, the particle se
changes the verb into a passive one, such that kazati se means something parallel to English “to
be said”. The resulting phrase, to se kaže, is used only in the 3sg. form.
kazati (active) Šta kaže? Nè čujem dobro. What’s s/he saying? I can’t hear very well.
Kažu lèpe stvari! They’re saying nice things!
kaže se (passive) Kàko se to kaže na hr̀vatskom? How do you say that in Croatian?
To se samo tàko kaže, znaš! That’s just how people talk, you know!
S,B šta / C što; E lepe / J lijepe
The two verbal forms seen above – zove se and kaže se – are so frequent in BCS as to be
fixed expressions, and can for the moment be learned as such. Eventually they will be seen as
illustrative of some of the most basic organizing principles of BCS grammar.
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ally consists of a single word, it can also comprise a phrase of two or more accented words. One
of the phrases most frequently encountered in the X position is a combination of adjective + noun.
X Y Z
When the noun is modified by only a single adjective, Croatian will often keep the adjective
in slot X, but shift the noun to slot Z. This occurs in Serbian and Bosnian as well, but much less
frequently (for more on this word order, see [164b], and for discussion of it as a marker of the
difference between Serbian and Croatian, see [172b]).
X Y Z
Tàkva je stvar rijètka. Such a thing is rare.
Njègova je sèstra tamo ròđena. His sister was born there.
J rijetka / E retka
But if the adjective portion of an adjective + noun unit is a question word, nearly all speak-
ers of BCS will put the adjective only into slot X and move the noun to slot Z. This pattern is
obligatory with the pronominal adjective kakav, and vastly preferred with čiji. Although some
speakers allow both options with koji, the first is strongly preferred.
X Y Z
Kàk av je on čòvjek? What sort of man is he?
Čìja je òvo plàva knjiga? Whose blue book is this?
Kòja je dèvojka tvòja sèstra? Which girl is your sister?
Kòja dèvojka je tvòja sèstra? [same]
J čovjek / E čovek; E devojka / J djevojka
When the occupant of slot X is a conjunction or single question word, there is no variation:
clitics are required without exception to follow this word directly. This, in fact, is the same rule
encountered earlier in connection with the conjunction da (review [29a]). The first set of exam-
ples illustrates this rule with zašto and zato što, and the second set with the conjunction da. This
rule is very important in BCS, and must be internalized thoroughly (for more detail, see [164a]).
X Y Z
X Y Z
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48
CHAPTER 4
ideja (f) To je prekrasna idèj a. Njen opći This is a fine idea. Its basic meaning
smisao je vrlo značajan. is very significant.
pismo (n) Volim njeno pìsmo. Njègov I like her letter. Its content is very
sadržaj je veòma uzbùdljiv. exciting.
predlog (m) To je zanìmljiv prèdlog. Ali mòžda That’s an interesting proposal. But you
preuvelìčavaš njègovu vàžnost. might be overestimating its importance.
B,C,S njen / C,B njezin; C,B opći / B,S opšti; E predlog / J prijedlog
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CHAPTER 4
These possessive adjectives have only short forms in the nominative singular. In addition,
they are formed ONLY from single words. To express possession by a full name (such as Jovan
Ilić), or an “adjective + noun” phrase (such as naš učitelj), the genitive case must be used. For
discussion and examples, see [44b].
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CHAPTER 4
Below are examples of adjective + noun phrases in the genitive case. Both short and long form
adjectives are given in Nsg. and only the neutral long form adjectives in Gsg. Note once again
that adjective agreement is determined by gender alone. Thus, although the Gsg. of the masculine
noun gazda is gazde, it still must take a masculine adjective.
masculine neuter feminine -a feminine -Ø
Nsg. short sladak / smeđ pas slatko sèlo slatka idèja slatka stvar
Nsg long slatki / smeđi pas slatko sèlo slatka idèja slatka stvar
Nsg short jak / loš gazda lòše sèlo lòša idèja lòša stvar
Nsg long jaki / loši gazda loše sèlo loša idèja loša stvar
Gsg. slatkog / smeđeg psa slatkog sèla slatke idèje slatke stvari
jakog / lošeg gazde lošeg sèla loše idèje loše stvari
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But in the Gsg. of masculine and neuter nouns (and the Asg. of masculine animate nouns),
there are three possible forms of adjectives. These are called here the short, long, and longer
forms. The short ending is the same as the Gsg. noun ending. The long ending is the one which
was learned as the Asg. ending for masculine animate nouns (review [21a]), and defined above in
[42a] as the neutral adjective ending for masculine-neuter Gsg. The longer ending is derived by
adding -a to the long ending. Most adjectives have all three forms, although some have only long
and longer forms. The pronominal possessive adjectives moj and tvoj are among those with only
long and longer Gsg. forms. However, there are two possible variants of each of these: a full form
(mojeg, mojega) and a contracted form (mog, moga). The contracted form is used more fre-
quently than the full form (indeed, Bosnian and Serbian use only the contracted form). There is
no difference in meaning.
Genitive singular short long longer
The nominative case distinguishes short and long only; furthermore, some adjectives have
only one or the other form. Those adjectives which have both forms are capable of using them to
mark the distinction indefinite vs. definite (review [17a]). Those which have only one form ex-
press both these meanings with the same form (review [17b]).
In the genitive case, short forms are possible for those adjectives which also have a short
form in the nominative. But whereas these adjectives have only short forms in the nominative, in
the genitive they can have all three forms (except for moj and tvoj). The Gsg. short adjectives
used to carry the indefinite meaning. Now, however, they are essentially only stylistic variants. In
most areas of BCS their use is restricted to certain set phrases, although recently they have been
used with much greater frequency in Croatian. This is particularly true for pronominal and pos-
sessive adjectives (njegov, očev, etc.), for which Croatian almost always uses the short Gsg.
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form. The long Gsg. adjectives carry neutral meaning, and are the ones used throughout BCS in
most contexts. However, the longer forms are also encountered quite often. They can be substi-
tuted at the speaker’s choice, but are usually more frequent in careful or high style speech than in
casual speech (and more frequent in Croatian than in Serbian or Bosnian). When no noun is pre-
sent (that is, when the adjective stands for a noun), the longer form is required.
Thus, the distinction of short vs. long no longer corresponds in all instances to the meaning
distinction of indefinite vs. definite; in other words, language change is currently underway. Most
grammars still use the term indefinite to refer to short adjectives not only in the nominative but
also in the genitive (and other cases). Similarly, these grammars use the term definite to refer to
long adjectives in all instances. Although this was once a correct description of the language, it is
now true only of the nominative (and not true in all instances about that case either). It is now
more correct to say simply that two different forms are possible in the nominative. For some
speakers and in some contexts, the use of short vs. long forms often corresponds to the distinction
indefinite vs. definite. But although three distinctly different forms are possible in genitive, there
is no consistent difference in meaning among them, other than the rather fluid one of “style”.
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The preposition od also means from in the sense of by or of, or when the idea from is reck-
oned from a fixed endpoint. In the meaning from X to Y, it is usually paired with the preposition
do; for examples of this usage see [43b]. Often it also refers to the source of something (author-
ship, composition or materials). In this meaning it frequently corresponds to an English modifier,
as in APPLE juice (which in BCS is juice OF APPLE).
The preposition s means from in the sense down from. In Serbian this preposition very fre-
quently takes the form sa. In Croatian, however, this preposition appears as sa only when the fol-
lowing word begins with s, z, š or ž; otherwise s is used. Bosnian uses sa more frequently than in
Croatian, but less frequently than in Serbian. Because of this variation in form, this preposition is
often referred to as s(a). As part of its basic meaning from, it frequently occurs in expressions
together with the preposition na [+ Acc]. One example is given below; for more, see [55a, 67c].
✩ S(A) О̀тац скида снег са крова. Father removes snow from the roof.
О̀на прѐводи са српског на ѐнглески. She translates from Serbian to English.
Он прѐводи са нѐмачког на хр̀ватски. He translates from German to Croatian.
E sneg / J snijeg; E nemačkog / J njemačkog
✩ PORED – Tvòja knjiga je tamo, pored stòla. “Your book is there, by the table.”
– Naprotiv! Tu je, pored mene. “On the contrary! It’s right here, by me.”
I to je vàžno pored òstalog. That’s important too [along with the rest].
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The preposition kod is difficult to define. When it denotes physical space, it is best trans-
lated as by or at. When the object of kod is a person, the entire phrase indicates some sort of as-
sociation with that person: the meaning is usually that something or someone is in that person’s
vicinity. If no other contextual information is available, the phrase means “at [someone’s] place”;
indeed the fixed phrase kod kuće means at home. The general idea of vicinity can also be taken
abstractly: for instance, thoughts, customs, ideas or the like which are connected with a male per-
son are said to be kod njega. There is no preposition in English corresponding directly to kod,
although there are fairly direct parallels in French and German: chez (French) or bei (German).
In Serbian and Bosnian, kod also has directional meaning, indicating a movement towards
someone’s place of association. For more discussion, and the Croatian equivalents, see [55c].
✩ BEZ Наша кућа је још увек без Our house still lacks [= is without]
крова. a roof.
О̀на то све ради без помоћи. She does all that without [any] help.
✩ OKO Зѐмља кружи око Сунца. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
Често се свађају око тога. They often argue about that.
✩ IZMEĐU О̀на сѐди између Марка и А̀не. She’s sitting between Marko and Ana.
О̀во је строго између нас. This is strictly between us.
E uvek / J uvijek; E sedi / J sjedi
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noun can be in any case. What is relevant is the RELATIONSHIP between the two – that which is
expressed by the genitive case endings on the second noun. The following examples are designed
to illustrate this relationship. In each sentence of (1) the head noun is in the nominative, while in
each sentence of (2) the head noun is in some other case.
(1) Glàvni grad Hrv̀atske je Zàgreb. The capital of Croatia is Zagreb.
Gdje je mòja čaša mlijèka? Where’s my glass of milk?
To je sad stvar prošlosti. That’s a thing of the past now.
Smisao òvog zadàtka nìje jàsan. The meaning [ = purpose, intention]
of this task is not clear.
(2) Òna je iz glàvnog grada Hr̀vatske. She is from Croatia’s capital.
Nè vidim tvòju čašu mlijèka, gdje je? I don’t see your glass of milk, where is it?
Objašnjènje smisla òvog zadàtka The explanation of the purpose
nìje jàsno. [ = intention] of this task is not clear.
J gdje / E gde; J čaša mlijeka / E čaša mleka
This general relationship must often be translated into English in other ways; the word of
will not always work. However, with some imagination one can usually reformulate the basic
idea (if awkwardly) into some approximation of an English of-phrase (this has not been spelled
out in each example, however). In time, such a learning device will no longer be necessary, as
this very frequent (indeed, ubiquitous) usage of the genitive in BCS will soon feel natural.
GEN. – Nè volim sve idèje tvog òca. “I don’t like all your father’s ideas.”
P.A. – Ja, naprotiv, mislim da su sve òčeve “In contrast to you, I think all Father’s
idèje sjàjne. ideas are brilliant.”
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GEN. – Kàkva je knjiga novog ùčitelja? “What’s the new teacher’s book like?”
P.A. – Ùčiteljeva knjiga je dòbra. “The teacher’s book is good.”
E gde / J gdje; B dò mene / S,C do mene; B,C,S je li / S,B da li je
Где је мој уџбеник? А, ево га. Aли Where’s my [text]book? Oh, here it is. But I
нѐ видим твој. А, ено га тамо. don’t see yours. Ah, there it is, over there.
Ено нашег пријатеља и њѐговог пса! [Look!] There’s our friend and his dog!
Да ли жѐлиш да видиш мо̀ју књигу? Do you want to see my book? Here it is.
Ево је.
E gde / J gdje; B,C,S prijatelja / S,B druga; B,C,S njegovog / C njegova; S,B da li želiš da vidiš / B želiš li da vidiš
/ C,B želiš li vidjeti; J vidjeti / E videti
The unchanging word nema communicates the absence of something or someone. It is al-
ways followed by the genitive. This word is found in one of the most frequently heard phrases in
BCS: nema problema! Several more examples of nema are given below; its usage is discussed
in more detail in [59b]. Note that English sometimes must insert additional words to express the
appropriate meaning. For instance, since English speakers cannot normally speak of physical ab-
sence without specifying a place, they will usually use an adverb such as nowhere.
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Both evo and nema can be used in the colloquial spoken language to predict an event. This
usage is restricted to the 1st person. Thus, the phrase evo me communicates to the listener the
speaker’s imminent presence, and nema me predicts the speaker’s absence. The ubiquitous ad-
verb odmah often accompanies the first of these. Although the literal meaning of odmah is “im-
mediately”, the real-world time frame can be quite long, and depends on the context.
– Gde si? Čekamo te! “Where are you? We’re waiting for you.”
– Evo me odmah. “I’ll be right there.”
Nema me do 9 sàti. I won’t be back before 9:00 [at the earliest].
E gde / J gdje
Njene su oči plàve bòje. Her eyes are blue [ = of blue color].
– Kòji je tvoj àuto? “Which is your car?”
– Òn aj zèlene bòje. “That green one” [= the one of green color]
B,C,S njene / C,B njezine
accusative Nè pijem pivo. Nè volim pivo. I don’t drink beer. I don’t like beer.
Molim vas, jèdno mlèko. One [carton of] milk, please.
Izvòlite čašu hladne vòde. Here, [have] a glass of cold water.
genitive Žèliš li piva? Ili sòka? Do you want some beer? Or [some] juice?
Ìmate li hladnog piva? Do you have [any] cold beer?
Ìmamo kiselog mlèka, ako žèlite. We have [some] yogurt, if you want.
– Šta òni žèle? “What do they want?”
– Nemam pojma. “I haven’t [the slightest] idea.”
E mleko / J mlijeko; C,B želiš li / S,B da li želiš; C,B imate li / B,S da li imate; E kiselog mleka / J kiselog mlijeka;
S,B šta / C što
46 Numbers: 2, 3, 4
The number one takes the form of an adjective, whose masc.sg. form is jedan (review
[36c]). Like any adjective, it agrees with the noun it refers to. The form of the number two de-
pends on the following noun: if it is masculine or neuter, the number two is dva, and if is femi-
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nine the number two is dve (ekavian) or dvije (ijekavian). The words for three and four are tri
and četiri, respectively. The word meaning both is parallel in form to that meaning two: it is oba
when referring to masculine or neuter nouns and obe / obje when referring to feminine nouns. In
colloquial language these numbers sometimes appear in the extended form obadva (masculine-
neuter), obаdve / obаdvije (feminine).
Òna ìma dvije sèstre i tri brata. She has two sisters and three brothers.
A ja ìmam samo jèdnu sèstru. But I only have one sister.
Màra voli živòtinje. Ima dve ptice, Mara likes animals. She has three birds,
dva siva psa i čètiri cr̀ne mačke. two gray dogs, and four black cats.
Sve je između ta čètiri zida. Everything’s between these four walls.
Obje tvòje knjige su tu. Both your books are here.
Ìma dva àuta. Oba su zelèn a. S/he has two cars. Both are green.
J dvije / E dve; J obje / E obe
before -Ø elsewhere
ADJECTIVES masc.short feminine
vowel: e dèbeo debèla fat, thick
zao zla evil
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before -Ø elsewhere
NOUNS Nsg. Gsg.
vowel: i / e dio / deo dijèla / dèla part
vowel: a pòsao pòsla work, job
smisao smisla sense, meaning
ugao ugla corner
òrao òrla eagle
* feminine misao misli thought
Other BCS subjectless sentences correspond to English sentences beginning with there is ...
or there are ... One type, with nema, seen above in [44c], is discussed in more detail in [59b].
Yet another is with the ubiquitous form može. This word forms various sorts of subjectless
sentences. Some can be translated with English There’s...., while other times the English
translation must use one or the impersonal you as the subject. Sometimes the word može simply
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stands alone, in the meaning O.K. If another verb follows može, the particle se is added to this
kind of subjectless sentence. For more on this latter type of sentence, see [85b, 140].
Many BCS adverbs are modeled directly after such question words. For instance, the ques-
tion word odakle “where from” is directly related to the adverb odavde “from here” and odande
“from there” (for more, see [126]). A somewhat different sort of relationship obtains between the
question word kakav “what kind” and ovakav, takav, and onakav, all of which can be translated
“such [a kind]”, providing that the distance from the speaker communicated by ov- / t- / on- is
taken into account (see [11b, 36b]). Similarly, koliko is directly related to ovoliko, toliko, and
onoliko, all of which are very hard to translate outside of context. But while the first set (ovakav,
etc.) are pronominal adjectives and must have a noun to modify, the second set (ovoliko, etc.) can
be used in many different ways. They can stand alone, taking their meaning from the context, or
they can modify another adverb. For their usage with nouns, see [59a].
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50 Conjunctions, continued
A conjunction functions to connect two shorter sentences (usually called clauses) into a sin-
gle sentence. Many conjunctions are also question words. The most frequent BCS conjunction is
the word da, which is often translated by the English conjunction that (for more discussion, see
[26a, 143d]).
Some conjunctions consist of two words, and often the first of these serves another purpose
in the language. For instance, when kao is followed by a noun it means as, like (the conjunction i
often accompanies it in this meaning). But if that which follows is a clause, one must use the
compound subordinating conjunction kao što. The conjunction da can also be combined with
kao. The meaning, however, is different: the compound conjunction kao da means as if. For
more on compound conjunctions, see [143b], and for more on the use of da and što as conjunc-
tions, see [143g].
kao (i) Moj brat je stùdent kao i ja. My brother is a student, just like me.
kao što Da li si i ti iz Zàgreba kao što su Are you also from Zagreb, like your
tvòji ròditelji? parents [are]?
kao da Pònaša se kao da je bògat. S/he behaves as if s/he were rich.
C,B možeš ići / B,S možeš da ideš; J pješice / E pešice; C,B pješice / S peške, pešice; S,B da li si / B,C,S jesi li
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A question which expects an answer of yes or no is formed either with da li or by the parti-
cle li placed after a fully accented verb (review [8b]). When an English speaker incorporates such
a question into a statement, s/he usually uses the conjunction if, although the conjunction whether
is also possible. This is why English speakers will be tempted to use the conjunction ako “if”
when forming such sentences in BCS.
It is critical, therefore, to realize that BCS can form such sentences ONLY with the interroga-
tive marker that introduced the original question: either the phrase da li followed by the main
verb, or a phrase composed of the main verb plus li. (For the BCS translations of other English
meanings of if, see [132a]). English speakers can avoid this common error by reformulating the
English sentence to be translated into BCS. If the conjunction if can be replaced with the con-
junction whether without changing the sentence’s meaning, then this means that the BCS con-
junction ako cannot be used, and that one of the two interrogative formats must be used instead.
The pairs below illustrate various possible reformulations of simple yes-no questions (Q) as
questions embedded within sentences (S / Q). Note that all the English sentences are of the sort
which allow either if or whether. This means that the corresponding BCS sentences MUST be
phrased with li or da li.
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53 Aspect, continued
BCS has two separate verbs for nearly every individual verbal meaning. One of these two
verbs views the verbal idea as a single complete action, and the other views it as a general fact, or
an ongoing or repeated action. The relationship between the two (review [28]) is that of verbal
aspect, and the two verb types are called perfective and imperfective, respectively. In each in-
stance, the two separate verbs comprise a single set embracing the overall verbal idea. These two
verbs are called aspect partners, and make up an aspect pair: in most dictionaries they are listed
together as part of the same entry.
In nearly all cases, the two partner verbs share the same stem. Furthermore, there are certain
formal characteristics marking any one verb as imperfective or perfective. In some instances one
can fairly successfully predict the shape of a specific imperfective verb from its perfective partner
(and vice versa). In other instances, one is only able to guess which aspect the verb form repre-
sents. But there is a system, within which the non-native speaker can learn to navigate fairly well.
The two major ways in which the verbs of BCS aspect pairs are related to each other are suffixa-
tion and prefixation.
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An example is the word for answer. The stem odgovor- is followed directly by the theme vowel i
in the perfective. In the imperfective, the final stem vowel shifts to lengthened a (odgovar-) be-
fore the theme vowel a. Sometimes the imperfective partner will have a specific suffix preceding
the theme vowel a. For instance, the stem uključ- is followed directly by the theme vowel i in the
perfective partner. In the imperfective, however, the suffix -iv is added before the theme vowel a
(this type of verb exceptionally belongs to the e-conjugation).
same stem, “aspectual” suffixes perfective imperfective
Most aspect pairs related to each other by suffixation represent basic verbs which are very
frequently used. For more discussion of suffixation in aspect pairs, see [96a, 147a].
Most BCS prefixes are similar in form to (or identical with) prepositions. Each individual
prefix has several basic meanings associated with it, and in many cases the meanings are similar
to those of the related preposition. For more at the general level, see [96b]; for detailed discus-
sion of the relationship of prefixes to prepositions, see [146a-b]; for discussion of the role of pre-
fixes in perfectivization, see [146c]. On accentual changes associated with prefixes, see [166c].
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action. Note that when the conjunction da is used to express the idea “infinitive”, it fits both the
above definitions simultaneously.
PERFECTIVE
(1) infinitive Dàn as ne mògu dòći. Zauzeta sam. I can’t come today. I’m busy.
U kolìko sàti možemo pòći? What time can we go?
Nè možeš ùzeti auto, jer nema You can’t take the car, because
benzìna. there isn’t any gas.
Dàn as moram rano da ìzađem. I have to go out early today.
(2) after Žèlim da dànas ìzađeš rano. I want you to go out early today.
conjunction Ako pòjedeš tri jabuke, kolìko ih If you eat three apples, then how
onda ìmaš? many [of them] do you have?
C,B ne mogu doći / S,B ne mogu da dođem; C,B možemo poći / S,B možemo da pođemo; C,B ne možeš uzeti
/ S,B ne možeš da uzmeš; S,B moram da izađem / C,B moram izaći
Imperfective verbs can also appear in these frameworks, of course. That is, an infinitive fol-
lowing another verb or a present tense form following certain conjugations MAY be in the perfec-
tive aspect, but it is not required to be. The choice of aspect depends upon the point of view the
speaker takes of the verbal action in any one context. For more on aspect choice and verbal mean-
ing, see [95e, 106b, 145a-b]. For instance, the following sentences have imperfective verbs in
the same contexts in which the above sentences had perfective verbs. In each case the speaker
focuses upon a particular chunk of time, a fact which could potentially be interpreted as express-
ing closure. But because the action itself is not seen in terms of completion, the speaker uses the
imperfective aspect. This puts the focus on the general idea of the action rather than on its even-
tual completion.
IMPERFECTIVE
(1) infinitive Šta žèliš da radiš òvog vìkenda? What do you want to do this
weekend?
On može zvìždati uz ptičju pjesmu. He can whistle to the bird’s song.
(2) after Ako svakog dana spavaš do 10, If you sleep till 10:00 every day, then
conjunction onda nè možeš vidjeti ìzlazak you can’t watch the sunrise.
sunca.
S,B šta / C što; S,B želiš da radiš / C,B želiš raditi; C,B može zviždati / S,B može da zviždi; J uz pjesmu
/ E uz pesmu; B,C ptičju / S,B ptičiju; J vidjeti / E videti; C,B ne možeš vidjeti / B,S ne možeš da vidiš
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sponding imperfective verbs are then derived from each one of them. In the case of motion verbs,
this is done by replacing the stem completely. The prefix remains, and the new stem is the rarely
occurring verb laziti (which means “creep, crawl”). The new imperfective verbs contain exactly
the same meaning as their perfective partners; the only difference is one of aspect.
What is characteristic about this process is its stepwise nature. The first stage adds prefixes
to the simple verb, creating from it new perfective verbs with related but more specialized mean-
ings (for more on this stage, see [146b]). The second stage alters these new perfective verbs in
various ways to create imperfective verbs with the same specialized meanings, differing only in
the meaning of perfective vs imperfective aspect. For more on this stage, and the creation by suf-
fixation of these derived imperfectives, see [147c]. Motion verbs are unique in that they replace
the stem completely in the derived imperfectives.
✩ U + Acc. Идем у ба̀нку, а за̀т им у биоскоп. I’m going to the bank, then to the movies.
Ма̀ра иде сваки дан у школу. Mara goes to school every day.
Ѝдуће нѐдеље иде у Ло̀ндон. She’s going to London next week.
У̀опште не до̀лази у обзир! Totally out of the question [ = in no way
does it come into consideration] !
S bioskop / C,B kino; S,B iduće nedelje / B iduće sedmice / C idućeg tjedna; S,B uopšte / C,B uopće
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✩ NA + Acc. Ђорђе сад иде на преда̀вање. Đorđe is going to class [ = lecture] now.
На ко̀ју ста̀ницу идете? Which station are you going to?
Ма̀ра сад иде на пѝјацу. Mara’s going to the market now.
Вечѐр ас идемо на ко̀нцерт. We’re going to a concert this evening.
S,B železničku (željezničku) stanicu / C kolodvor; S,B pijacu / C,B tržnicu
The prepositions iz and s(a), used with the genitive, refer to motion in the opposite direc-
tion, and are usually translated from. What is particular about BCS is the correspondence between
the two sets. Any noun that takes u + Acc in the meaning motion towards must take iz + Gen in
the meaning motion away from. Correspondingly, any noun that takes na + Acc in the meaning
motion towards must take s(a) + Gen in the meaning motion away from.
✩ U / IZ Često ide u Lòndon, ali nìje iz S/he often goes to London, but she’s not
Londòna. from London.
Stalno ìzlaze iz jèdne kuće, a ùlaze They constantly come out of one house
u drugu. and go into another.
Kad đàci ìzlaze iz škole? When do the children leave school?
✩ NA / S(A) Dòlazim sa sjevera, a idem na istok. I come from the north and go to the east.
Nè znam da li ide rano na I don’t know if s/he goes to campus
fakùltet, ali sigurno kasno dòlazi early [or not], but s/he certainly
s fakultèta. comes back late from campus.
Tko je s Hvàra? Žèlim ići na Hvar. Who is from Hvar? I want to go to
Kàko se ide do Hvàra? Hvar. How does one get to Hvar?
J sa sjevera / E sa severa; B,S da li ide / C,B ide li; C tko / S,B ko; C,B želim ići / B,S želim da idem
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in progress Ah, sve ide tàko sporo! Oh, everything’s going so slowly!
in future Òna dòlazi ìdućeg četvr̀tka. She’s coming next Thursday.
in general Òbično kasno ìzlazi ìz kuće. She usually leaves the house late.
B ìz kuće / S,C iz kuće
Idemo u kìno gledati film. We’re going [to the cinema] to see a film.
Idemo u bioskop da gledamo film. [same]
U pet sàti idem na stànicu nekoga At 5:00 I’m going to the station [in order]
dòčekati. to pick someone up.
C,B kino / S bioskop; B,C,S gledati / B,S da gledamo; B,S [željezničku (železničku)] stanicu / C kolodvor;
B,C,S idem nekoga dočekati / S idem da dočekam nekoga
56 Negation, continued
Negation is expressed in several ways, depending on that which is being negated. When
negation is part of the overall sentence meaning, it is almost always expressed by the particle ne,
written as a separate word (review [25]). When the idea of negation is limited to a single word,
however, this is often expressed by adding a prefix. In verbs this prefix can be ne- or ni-, but in
pronouns it is always ni-. The rules for forming negated sentences differ in certain ways from
those of English, which means that English speakers must pay special attention to these rules.
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sents a fusion of the negative particle with the clitic form. In both instances, this fused form con-
veys the idea of negation for all meanings of the verb in question, regardless of whether the clitic
or the full form would be used in non-negative instances.
AFFIRMATIVE NEGATIVE
infinitive 1sg. pres. infinitive 1sg. pres.
ìmati ìmam nèmati nemam have
biti jèsam (sam) [ne biti] nìsam be
hteti / htjeti hòću (ću) [ne hteti / htjeti] nèću want
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– Nè misli na ljùbav, već na pòeziju. “S/he thinks not of love but of poetry.”
– Zašto NE na ljùbav? “Why not about love?”
– Zato što voli reči, a NE ljude. “Because s/he likes words, not people.”
E reči / J riječi
ili ... ili Ili dòlazi ili ne dòlazi! Either s/he’s coming or s/he’s not!
i…i Mi čìtamo i latìnicu i ćirìlicu. We read both Latin and Cyrillic.
ni ... ni Nè možeš ni jèdno ni drugo. You can’t [do / have] either [the] one
or [the] other.
Ni on ni ja nè mislimo tàko. Neither he nor I think that.
niti ... niti Niti on niti ja nè mislimo tàko. Neither he nor I think that.
Òna niti jede niti pije. She neither eats nor drinks.
When the conjunction ni is used alone, it means not... either or not even (depending on the
context). The verb is still negated. But when the conjunction niti appears alone at the beginning
of a clause or sentence, it cancels out other negatives. In the first example below, the first verb is
negated in the normal manner, with negative marking on both the verb and the pronoun object.
But because the second verb is introduced by niti, no other negative marking is needed (or possi-
ble). Similarly, if ni precedes ne directly, it is replaced by the non-negative conjunction i, as in
the third example.
niti alone Nikoga nè vodi niti išta S/he takes no one and nothing to school.
nosi u školu. [ = S/he doesn’t take any person / animal
nor does s/he take any thing to school.]
ni alone Òna ni to ne žèli da čuje. She doesn’t want to hear that either.
On i ne žèli da sluša. He doesn’t even want to listen.
C,S u školu / B ù školu; S,B ne želi da čuje / B,C ne želi čuti; S,B ne želi da sluša / C,B ne želi slušati
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the latter are shown by the added elements in the English translations. In Croatian (and to a lesser
extent in Bosnian), it is also possible to add the particle li to a sentence with a negated verb.
neutral Je li naš jèzik tèžak zà vas? Is our language hard for you?
negated Zar nìje naš jèzik tèžak zà vas? Isn’t our language [really] hard for you?
Nìje li naš jèzik tèžak za vas? [C] [same]
neutral Možemo li biti vani do 10? Can we stay out until 10?
negated Zar nè možemo biti vani do 10? Can’t we stay out until 10? [Why not?]
Nè možemo li biti vani do 10? [C] [same]
C,B je li / S,B da li je; B zà vas / S,C za vas; B,C,S zar nije / C,B nije li; C,B možemo li / S,B da li možemo;
C,B možemo biti / S,B možemo da budemo; C,B vani / S napolju; B,C,S zar ne možemo / C,B ne možemo li
One can also add a tag question at the end of a phrase. In English, tag questions repeat a ne-
gated form of the verbal auxiliary used in the particular sentence, adding phrases such as isn’t it?
don’t they? aren’t you? or the like. BCS, by contrast, adds the unchanging phrase zar ne at the
end of the statement. When the particle zar is used without negation, it conveys a strong sense of
surprise (and possible doubt).
tag question Možemo biti vani do 10, zar ne? We can stay out until 10, can’t we?
Naš jèzik je dosta tèžak, zar ne? Our language is pretty hard, isn’t it?
Vi gòvorite naš jèzik, zar ne? You speak our language, don’t you?
non-negated Zar je već òvdje?! S/he’s here already?! Is s/he really here?
Zar to znaju? Do they really know that? [I wonder...]
C,B možemo biti / S,B možemo da budemo; C,B vani / S napolju; J ovdje / E ovde
57 Genitive plural
There are three Gpl. endings for nouns, -a, -i, and -u, and only one for adjectives: -ih. The
ending -u is found in such a small group of nouns that it is generally considered to be irregular
(see [110a]); nearly all nouns take either -a or -i. But there are a number of unexpected additional
features connected with the Gpl. endings. First, these endings are distinctively long – indeed,
markedly so. Even speakers who do not otherwise maintain vowel length outside of accented syl-
lables will pronounce Gpl. endings with a long vowel. Second, the ending -a requires the addition
of an extra syllable in many instances, plus additional changes in the word. Finally, there is a cer-
tain unpredictability as to which endings go with which nouns, and which nouns require the addi-
tion of the extra syllable.
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Other nouns – feminine and neuter as well as masculine – insert a whenever the stem ends
in two consonants OTHER THAN -st, -zd, -št, -žd, -žđ, -šć, or- šč. For these nouns, the addition of
this a creates an additional syllable in the word, one not present in the Nsg. form. Certain nouns
may have variant forms without the inserted a (for more discussion, see [157]). Sometimes femi-
nine nouns may surprise one with their stem shape. For instance, the consonant z in Gpl. svezaka
does not occur in any other form of the word sveska, nor does the consonant ž in Gpl. bilježaka
occur in any other form of the word bilješka.
The examples below illustrate the insertion (or non-insertion) of a in Gpl. forms. Note that
the vowel preceding the Gpl. ending is always lengthened, regardless of whether it is original or
inserted. The Gpl. in -a also sometimes causes unexpected accent shifts.
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Nsg. crn pas dug mesec kratko pìsmo mlada sèstra nova bòrba slatka stvar
Npl. cr̀ni psi dùgi meseci kratka pìsma mlade sèstre nove bòrbe slatke stvari
Gpl. crnih pasa dugih mesèci kratkih pisama mladih sestàra novih bòrbi slatkih stvàri
E mesec / J mjesec
1: various
jèdan vèlik grad 1 large city
jèdno vàžno pìtanje 1 important question
jèdna lijèpa djèvojka 1 pretty girl
2-4: count form dva [tri, čètiri] vèlika grada 2 [3 ,4] large cities
dva [tri, čètiri] vàžna pìtanja 2 [3, 4] important questions
dve [tri, čètiri] lèp e dèvojke 2 [3, 4] pretty girls
dvije [tri, čètiri] vìsoke zgrade 2 [3, 4] tall buildings
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11 jedànaest
12 dvànaest 20 dvàdeset
13 trìnaest 30 trìdeset
14 četr̀naest 40 četr̀deset
15 pètnaest 50 pedèset
16 šèsnaest 60 šezdèset
17 sedàmnaest 70 sedamdèset
18 osàmnaest 80 osamdèset
19 devètnaest 90 devedèset
100 sto
1 Јѐдан сту̀дент чѝт а, а други пише. One student reads and the other writes.
По̀знајем само јѐдну та̀кву жѐну. I only know one such woman.
Јѐдно пѝсмо је за тебе, друго за њу. One letter is for you and the other for her.
2 Сутра до̀лазе два сту̀дента. Two students are coming tomorrow.
Две сту̀денткиње пишу зада̀тке. Two students are writing their homework.
3 Три су пѝсма код мене. Three [of the] letters are with me.
Сутра до̀лазе мо̀је три сѐстре. My three sisters are coming tomorrow.
4 Све чѐт ири птице певају. All four birds are singing.
Та чѐт ири ђа̀ка много у̀че. Those four pupils are studying a lot.
5 Пет дѐбелих паса иде у град. Five fat dogs are going to town.
6 Не у̀чи свих шест сту̀дената добро. Not all six students study well.
7 Седам пату̀љака гледа лепо̀т ицу. The seven dwarves gaze at the beauty.
8 Чека те осам писама. Eight letters are awaiting you.
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When such a phrase is the subject of a sentence, the verb is 3sg. and the sentence is techni-
cally subjectless. Below are two examples; for more examples and discussion, see [63, 141c].
English speakers must take care not to transfer their conceptions of the concepts “count”
and “mass” automatically into BCS, as the membership in the two categories is not the same in all
instances. For example, the English noun bread is a mass noun: in order to make it function as a
count noun, English speakers must speak of a loaf of bread, a piece of bread, or the like. But in
BCS, the nouns kruh and hleb / hljeb can be either count or mass nouns. The same is true for the
English noun money vs. its BCS counterpart novac. For another example, the English nouns ad-
vice and information are mass nouns only, whereas their BCS counterparts are count nouns only.
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E mass, BCS count Ìmam zà tebe dva sàveta. I have two pieces of advice for you.
Hvàla za ta tri obaveštenja. Thanks for those three bits of information.
C želiš li / S,B da li želiš; J hljeb / E hleb; B,S hljeb (hleb) / B,C kruh; B zà tebe / C,S za tebe; E dva saveta
/ J dva savjeta; S ta tri obaveštenja / C,B te tri obavijesti
When ima refers to a singular count noun, it is frequently followed by the word jedan and a
noun in Nsg. (Croatian can also use je in this meaning). Only nouns can be used after ima in this
way. But when ima refers to a mass noun or to any plural noun, or is followed by something
other than a noun or noun phrase, it requires the genitive case. The meaning of a sentence with
ima + plural noun is often a partitive one, which can be conveyed in English by the adjectives
some or any, or by phrases such as of them. As the examples below illustrate, however, English
can often convey the partitive meaning of ima + Gpl. even without such words.
Nema must be followed by the genitive, regardless of whether the noun is singular or plu-
ral, mass or count. A phrase containing nema + noun can either refer to the simple absence of
something, or it can carry the negative partitive meaning conveyed by the English expressions not
a single or not any. In the latter instance, BCS sometimes adds the modifiers nijedan “not one”
or nikakav “no kind”. All instances of ima and nema followed by the genitive constitute subject-
less sentences; for more discussion, see [63, 141c].
ima + Nsg. Òvde ìma jèdna debèla knjiga. There’s a big [fat] book here.
Òvdje je jèdna debèla knjiga. [same]
ima + Gen. Tu ìma nekoliko dèbelih knjiga. There are several big [= fat] books
there.
Dàn as ìma mnogo stùdenata. There are a lot of students here today.
Kòd vas ìma lijèpih stvàri. You’ve [some] very nice things here.
Ìma li sira ili mlijèka? Is there [any] cheese or milk?
Kolìko ih ìma? How many [of them] are there?
nema + Gen. Nema novca! Idemo u bànku! No money! We’re off to the bank!
Nema vòde! Šta da radimo? There’s no water! What [can] we do?
Òvde nema nijedne dobre knjige. There’s not a single good book here.
Òvde nema nikakvih dobrih knjiga. There are no good books here.
E ovde / J ovdje; B kòd vas / S,C, kod vas; J lijepih / E lepih; J mlijeka / E mleka; S,B šta / C što
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59c. “Distributive” po
The idea of distribution is expressed by the preposition po, whose object identifies the met-
ric of distribution. English translations often use the words per, each or apiece; the precise trans-
lation depends on the context of any one expression. The idea of succession (as in English one by
one) is also expressed by this preposition. What is unique to both these usages is that the preposi-
tion does not require a specific case. Rather, the case of the following noun is determined by the
structure of the sentence in which it occurs. Normally, either the nominative or the accusative
case follows po in these two meanings, as in the examples below. For the forms svakome and im,
see [66], and for their use in these sentences, see [73a].
Nom. Svi su tu, po jèdan iz svake zèmlje. Everyone is here, one per country.
A od ràkije, svakome po čašica. Everyone gets a small glass of brandy [ = as
to brandy, a small glass for everyone].
Ùlaze jèd an po jèd an. They come in one at a time [ = one after
another].
Acc. Daje im svakome po jèdnu jabuku. She gives them one apple apiece.
Sàda ga moraš otkìdati list po list. Now you must peel [it] leaf by leaf [ = one
leaf at a time].
C,B sada ga moraš otkidati / S,B sad moraš da ga otkidaš
bòjati se Ne bòjim se malih mačaka, bòjim I’m not afraid of little cats, I’m only
se samo velikih pasa. afraid of big dogs.
sjećati se Sjećaš li se naše pr̀ve mačke, òn e Do you remember our first cat – that
bijèle? white one?
tìcati se Što se mene tiče, možeš dòći kad As far as I’m concerned, you can come
god žèliš, ali rùčak je u dva sata. when you want, but lunch is at 2.
J sjećati se / E sećati se; C,B sjećaš li se / B,S da li se sjećaš (sećaš); J one bijele / E one bele; C,B možeš doći
/ S,B možeš da dođeš
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time expressions, see [125], and for more on the relationships of prepositions, adverbs, and con-
junctions expressing the idea of time, see [143b].
✩ PRE / PRIJE
preposition Ponèdeljak dòlazi pre ùtorka. Monday comes before Tuesday.
Nìje dobro spàvati prije rùčka. It’s not good to sleep before lunch.
adverb Šta òbično dòlazi prije? What usually comes first / earliest?
Bolje pre nego poslije. Better earlier than later.
✩ POSLE / POSLIJE
preposition Poslije pètka dòlazi sùbota. After Friday comes Saturday.
Posle kiše divno mìriše. It smells wonderful after the rain.
Posle rùčka se može spàv ati. It’s O.K. to sleep after lunch.
adverb Posle, dušo. Sàda ne mògu. Later, sweetheart. I can’t [do it] now.
Bolje prije nego poslije. Better earlier than later.
✩ NAKON
preposition Nakon rùčka se može spàv ati. It’s O.K. to sleep after lunch.
✩ BLIZU
preposition Òna žìvi blizu pošte. She lives near the post office.
Òna stòji blizu òca. She’s standing near [her] father.
adverb Vrlo je blìzu, možemo pješice. It’s very close [ = nearby], we can [go]
on foot.
E ponedeljak / J ponedjeljak; E pre / J prije; B,S šta / C što; J poslije / E posle; B,C se može spavati / S,B može da
se spava; J pješice / E pešice; B,C pješice / S,B peške (pješke)
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62 Non-negative pronouns
When added to interrogative pronouns, the negative prefix ni- creates the negative pronouns
niko / nitko “no one” and ništa “nothing” (review [56a]). Other prefixes can be added to these
same pronouns to create various sorts of non-negative pronouns. One must take particular care
with the prefix which creates the indefinite pronouns meaning someone and something. This is
because one might associate the prefix ne- with the idea of negation, since it has that meaning
when written separately. In this instance, however, it does NOT have negative meaning.
The prefixes i- and sva- can also be added to create pronouns such as anyone / anything and
everyone / everything, respectively. Here too, care is necessary, since the pronouns in question are
used much less frequently than are their English counterparts. Most instances of English anyone
or anything are used with a negative verb, in which case the BCS negative pronoun must be used.
Similarly, the most frequent BCS translations of English everyone and everything continue to be
svi and sve, respectively (review [36b]). It is more correct to view the pronouns beginning with i-
as meaning any at all, and the ones beginning with sva- as all sorts of.
prefix ni- Kàko nikoga ne čekam?! Baš sàda ... How [can you say] I’m not expecting
no- anyone? Just now ...
prefix ne- ... idem na kolodvor dòčekati nekoga. ... I’m on my way to the station to pick
some- someone up.
Netko te čeka, nè znam tko. Somebody’s waiting for you, I don’t
know who [it could be].
prefix i- Zar ti piješ čaj bez ičega? Do you [really] drink tea without
any- anything [at all in it]?
prefix sva- Taj dečak gòvori svašta. That boy says all [sorts of nonsense].
all-
C na kolodvor / S,B na železničku (željezničku) stanicu; E železničku / J željezničku; C,B idem dočekati / S,B idem
da dočekam; C netko / S,B neko; C tko / S,B ko; E dečak / J dječak
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numbers Pet dèvojaka ùlazi u sobu. Five girls are coming into the room.
Čeka te sedam pisama. Seven letters are awaiting you.
Dàn as nas je sedam. We are [a group of] seven today.
measure Kolìko ih me čeka? How many of them are expecting me?
Mnogo te stùdenata gleda. Many students are watching you.
Malo ih to zna òvih dàna. These days few of them know that.
existential Kolìko vas ìma? How many of you are there?
Nema ih mnogo. There aren’t many of them.
Ìma nas òvde deset stùdenata. We are ten students here [ = there are ten
of us students here].
tìcati se Što se mene tiče, to nìje ni As far as I’m concerned, it’s not even
potrebno. necessary.
Što se òstalog tiče, možete As for the rest, you can do what you want.
ràditi što žèlite.
E devojaka / J djevojaka; E ovde / J ovdje; B,S ostalog / C ostaloga; C,B možete raditi / B,S možete da radite
The abbreviation be (aux) in slot Y-2 refers to the clitic forms of the verb biti, minus the 3rd
singular form je. So far, these forms have been seen in the meaning of am, are, etc. When these
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same forms are used as auxiliary verbs in the past tense (see [69, 104c, 111]), they are placed in
the same position in the Y-sequence. Two other types of verbal auxiliary clitics will also come in
this position. These are the auxiliaries for the future tense and the conditional mood (for more
discussion of these clitics and their usage, see [102] and [137], respectively).
The abbreviations dat in slot Y-3 and acc-gen in slot Y-4 refer to clitic form object pronouns
in the dative case and the accusative/genitive case; for discussion of these clitics, see [66e] and
[24a, 42d], respectively. Slots Y-1, Y-5 and Y-6 are occupied by single words, the first two of
which are self-explanatory. The third of these, the form je of slot Y-6, refers ONLY to the 3sg.
form of biti. The other form je, which means her, it (fem.sg. Acc-Gen pronoun object), ALWAYS
goes in slot Y-4; for more discussion, see [111]. It is nearly impossible to construct a natural-
sounding sentence with all six positions filled; indeed, sentences with five of the six are rare (and
usually constructed only by linguists). Sentences with two and three clitics are quite common,
however, and even four clitics are heard on occasion. The relevant point is that any time there is
more than even one clitic in a single clause, they must ALL occur relative to each other in the or-
der given above.
As the student gains more proficiency in the language, s/he will encounter sentences of
greater complexity as concerns clitics. The advantage of the XYZ model is that it can account for
all the different kinds of combinations of clitics. The examples below utilize this model to discuss
the placement of object clitics in several different sorts of sentences. Sentences 1-4 illustrate a se-
verb which takes a genitive object. In this type of sentence, slots Y-4 and Y-5 are occupied. No
variation is possible: sentences with such clitics can only take this form. The remaining sets illus-
trate the placement of object clitics in slot Y-4, especially as concerns the feminine singular object
pronoun je. If the pronoun is the only clitic in the sentence or clause, the rules are straightfor-
ward, as seen in sentences 5-7 and again in sentence 8. However, if the sentence also contains the
3sg. verb form je (whose place is slot Y-6), most BCS speakers will substitute the object pronoun
ju for je (in order to avoid the sequence je + je). This is seen in sentence 8.
X Y Z
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 To ga se nè tiče. That doesn’t concern him.
2 Nè tiče ga se to. It doesn’t concern him.
3 Da li ga se to tiče? Does that concern him?
4 Tiče li ga se to? [same]
5 Ne mògu je vidjeti. I can’t see her.
6 Ne mògu ...
... da je vidim. [same]
7 Teško je ...
... da je vidiš. It’s hard to see her.
8 Teško ju je vidjeti. [same]
9 Prijatelji je često vide. Friends see her often.
Sentence 8 represents the preferred order in both Croatian and Serbian. But in Bosnian, the
sequence je + je is also acceptable, and sentences like 10 are heard frequently alongside those
like 8. In Croatian, however, only the sequence ju + je is possible. Indeed, Croatian sometimes
uses ju instead je even when no contrast is required. Thus, whereas sentences like 8 are the norm
throughout BCS, sentences like 11 can also be heard in Croatian.
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If the final consonant of a feminine noun in -a is -k, -g or -h, this consonant usually shifts to
-c, z or -s, respectively, before the DLsg ending -i. This is the same shift undergone by masculine
nouns before the Npl. ending -i (review [32b]). In the Npl. of masculine nouns, the shift takes
place without exception. But in the feminine DLsg. there are numerous exceptions: a number of
nouns which are in principle subject to the shift instead retain the Nsg. stem-final consonant in its
original form. There is variation on this point, and no way to predict with certainty which nouns
make the shift and which do not. In general, however, nouns which usually keep the consonant
unshifted include proper nouns, names of professions, and nouns with stems ending in -čk,
among others. Examples can be found in [68a]; for more discussion, see [158].
Below are examples of noun-adjective phrases in the dative-locative singular. Note once
again that adjective agreement is determined by gender. Thus, masculine nouns such as gazda
follow the declension of feminine nouns in -a (DLsg. gazdi), but take a masculine adjective.
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In the genitive-accusative, the usage difference between full and clitic forms is very clear:
full forms occur only after prepositions and to mark strong emphasis (review [24b]). But in the
dative, the difference between full and clitic forms is usually quite slight. Only when dative pro-
nouns occur as verb objects can one say that the relationship between full and clitic forms is simi-
lar to that in Gen-Acc. For examples, see [73a-b].
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capitalizes only the name of the country. Whenever the adjective ending -ski (or any of its vari-
ants such as -čki, -ćki or -ški) is added to form an adjective from a proper noun (such as the name
of a city), the adjective in question is not capitalized. The only exceptions are when such an ad-
jective occurs as the first word of a name. Thus one writes beogradski način života “the Bel-
grade way of life” but Beogradski univerzitet “Belgrade University”.
Nom Acc Gen Dat-Loc
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Sometimes the same noun can be used with both u and na, but with a clearly perceptible
difference in meaning. Again, the examples below are in the locative, but the same distinctions
between u and na hold if the idea of motion is desired.
usage with u Nema pàdeža u èngleskom. There are no cases in English [ = in the
English language].
usage with na Kàko se to kaže na èngleskom? How do you say that in English?
usage with u U toj planìni ìma bàkra. There is copper [ore] in that mountain.
usage with na Volim biti na planìni. I love being in the mountains.
usage with u Èkser je dubòko ubòden u zidu. The nail is deeply embedded in the wall.
usage with na Kolìko ìma slika na zidu? How many pictures are there on the wall?
B,C,S volim biti / S,B volim da budem; S,B ekser / C,B čavao
Loc О̀на жѝви у старом дѐлу За̀греба. She lives in the old part of Zagreb.
Acc Сваки дан иде у Нови За̀греб. Every day she goes to New Zagreb.
Gen Али нѝје из Новог За̀греба. But she’s not from New Zagreb.
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✩ O O tvòjoj knjizi gòvore lèpe stvari. They say nice things about your book.
Mnogo zna o Bànjoj Lùci, a malo He knows a lot about Banja Luka, but not
o Požegi, Ìtaki ili Omahi. much about Požega, Ithaca or Omaha.
– O čèmu to gòvore tàko živo? “What are they talking about in such a
lively manner?”
– Gòvore o tvòjoj staroj pàpigi “They’re talking about your old parrot
i o njèzinoj novoj ìgrački. and her new toy.”
✩ PO – Što kažu majka i tetka? “What do [your] mother and aunt say?”
– Po majci je to sve dobro, a po “It’s all fine according to [my] mother,
tetki nikako nìje. but not at all according to [my] aunt.”
Po mom mišljènju, sve ide po planu. In my opinion [ = by my thinking],
everything’s going according to plan.
Vole šètati po starom dèlu grada. They like to walk through the old town.
Vole da šetaju i po kiši. They even like to walk in the rain.
Šaljem ti to po starom prijatelju. I’m sending this to you with an old friend.
✩ PRI Moj pòsao je sad pri kraju. My work is nearing its end.
Imaš li to pri rùci? Do you have it [ready] at hand?
E lepe / J lijepe; C o staroj papigi / B,S o starom papagaju; C,B njeznoj / B,C,S njenoj; C što / B,S šta;
B,C vole šetati; S,B vole da šetaju; E po starom delu / J po starom dijelu; B,C,S po prijatelju / S po drugu
The auxiliary is the verbal half of the past tense: it agrees in person (1st, 2nd, or 3rd) and
number (singular or plural) with the subject of the sentence. By contrast, the other half of the past
tense – the half that carries the actual verbal meaning – has the form of a predicate adjective: it
agrees in gender (masculine, neuter or feminine) and number (singular or plural) with the subject
of the sentence. It is called the L-participle because its characteristic mark is the consonant l,
followed by the Nsg. short form adjective endings. As in true adjectives whose stems end in -l
(review [16c]), this -l shifts to- o in masculine singular.
To form the L-participle of verbs whose infinitives end in -ti preceded by a vowel, drop the
-ti and add the L-participle endings directly (for the L-participle of other verbs, see [104a]). The
chart below gives the L-participle endings, and the L-participle of biti.
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Both components of the past tense must agree with the subject of the sentence. If the subject
is 3rd person, the gender of the L-participle is the same as the gender of the noun subject. In the
1st and 2nd persons, it is necessary to specify the gender of the person speaking (1st person) or
spoken to (2nd person). In the plural, the masculine L-participle is used unless the subjects are all
neuter nouns, or all female (or feminine nouns). Since it is very rare for neuter subjects to speak
or be spoken to (outside of poetic contexts), most lists of past tense forms give only masculine
and feminine in 1st and 2nd persons. The charts below give the full set of past tense forms for the
verbs biti “be” and dati “give”.
Nearly every infinitive can form an L-participle for the past tense. The past tense of nemati
however, is formed with the L-participle of imati and the negative auxiliary: nisu imali “they
didn’t have”. Any of the three forms of the auxiliary may be used, depending on the type of
sentence. As in the case of biti, the full form is used only in questions, single-word answers. and
for emphasis. Clitic forms of the auxiliary are used in most instances. Because clitics cannot
begin a sentence, past tense forms are usually cited with the clitic following the L-participle, as in
the charts above. A past tense sentence may begin with the verb’s subject, with the L-participle
portion of the verb, or with another word, depending on the desired focus. However, the clitic
forms of the auxiliary must follow the XYZ rules (for examples, see [76, 111]). In addition, if a
se-verb is used in 3sg., the auxiliary je will usually be dropped after the se. Thus, whereas the
past tense of ja se igram “I play” is ja sam se igrao, the past tense of on se igra “he plays” is
normally on se igrao. For more on this word order pattern, see [104c, 111].
70 Aspect, continued
Aspect is usually a property of individual verbs: the meaning perfective or imperfective is
contained within the verb itself. In certain instances, the meaning of another word such as a con-
junction will depend upon the aspect of the verb used.
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stavljati (I) Stavljamo sliku u pìsmo. We’re putting a picture into the letter.
staviti (P) Stavili smo sliku u pìsmo. We have put a picture into the letter.
polàgati (I) Dàn as pòlažem ìspit. I’m taking the exam today.
polòžiti (P) Dàn as sam polòžio ìspit. I passed the exam today.
pòzdravljati (I) Pòzdravlja prijatelje. She’s greeting [her] friends.
pòzdraviti (P) Pòzdravila je prijatelje. She greeted [her] friends.
B,C,S prijatelje / S drugove
However, imperfective verbs can also be used in past tense sentences if the meaning is one
of duration, repetition or general fact. The sentences below illustrate the past tense use of the
three imperfective verbs given above. For more on the use of aspect in the past tense, see [106b].
Često je u svòja pìsma stavljala slike. She often used to put pictures into her letters.
Taj ìspit sam već tri pùta polàgao! I’ve taken that test three times already!
Prijatelje su uvijek srdačno pòzdravljali. They always used to greet [their] friends warmly.
B,C,S prijatelje / S drugove; J uvijek / E uvek
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Već sat vremena sjedim i pišem. I’ve been sitting here writing for an hour.
Već mesec dàn a gleda filmove. She’s been watching movies for a month.
E mesec / J mjesec; J sjedim / E sedim
In the third person, the use of svoj is obligatory if the appropriate grammatical conditions
are met, and impossible if they are not. This often creates difficulties for speakers of English.
Third person possessives in English are ambiguous, in that they allow (and force) speakers to de-
termine the identity of the possessor from the context. In both languages, of course, the identity of
the possessor is clear from the real-world context of the sentence. The difference is that English
speakers rely on this context alone, while BCS speakers are forced by the grammar of their lan-
guage to specify this identity in grammatical terms. If, for instance, the real world provides a
situation in which each of two women owns a cat, each feeds her own cat regularly, and each has
agreed to feed the other’s cat whenever necessary, then English speakers might have occasion to
speak or hear the sentence she feeds her cat. If such a sentence is heard out of context, the listener
will not know whether the female subject in question is feeding her own cat, or the cat belonging
to another female. BCS speakers, however, must specify the distinction by choosing (or not) to
use svoj. The following two sentences are not (and can never be) interchangeable.
3rd: one’s own Vìda hrani svòju mačku. Vida feeds her cat [ = her own cat].
3rd: another’s Vìda hrani njenu mačku. Vida feeds her cat [ = her friend’s cat].
B,C,S njenu / C,B njezinu
Additionally, because the possessor referred to by the adjective svoj is always the gram-
matical subject of the sentence, it follows that svoj will not usually modify the noun which is the
subject of the sentence. In the following two sentences, the two words meaning his refer to the
same dog and the same owner of that dog. In the first sentence, the owner is the subject and the
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dog is the object: possession of the dog can (and must) be expressed by svoj. In the second sen-
tence, however, it is the dog which is the grammatical subject (not the owner). Thus the posses-
sive form svoj cannot be used, and njegov must be used instead.
On svog psa svaki dan vodi u šètnju. He walks his dog every day.
Njègov pas je vrlo drag. His dog is very sweet.
Acc.-Gen. sebe Ja sebe ne mògu vidjeti u toj ulozi. I can’t see myself in that role.
Nezàvisan je. Radi za sebe. He’s independent – works for himself.
Šta to ìmaš kòd sebe? What’s that you have [with you] there?
Dat.-Loc. sebi – O čèmu mu piše? “What’s she writing to him about?”
– O sebi, nàravno. A što drugo? “About herself, of course. What else?”
Kùpujem sebi nešto. I’m buying something for myself.
Ìmaš li pri sebi novca? Do you have [any] money on you?
J vidjeti / E videti; C,B ne mogu vidjeti / S,B ne mogu da vidim; S,B nezavisan / C neovisan; S,B šta / C što;
C,B imaš li / S,B da li imaš
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Other verbs which usually take two objects (in both English and BCS) are kazati “tell”,
pisati “write”, pokazati “show”, and others. Most of these verbs do not always need to express
both objects; sometimes only the indirect object appears. Because English uses the same set of
pronouns (you, me, him, her, us, them) to signal either direct object or indirect object, this may
cause translation difficulties. The critical point is that if a noun or pronoun serves the function of
indirect object in a sentence, then it must be in the dative case in BCS. Sometimes the corre-
sponding English sentence will mark this meaning by the prepositions to or for, but more fre-
quently it will not. For instance, the most neutral form of each of the English translations below is
with a simple object pronoun. Where necessary, each sentence has been reformulated to include
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to or for to show that the meaning is in fact that of indirect object. To get the correct case in BCS,
one must pay close attention to the underlying meaning of the sentence.
Kažem ti, ne mògu više da čekam. I’m telling you, I can’t wait [any] more.
[I say TO YOU that....]
Žèlim da mi pòk ažeš kàko to radiš. I want you to show me how you do that.
[I want you to show this ( = the way you do it)
TO ME]
Òtac im piše, ali nè znam da li im Father is writing them, but I don’t know if he is
može sve opìsati. able to describe everything for them.
[Father is writing TO THEM....]
S,B ne mogu više da čekam / C,B ne mogu više čekati; S,B da li im može / C,B može li im; C,B može im sve opisati
/ B,S može da im sve opiše
prìpadati belong [to] Òva knjiga prìpada ùčitelju. This book belongs to the teacher.
smìjati se laugh [at] Zašto joj se smìješ? Why are you laughing at her?
odgovàrati answer Ùčitelj đàku ne odgòvara The teacher does not answer the
odmah. pupil immediately.
odgovàrati suit Odgòvara li ti òva haljina? Does this dress suit you?
To mi ne odgòvara. That doesn’t suit [ = work for] me.
pomàgati help Meni to nikako ne pòmaže. That doesn’t help me at all.
vjerovati believe Ja ti nè vjerujem. I don’t believe you.
smètati hinder Nè smeta mi muzika. The music doesn’t bother me.
jàvljati se contact Javlja mi se svaki dan. He gets in touch with me daily.
J smijati se / E smejati se; J smiješ se / E smeješ se; C,B odgovara li ti / S,B da li ti odgovara; J vjerovati
/ E verovati; J vjerujem / E verujem; B,C,S muzika / C glazba
Very few prepositions take the dative case. The most frequent one is k, which takes the
form ka before a word beginning with k- or g- in Croatian (and optionally before other con-
sonants in Bosnian and Serbian). In Croatian, this preposition also expresses the idea of motion
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towards a person or his/her domicile. In Bosnian and Serbian, however, it means towards only
when the destination is a location (and in fact, the preposition prema is used more frequently in
this meaning). For more discussion and examples, see [84b]. The preposition nasuprot means
opposite or across from; both nasuprot and prema also occur frequently with the object tome (as
illustrated below). For more on prepositions and the dative, see [158b].
✩ K(A) Dòđite k nama večèras! [C] Come over to our place tonight!
Òvaj put ide ka Karlovcu. This road goes to Karlovac
✩ PREMA Òvaj put ide prema Karlovcu. [same]
Prema tome ... Accordingly ...
✩ NASUPROT Visi na zidu nasuprot vràtima. It’s hanging on the wall opposite the door.
Nasuprot tome ... On the other hand ...
C k nama / B,S kod nas; B,S ovaj put / C ova cesta
The meaning of the English verbs like and love depends a great deal on the context of
usage. Sometimes they refer to what is essentially the same state, with a difference simply in the
degree of attachment. Other times they refer to different states, one of which is deep, abiding, and
sometimes viewed as inherent, and the other of which is more superficial and transitory (at least
in comparison). In addition, the verb like is used much more frequently than love to describe an
initial positive reaction. In BCS, only the verb voleti / voljeti is used for the specific meaning
love. It is also the preferred verb to use before infinitives, regardless of whether the meaning is
like or love. Other instances of the meaning like are expressed with the verbs sviđati se and
dopadati se. Both verbs are used equally in Serbian and Bosnian, but Croatian prefers sviđati se.
The grammar of these two verbs is very different from that of English like. In English, the
one doing the liking is the subject, and that which is liked is the object. In BCS, however, the one
doing the liking is expressed in the dative case, and that which is liked is expressed in the
nominative case. To say “John likes cookies”, therefore, one must construct a sentence on the
model “Cookies are pleasing to John”. English speakers will need to pay special attention to these
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sentences, not only because the structure is reversed (by comparison to English) but because the
XYZ rule will frequently come into play. Both verbs require se, and sentences expressing the
emotions concerned frequently contain clitic pronouns. The dative pronoun must always precede
se directly. For more discussion, and examples according to the XYZ format, see [76].
sviđati se
– Kàko ti se sviđa moj novi àuto? “How do you like my new car?”
– Jako mi se sviđa! “I like it a lot!”
– A njemu se nè sviđa. Čudno. “But he doesn’t like it. Strange.”
Àni se ne svìđaju slatkìši. I meni se više Ana doesn’t like sweets. I also prefer
svìđaju slana jela. [ = like better] savory dishes.
Našemu sinu se ne dòpada meso. Dòp adaju Our son doesn’t like meat. He only likes
mu se samo banàn e. bananas.
– Mislim da se sviđaš ònom mòmku. “I think that young man likes you.”
– Kàko mògu da mu se sviđam? U svakom “How can he like me? Anyway, I don’t
slučaju, on se meni pòsebno nè sviđa. particularly like him.”
B,C,S sviđati se / B,S dopadati se; B,S kako mogu da mu se sviđam / C,B kako mu se mogu sviđati
possessive Majka mu uvijek tàko gòvori. His mother always talks that way.
indirect object [same] Mother always talks that way to him.
J uvijek / E uvek
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A great many common expressions fall under this “affective” rubric. As seen in the sen-
tences below, some are translatable by English phrases with to or for; one could think of them as
indirect objects of a sort. Most instances of the “dative of affect”, however, are contained in sub-
jectless sentences, treated in the following section.
dative of “affect” Све нам је још врло ново. Everything is still very new to us
Вѐо ма ми добро ѝзгледаш! You look really good [to me]!
О̀на му је јако добар друг. She’s a very good friend to/for him.
Њима су то озбиљне речи. Those are serious words for them.
S drug / B,C,S prijatelj; E reči / J riječi
Another type of dative of affect is frequently heard in the spoken language. In this usage,
1st or 2nd person dative clitic pronouns are used as a marker of inclusiveness. By adding them to
a statement or question, the speaker emphasizes the communicative bond between participants in
a conversation. Although this usage is nearly impossible to translate into English, parenthetical
comments have been added to the translations below to give an approximation. This use of the
dative of affect, which has sometimes been called the ethical dative, can occur in various sorts of
conversational statements, but it is especially frequent after the presentative word ono, and the
location indicator eto.
Òvo je Nàrodni mùzej, a òno vam je This is the National museum, and that [you
Gradska kuća. see] is City hall.
Kàko si mi ti dànas? How are you today [my friend]?
Dugo sam čekala da mi da to lično, ali I waited a long time for him to give it to me
ništa. A dàn as sam dòbila pìsmo i in person but no luck. Then today I got a
eto ti ga – u pìsmu je! a letter and [you see], there it is, in the letter!
S,B gradska kuća / B,C gradska viječnica; B,S lično / C osobno
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Certain very common expressions follow this same grammatical model. Humans who find
themselves in the state of being sorry, pleased, or indifferent are identified in the dative case. The
grammatical focus of the sentence remains on the state, and the sentence is subjectless.
74 Se-verbs, continued
A number of verbs and verbal expressions include se as a component part. One type is ex-
emplified by verbs in group 1 below: these are verbs that do not exist at all without se. Another is
exemplified by group 2 below: these are verbs that do exist in one meaning without se, but in a
completely different meaning with se. It is often the case that these types of se-verbs are used
only in subjectless sentences. As the meanings of these verbs are quite clear from the definitions,
specific examples of usage are not given.
For most verbal pairs, however, one can perceive a basic meaning that joins the two verbs
(the one with se and the one without it), and can make basic generalizations about the way in
which se will affect the meaning. It is frequently the case that addition of se can make an active
verb passive or a transitive verb intransitive (review [38]). This affects a great many verbs; only
two examples are listed in group 3, but examples of usage are given for each. But it is the group 4
verbs that are especially interesting here. Each of the two pairs listed in group 4 below shares a
basic meaning, and in each case one could say that the addition of se makes a transitive verb in-
transitive or an active verb passive. At the same time, each individual verb has enough of a self-
contained meaning to stand separately. Dictionaries vacillate about the status of such se-verbs:
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some list them separately and some under the “main” verb. The notation “passive?” next to the
examples below exemplifies this vacillation. For more on se-verbs, see [82, 87, 98].
with se without se
Group 1
dešàvati se happen ––
svìđati se be pleasing to ––
sàstojati se [iz] be composed [of] ––
bòjati se be afraid of ––
Group 3
active Сваки сту̀дент слуша чѐт ири Every student takes four classes.
прѐдмета.
passive Прѐдмети се слушају чѐт ири You take classes for four years.
године. [ = Classes are taken for four years.]
active Морам да једем месо редовно. I have to eat meat regularly.
passive О̀на каже да се месо мора She says one must eat meat.
јести. [ = She says that meat must be eaten.]
А ја кажем да се месо нѐ мора But I say one need not eat meat.
јести. [ = But I say that meat need not be eaten.]
Group 4
active Мајка сваки дан зове сина. Mother calls [her] son every day.
passive ? О̀на се зове Берѝслава. Her name is Berislava.
[ that is: “She is called Berislava.”]
active Сваки пут га тешко на̀лазимо. We always have a hard time finding it.
passive ? Где се то на̀лази? Where is it?
[that is: “Where can it be found?”]
S,B moram da jedem / C,B moram jesti; S,B redovno / C redovito; C,B da se meso mora jesti / S,B da meso mora da
se jede; E gde / J gdje
75 Nouns with plural form but singular meaning: vrata and kola
A few nouns which refer to singular objects occur only with plural form. Because the nouns
in question end in -a, the natural tendency is to think of them as feminine singular. But they are
NEUTER PLURAL! Thus, the nominative, accusative, and genitive forms all end in -a. Adjectives
and verbs agreeing with these nouns must also be in the appropriate plural forms. Students must
take special care to remember that for these nouns the plural form has singular meaning.
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The most important of these nouns is vrata “door”. The noun kola “car” also falls into this
class. Although most Croats now use the singular noun auto in the latter meaning, the word kola
is still fairly frequently encountered in Bosnian and Serbian. But as the noun vrata is the only
way to express the very common concept door, care must be taken to remember its correct forms.
The case forms of these two nouns are given below, together with adjectives to emphasize the
fact that the endings on these nouns are plural. Long-form adjectives are given in all cases (in-
cluding nominative), since they are the ones most frequently used with these nouns. For the
DLIpl. endings, see [86], and for the usage of the instrumental case illustrated below, see [81a].
Nom. Ne mògu ùći. Vràta su zàtvorena. I can’t get in. The door is shut.
Acc. Ko može otvòriti òva vràta? Who can open this door?
Gen. Òna je tamo, pored cr̀v enih vràta. She’s over there, by the red door.
Loc. Neko je na vràtima. Someone’s at the door.
Examples of usage: kola “car”
Nom. – Mòja su kola zelèna. A tvòja? “My car is green. What [color] is yours?”
Acc. – Ìmam nova kola. Crvèna su. “I have a new car. It’s red.
Gen. Tamo su, ispred tvòjih kola. It’s over there, in front of your car.”
Instr. Òbično tamo idemo kolima. We usually go there by car.
C,B ne mogu ući / S,B ne mogu da uđem; S,B ko / C tko; C,B može otvoriti / S,B može da otvori; S,B neko
/ C netko
Dative clitics (review [66e]) must go in sub-slot Y-3. They occur in a number of different
types of sentences. Sentences (1-6) below illustrate the required word order for sentences contain-
ing two clitic object pronouns (one direct and one indirect): slots Y-3 and Y-4 must be filled. Each
of these sentences happens to concern the giving of a single object to a person, and specifies fur-
ther that the noun referring to the object is of masculine gender and the recipient is a male. But
this is just for illustration. The point is that any time two objects occur in a sentence, whatever the
person, number or gender, they must occur in this order.
Sentences (7-12) illustrate the required word order for sentences with a se-verb which re-
quires a dative object (such as sviđati se; review [73d]). Because sub-slot Y-5 is devoted to se
alone, by definition it must always be filled, and if the dative object is a clitic pronoun, so must
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sub-slot Y-3. These sentences can also be phrased with a full form dative object (as in example 8),
in which case only sub-slot Y-5 is filled. Sentences (13-19) illustrate the required word order for
sentences concerning states which affect human beings (review [73g]. All such sentences are sub-
jectless, requiring the 3sg. form of biti. This means that sub-slot Y-6 is always filled with the 3sg.
clitic je, whether the sentence is in the present tense (as in examples 13-15) or in the past tense
(as in examples 16-19). If the person affected is expressed by a short form clitic, it must come in
sub-slot Y-3. The word order of other types of sentences in the past tense is discussed in [111].
All the above sentences can also be expressed as questions, which means that the question parti-
cle li comes into play; it is always in sub-slot Y-1 (see examples 3-4, 9-10, and 19).
In order to keep the focus on the facts of clitic ordering, each of the example sentences has
been kept very short. But no matter the length of the sentence, the same rules apply. The first
element of the sentence or clause fills slot X, the clitics all come in slot Y, each in its appropriate
position in relation to the other clitics, and any remaining portion of the sentence or clause comes
in slot Z. Internalizing this structure is a very important step towards attaining fluency in BCS.
X Y Z
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Dajem mu ga. I’m giving it to him.
2 Ja mu ga dajem. [same]
3 Da li mu ga daješ? Are you giving it to him?
4 Daješ li mu ga? [same]
5 Ja mu ga nè dajem. I’m not giving it to him.
6 Nè dajem mu ga. [same]
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theme vowel -i. In most of these imperative forms, the accent is that of the infinitive. Those in the
subgroup (2a) make no further changes, while those in subgroup (2b) replace stem-final -k and -g
by -c and -z, respectively. There are very few such verbs; all have infinitives ending in -ći. Of the
three examples of this type listed below, the verb reći is rarely used in the present tense, but its
imperative is very common. The present tense of the verbs pomoći and leći is given in [94c],
where it is seen that their present tense forms include the consonant n. One must drop this n in
order to find their imperative stems.
On the printed page, the imperative forms of i-conjugation verbs look exactly like their pre-
sent tense forms (3sg., 1pl., 2pl.). The speech situation usually provides sufficient clues to distin-
guish them. In addition to context, there is also vowel length: the theme vowel of the present
tense is long and that of the imperative is short.
IMPERATIVE MOOD
infinitive 3pl pres stem singular plural inclusive
1 a- dòdati dòdaju dodaj- dòdaj dòdajte dòdajmo add; pass
čìtati čìtaju čitaj- čìtaj čìtajte čìtajmo read
putòvati pùtuju putuj- pùtuj pùtujte pùtujmo travel
*i- stàjati stòje stoj- stoj stojte stojmo stand
e- čuti čuju čuj- čuj čujte čujmo listen
pòpiti pòpiju popij- pòpij pòpijte pòpijmo drink [up]
2a i- staviti stave stav-i stavi stavite stavimo put
ràditi rade rad-i ràdi ràdite ràdimo do
e- ìći idu id-i ìdi ìdite ìdimo go
dòći dođu dođ-i dòđi dòđite dòđimo come
òtići odu od-i odi odite odimo go [away]
otiđu otiđ-i otìđi otìđite otìđimo [same]
ùzeti uzmu uzm-i ùzmi ùzmite ùzmimo take
òdneti odnèsu odnes-i odnèsi odnèsite odnèsimo take [away]
jesti jedu jed-i jedi jedite jedimo eat
pìsati pišu piš-i pìši pìšite pìšimo write
kàzati kažu kaž-i kàži kàžite kàžimo tell
biti budu bud-i budi budite budimo be
2b rèći [reknu] rec-i rèci rècite rècimo say, tell
leći legnu lez-i lezi lezite lezimo lie down
pòmoći pòmognu pomoz-i pomòzi ** pomòzite pomòzimo help
E odneti / J odnijeti ** also pomogni
* Several verbs of the i- and e-conjugations which used to be in group 1 have begun forming their
imperatives according to the rules of group 2a. Thus the imperative of brojati “count” is broji,
that of pojiti “water [animals]” is poji, and that of trajati “last” is traji.
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singular Dòđi òvamo da ti nešto kažem. Come here, I [have] something to tell you.
Budi miran, sve je u redu. Calm down, everything’s O.K.
Što žèliš? Samo rèci! What do you want? Just name it [ = say]!
Ràdi šta hòćeš, nema veze. Do what you want – it doesn’t matter.
Dòdaj mi so i biber, molim te. Pass [me] the salt and pepper, please.
Ìdi do nje i odnèsi joj knjigu. Go [to her] and take her the book.
plural / group Pijte, jedite, vesèlite se! Eat, drink, and be merry!
Ja ne žèlim ìći. Ìdite vi. I don’t want to go. You [all] go [ahead].
plural / polite Zòvite nas večèras, molim vas. Call us this evening, please.
Zatvòrite vràta, molim vas. Close the door, please.
Budite tàko dobri ... Will you [please] be so good [as to...]
C što / B,S, šta; S,B so / C sol; S,B biber / C papar; S do nje / B dò nje / C k njoj
In more colloquial style, inclusive meaning is expressed by placing the word hajde before
the infinitive (or hajde da before the 1pl. present) of an affirmative verb indicating the proposed
action (a negated verb is prefaced only by hajdemo da). If the verb is ići, then the phrase * hajde
da idemo is replaced simply by hajdemo. When one wishes to push an action along, the form
hajdemo can also be used alone. One could say, then, that hajdemo can also refer to a more
metaphorically-envisioned idea of movement. Both hajde and the inclusive imperative convey
roughly the same meaning. The inclusive imperative is more formal sounding; hajde is more fre-
quently used in spoken contexts.
HAJDE
+ 1pl. Hajde da rùčamo! Glàdan sam. Let’s have lunch! I’m hungry.
Hajde da ne govòrimo o tome. Let’s not talk about that.
hajdemo Jesi li gòtov? Hajdemo u grad! Are you ready? Let’s go into town!
Zašto ne pišete zadàtak? Hajdemo! Why aren’t you writing your assignment?
Come on, let’s get on with it!
S,B hajde da ručamo / B,C hajdemo ručati; C jesi li / S,B da li si; S,C u grad / B ù grad; S,B zadatak / C zadaću
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of insistence, and the latter constitutes a request or command. One can also communicate a simi-
lar range of meanings in the 3rd person. This is done by placing the word neka before a 3rd per-
son present tense verb form (normally of the perfective aspect). The general meaning is that of an
indirectly expressed request; depending on the context, it can be anything from a mild suggestion
to a veiled command. Each of the sentences below could have several meanings; not all possibili-
ties are given. The final sentence in the “request” section below is a famous line by the poet-
statesman Petar II Petrović Njegoš (1813? - 1851).
On the other end of the scale, neka can also introduce a wish or a blessing. In informal spo-
ken contexts, neka is often shortened to nek. When used alone, neka conveys acquiescence;
sometimes it is repeated in this meaning.
NEKA
request Čeka li netko? Neka uđe. Is there someone waiting? Have him come in.
/ Let him come in.
Neka prvo nàpiše dòmaći zadàtak. He should write his homework first. / Make
[~ have] him write his homework first.
Ja nè idem; neka òna ide s tobom. I’m not going; she should go with you [instead].
/ Have her go with you [instead].
Nek onda bude kàko ti hòćeš. Have it your way then [ = let it be your way].
/ So [let’s do it] your way then.
Neka bude što biti nè̀ može. Let there come [ = be] what cannot be.
wish Neka ti je sa srećom! Good luck! More power to you! [ = May it
be filled with fortune for you.]
Nek ti dragi Bog da zdravlje! May the good Lord grant you health!
acquies- Neka, òstavi. To je moj pòsao. It’s O.K., [just] leave [it]. That’s my job.
cence Neka, neka! Budi bez brige. It’s O.K., [ really]! Don’t worry.
Neka, neka! Sure, fine! [Bring it on / let it happen, (etc.)]
C netko / B,S neko; C,B čeka li / S,B da li čeka; S,B domaći zadatak / C domaću zadaću
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It is also possible to place the negative particle ne before the imperative form of the verb.
Normally this is done only with verbs of the imperfective aspect. If ne is placed before a perfec-
tive verb, it adds a strong overtone of caution, roughly equivalent to English you’d better not....
NE + imperative
+ imperfective Nè pitaj, samo slušaj. Don’t ask, just listen.
Nè boj se, nema ničega stràšnoga. Don’t be afraid, there’s nothing [to] fear.
+ perfective Ne propùstite tu prìliku! Don’t miss this opportunity! [... if you do,
you’ll be sorry]
Ne zabòravi me! Don’t forget me!
B,C,S ničega strašnoga / B,S ničeg strašnog
Both aspects of the verb are used in the affirmative imperative. As elsewhere in aspect us-
age, the choice depends upon the speaker’s focus. Perfective verbs are frequently encountered,
since when one gives a command one usually focuses on the desired completion of an action.
However, imperfective verbs are also used freely in the imperative mood. A great deal depends
upon the individual verb, in fact. Some verbs by nature focus more naturally on achievement-
oriented actions, while others focus more naturally on the durative nature of an action (for more
discussion of these different aspectual meanings, see [106b].
Two examples from section [78b] above are repeated below by way of illustration, each
spoken with reference to a single occasion. The meaning of the first sentence is more inherently
suited to a perfective verb: the speaker specifically requests that the action in question be brought
to completion. The meaning of the second sentence, however, is more general and therefore better
suited to an imperfective verb: the speaker wishes this action to be undertaken as opposed to
some other one, but does not express any particular focus on completion.
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Below are examples of adjective + noun phrases in the instrumental singular. As in other
case forms, agreement is determined by gender alone. If a masculine noun ends in -a preceded by
a soft consonant, it obeys the rules for feminine nouns in -a: that is, it takes the Isg. ending -om.
For more on the endings -i vs. -u, see the following section.
Nsg. short dobar pas slatko sèlo slatka idèja slatka stvar
Nsg. long dobri pas slatko sèlo slatka idèja slatka stvar
Nsg. short dobar muž loše pìtanje loša idèja loša stvar
Nsg. long dobri muž loše pìtanje loša idèja loša stvar
Nsg. short jak vođa
Nsg. long jaki vođa
Isg. dobrim psom slatkim sèlom slatkom idèjom slatkom stvari
dobrim mužem lošim pìtanjem lošom idèjom [ ...stvarju]
jakim vođom lošom stvari
[...stvarju]
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Nsg. Isg.
consonant shift + u pamet pameću mind, memory
krv krvlju blood
misao [Gsg. misli] mišlju thought
kost košću bone
radost radošću joy
svijest sviješću consciousness
stem + u noć noću night
žeđ žeđu thirst
obìtelj obìtelju (obitelji) family
stem + ju stvar stvarju (stvari) thing
riječ riječju (riječi) word
laž lažju (laži) lie [untruth]
J svijest / E svest; C obitelj / B,S porodica; J riječ / E reč
The 1st singular instrumental pronouns begin with the sound group mn-. This requires a
preceding preposition to end with a vowel. Prepositions which do not already end in a vowel add
-a before this form, and the accent shifts onto this vowel. This happens ONLY in the 1sg. form!
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✩ S(A) О̀на са ро̀дитељима пу̀тује на море. She’s going to the seacoast with her parents.
Го̀воримо с њима о о̀ном чо̀веку. We’re speaking with them about that man.
Ко̀ји чо̀век? О̀нај са малим псом? Which man? The one with the little dog?
Увек са жѐном игра цѐлу ноћ. He always dances with his wife all night.
Да ли пијеш ка̀фу са млѐком или Do you drink [your] coffee with milk or
без млѐка? without?
Са чим спремаш омлет? Са сиром? What are you putting in the omelet
[= making the omelet with] ? Cheese?
S,C na more / B nà more; E čoveku / J čovjeku; E uvek / J uvijek; B,S igra / C,B plesa; E celu / J cijelu;
S,B da li piješ / B,C piješ li; S,B kafu / C kavu / B kahvu; E mleko / J mlijeko
✩ NAD Над градом ѝма густих облака. There are dense clouds over the city.
Наш хо̀тел је над језером. Our hotel overlooks [ = is situated above]
the lake.
Шта каже на̀т пис над вра̀т има? What does thе inscription over the door say?
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✩ PRED Пред тобом је буду̀ћност. You have [a] future in front of you.
Лепо је пред кућом ѝмати тра̀ву. It’s nice to have grass in front of the house.
Ко за то одго̀вара пред су̀дом? Who’s answering in court [ = before the
law] for that?
In fact, many of the above prepositions are more frequently encountered in a somewhat
different version, accompanied by the genitive case. In each instance, the prefix iz- has been
added (which depending on the following consonant may appear as is-). The meaning is roughly
the same. The preposition između is, in fact, by far the more usual way to say between (review
[43c]). The same is increasingly true for the other compound prepositions, which include iznad,
ispod, ispred, and iza. Some speakers make a distinction between the nonprefixed prepositions
(with the instrumental) and the compound ones (with the genitive), using the former in abstract
meanings and the latter in concrete, spatial meanings, but for most speakers they are readily
interchangeable. For more discussion, see [157b].
tool Đak piše na ploči bijèom krèdom. The pupil writes on the board with
[ = using] white chalk.
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tool Tko se može ùmiti hladnom vòdom? Who can wash with cold water?
Nàmaži bebu uljem za sùnčanje! Put suntan oil on the baby! [= Grease
the baby with/using suntan oil]
Ti kòpaš lòpatom, a ja mòtikom. You dig with [ = using] a shovel and
I [dig] with a hoe.
Na suncu glavu zàklanjam šešìrom. In the sun, I protect my head with
a hat.
manner Nàziva ga pravim imenom. He calls that by [its] proper name.
Òbično plaćamo čekom. We usually pay by check.
Jàvi se, ili poštom ili telefònom. Get in touch, either by mail or
by phone.
C,B na ploča / S na tabli; J bijelom / E belom; C tko / B,S ko; C,B se može umiti / B,S može da se umije; S,C na
suncu / B nà suncu
body part Levak je – piše levom rùkom. He’s a lefty: he writes with his left hand.
Veseo pas maše repom. A happy dog wags its tail.
Ko se slaže, neka klimne glàvom. Whoever agrees, let him nod [his] head.
Nè kaže ništa, samo sleže ramènima. He doesn’t say anything, he just shrugs
his shoulders.
E levak / J ljevak; E levom / J lijevom; S,B ko / C tko; B,C,S klimne / C,B kimne; E sleže / J sliježe
duration Već stòljećima se zna za to. That’s been known for centuries.
Kiša pada već danima. It’s been raining for days [on end].
Već godinama o tome sanjam. I’ve been dreaming of that for years.
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putem Kaže da se vratimo istim pùtem. S/he says to take [ = that we should take]
the same route back.
Svaki ide svòjim pùtem. Everyone goes his or her own way.
To se može rijèšiti samo sùdskim That can only be settled in the courts
pùtem. [ = by way of court procedures].
J osvijetljenom / E osvetljenom; B,S autoputem / C autoputom, autocestom; J riješiti / E rešiti; B,C se može riješiti
/ S,B može da se reši (riješi)
trgòvati deal in Niko òvde ne tr̀guje òružjem. No one here deals in arms.
Naši prijatelji tr̀guju vìnom. Our friends are wine merchants.
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ponòsiti se take pride in Stràšno se pònosi sinom. He’s terribly proud of [his] son.
Nèmaju se čìme ponòsiti! They haven’t a thing to be proud of!
slùžiti serve Poslùžili su goste čajem. They served the guests tea.
Čìme te mògu slùžiti? What can I do for you [ = what can
I serve you with] ?
smàtrati consider Smatramo ga sposobnim. We consider him [to be] capable.
Òna neće s njim, jer ga She doesn’t want [to go out] with
smatra grubijànom. him because she thinks he’s a boor.
B,S niko / C nitko; J ovdje / E ovde; C,B mogu te služiti / B,S mogu da te služim
82 Se-verbs, continued
When the particle se is added to a 3rd person form of a verb which normally has a human
subject, it means that someone feels like carrying out the action in question. This person, that is,
the human experiencing this feeling, is expressed in the dative case. Two different shades of
meaning can be discerned, depending on the type of verb. The first, which could be called incli-
national, is restricted to intransitive verbs which describe bodily states. The second, which could
be called desiderative, includes all other types of verbs.
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subjectless Ide mi se u kìno. Hajdemo! I feel like going to the movies. Let’s go!
Kaže da mu se nè jede. He says he doesn’t feel like eating.
Da li ti se šeta? Meni se šeta. Are you up for a walk? I feel like one.
Nè piše mi se sàda. I’m not in the mood for writing just now.
ne da se Nè da mi se ìći u podstanare. I don’t really feel like being a tenant.
– Hòćeš li večèras sà mnom u kìno? “Do you want to go to the movies with
me tonight?”
– Nè da mi se. [B,C] “I’m not really up for it.”
– Nè ide mi se. [S] “I don’t feel like going.”
with subject – Da li ti se pije kàfa? “Do you feel like [drinking] some coffee?”
– Ne, hvàla, ali pije mi se čaj. “No thanks, but I feel like [drinking] tea.”
Kaže da mu se piju fràncuska vìna. He says he’s up for some French wines.
Ìzgleda da im se tvòja knjiga nè čita. It looks like they’re not inclined to be
reading your book.
S bioskop / B,C kino; S,B da li ti se šeta / C,B šeta li ti se; C,B hoćeš li / B,S da li hoćeš; B,S da li ti se pije
/ C,B pije li ti se; B,S kafa / C kava / B kahva
The ideas conveyed by all these se-verbs can also, of course, be expressed by active verbs
such as hteti / htjeti and želeti / željeti (or sometimes even moći), in which case the person feel-
ing the desire is grammatically the subject. The following pairs illustrate the difference. The Eng-
lish translations of the subjectless sentences are of course approximate, since the exact shade of
meaning depends so much on the context of speech.
active Ne žèlim ìći u podstanare. I don’t want to rent a room.
subjectless Nè da mi se ići u podstanare. I don’t really feel like being a tenant.
Nè ide mi se u podstanare. [same]
active Ne mògu joj sàda pìsati. I can’t write her now.
subjectless Nè piše mi se sàda. I’m not in the mood for writing just now.
B,C želim ići / S,B želim da idem; C,B mogu joj pisati / S,B mogu da joj pišem
Although the difference in meaning is subtle, one can begin to define it by making reference
to the difference in grammatical focus. In the active sentences the focus is on the speaker and the
fact that s/he is making an explicit statement of a relatively strong feeling. In the subjectless sen-
tences, by contrast, the focus is less on the speaker and more on the inclination (or absence
thereof) to perform the action. The meaning of any one subjectless sentence of this sort depends
on the degree of the speaker’s actual desire, the conversational context, or both. Thus, if any one
speaker chooses to express a desire (or the absence of a desire) with a subjectless sentence, it can
mean either that his/her desire is less strongly felt than in the corresponding active sentence, that
s/he chooses for whatever reason to express this desire in a less direct, less abrupt manner, or a
combination of the two.
83 Aspect, continued
According to the concept of aspect, nearly all verbs come in pairs. They share a general dic-
tionary meaning but differ as to the view taken of that meaning. Perfective verbs view the action
as a single complete instance, and imperfective verbs view it as ongoing or repeated, or in general
terms (review [28, 53c, 70], and see [145]). Each of the two verbs has a distinct form, and each
follows the conjugation rules of its verb type (review [53a-b, 96], and see [147]).
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čuti I Čujemo se svaki dan. We talk [on the phone] every day.
P O čèmu se radi? Nìsam te čula. What’s it about? I didn’t hear you.
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Certain adverbs referring to motion (and to destination) are common throughout BCS. With
respect to others, however, Croatian differs markedly from Serbian and Bosnian.
nositi Не мо̀гу да носим све о̀ве књиге! I can’t carry all these books!
voditi Често води свог пса у шѐтњу. He walks his dog [ = takes it for a
walk] often.
voziti Он ме сваки дан вози на по̀сао. He takes [ = drives] me to work
every day.
voziti (se) Он вози свој а̀уто, а ја се возим. He drives his car, and I ride
[in the car].
voziti se Ја се сваки дан возим на по̀сао. I drive to work every day.
hodati Кад причам телефо̀ном, увек When I talk on the phone, I always
хо̀дам тамо-амо. pace about [ = walk to and fro].
S,B ne mogu da nosim / C,B ne mogu nositi; B,C,S svog / C svojeg; E uvek / J uvijek
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kamo (review [55c]). Croatian also differs from Bosnian and Serbian in several other ways with
respect to expressions of motion and destination.
The first concerns the adverb kuda, which has a different meaning in Croatian. In Bosnian
and Serbian, this adverb requests information about the identity of a destination. In Croatian,
however, it requests information about the route one takes to reach that destination. Bosnian and
Serbian have no single corresponding question word in this meaning; instead, they use the phrase
kojim putem. The second two differences concern the prepositions used to express the idea
“movement towards”. If the movement is towards a person, Croatian uses k(a) + Dat. (or just the
dative case alone). Bosnian and Serbian, by contrast, use one of two prepositions taking the geni-
tive case. If the intended meaning is movement towards a person wherever s/he is, the preposition
is do, but if the intended destination is that person’s place (usually his/her residence), the preposi-
tion is kod. If the movement is towards a geographical location, Croatian uses only the preposi-
tion prema. In Bosnian and Serbian, this meaning is expressed by either prema or k(a).
Here is a schematic diagram of these relationships, and examples of usage.
C Ìdi ka Gòranu, i odnèsi mu knjigu. Go to Goran, and take him the book.
Òdi Gòranu, i odnèsi mu knjigu. [same]
B,S Ìdi do Vesne i odnèsi joj knjigu. Go to Vesna and take her the book.
C Večèras idemo k Ìvanu. We’re going to Ivan’s this evening.
B,S Večèras idemo kod Svètlane. We’re going to Svetlana’s this evening.
All BCS speakers, however, use prema in the meaning “according to, compared with”.
Što si ti prema njemu? You are nothing compared with him! [ = What
are you compared with him?]
Svi pòstupaju prema naređènju. All act in accordance with the order.
C što / B,S šta; B,S prema naređenju / C prema naredbi
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mentary, however. Sometimes this has to do simply with the complexity of the ideas being ex-
pressed, and sometimes it has to do with variations of word order connected with the usage of
infinitives (or their frequent replacement in Serbian, the sequence of da + present tense).
X X Y Z
S tàkvim ljudima teško je ràditi.
People like that are hard to work with.
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da + present phrase, a framework which allows unambiguous identification of the verb on which
the clitic depends. Type (1) sentences are those in which infinitive clitics can move to the main
verb. Type (2) sentences, which are in general more prevalent, are those in which clitics remain
with their own verb. Note that in type (2) sentences there are two obvious instances of the XYZ
sequence: the version with the single-word infinitive utilizes the “starting over” rules outlined
above, according to which it is required to place the infinitive itself in the second X slot (followed
directly by its clitic). But when type (1) sentences utilize the single-word infinitive, the clitic
moves up to the first Y position, that associated with the main verb.
(2) [da+pres] Čìni mi se opasno da se vozi bicìklom. I think it’s dangerous to ride a bicycle.
[inf] Čìni mi se opasno vòziti se bicìklom. [same]
[da+pres] Opasno je da se nàginješ kroz pròzor. It’s dangerous to lean out the window.
[inf] Opasno je nàginjati se kroz pròzor. [same]
The structure of these sentences is more clearly seen if they are diagrammed according to
the XYZ format, as follows:
X Y Z X Y Z
Тешко је да га разу̀меш
Тешко га је разу̀мети.
It’s hard to understand him.
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Nsg. -a -Ø -o / -e -a -Ø
Npl. -e -i -a -e -i
masculine-neuter
DLIpl. -ama -ima -ama -ima
Nsg. loš gazda dobar đak slatko sèlo dòbra knjiga slatka stvar
Npl. loši gazde dòbri đàci slatka sela dòbre knjige slatke stvari
DLIpl. lošim gazdama dobrim đàcima slatkim selima dobrim knjigama slatkim stvarima
87 Se-verbs, continued
Sometimes the particle se adds a certain type of general meaning to a verb. Examples of
such meanings are passive or intransitive (review [38, 74] and see [98]). Another meaning is the
idea of reciprocity discussed below. In other instances, se is simply part of an individual verb’s
meaning, and needs to be learned as such. No se-verb can ever have an object in the accusative
case. A number of them, however, do take objects in other cases.
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sentence’s verb. For example, the subjects in the English sentence “John and Mary love one an-
other” are John and Mary: they are the ones doing the loving. But they are also the objects: they
are the ones being loved. BCS expresses this meaning simply by inserting se. English sentences
with this meaning do not always use the phrase each other, of course. But although the English
versions of the BCS sentences below all express this idea in other ways, it should nevertheless be
clear that the meaning of each includes the idea of reciprocity, and that each one could be refor-
mulated with the phrase each other without changing the intended meaning radically. A similar
meaning can also be expressed by combining the appropriate forms of the words jedan “one” and
drugi “another”; for discussion and examples, see [160].
GENITIVE objects
bojati se Mi se ne bòjimo Mìrjanine zmìje. We’re not afraid of Mirjana’s snake.
Da li se zaista bòjiš grmljàvine? Are you really afraid of thunder?
Ne bòjim se njega već nje. It’s not him I fear, but her.
sjećati se (I) Sjećaš li se mòje sèstre? Do you remember my sister?
Niko se nè seća našeg grada. Nobody remembers our city.
On se svèga sjeća. He remembers everything.
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DATIVE objects
javljati se (I) Mi joj se često javljamo, a òna We call her often, but she never calls us.
nam se nikad nè javlja.
Što radiš? Javljaš li mu se? What are you doing? Are you calling him?
javiti se (P) Nè moraš im se jàviti tàko rano. You don’t have to call them that early.
Javi mu se! On te čeka. Give him a call! He’s expecting you.
sviđati se (I) Što misliš? Sviđaš li mu se? What do you think? Does he like you?
Vèo ma joj se sviđamo, a òna She likes us a lot, but we don’t like her
nam se ùopšte nè sviđa. at all.
svideti se (P) Znaš, nè mоraš im se svidjeti! It’s not obligatory that they like you,
you know!
C što / B,S šta; B,C javljaš li mu se / S,B da li mu se javljaš; C,B ne moraš im se javiti / B,S ne moraš da im se javiš;
C,B sviđaš li mu se / B,S da li mu se sviđaš; J svidjeti se/ E svideti se; B,S uopšte / C,B uopće; C,B ne moraš im se
svidjeti / B,S ne moraš da im se svidiš
INSTRUMENTAL objects
baviti se Ja se tìme nè bavim. I don’t go in for that [sort of thing].
[ = I don’t do (occupy myself with) that.]
Ne žèli nam reći čìme se bavi. S/he doesn’t want to tell us what [kind
of] work s/he does.
C,B ne želi nam reći / B,S ne želi da nam kaže
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(1) Most masculine nouns and male names ending in a consonant take -e, before which
a stem-final -k (or -c), -g, -h shifts to -č, -š, -ž, respectively.
(2) If the stem-final consonant is soft, however, the noun will take -u.
(3) The ending -u is also used for nouns of more than one syllable ending in -h, and for
some personal names.
(4) Masculine nouns ending in a vowel use the nominative form, unless they end in -ica;
the rules for these nouns are given in (8) and (9) below.
(5) Nouns ending in -r are split between the two endings: nouns of a single syllable take
-e, and others take -u. Nouns whose stems end in -ar or -ir can take either ending.
(6) Feminine nouns in -a regularly take the ending -o.
(7) Names of two syllables (female and male) take the ending -o only if the root vowel is
long rising. Unless they end in -ica, all other names use the nominative form; this
applies to certain terms denoting relatives as well.
(8) Nouns in -ica which have two syllables, are pejorative terms referring to either males
or females, or are non-diminutives referring to items, take the ending -o.
(9) Other nouns in -ica, including affectionate terms referring to males, take the ending
-e.
(10) Feminine nouns in a consonant take -i.
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such nouns refer to humans, and identify them by nationality, religion or place of origin (review
[32g]). If a noun’s stem ends in -k, -g, or -h, it is replaced by -c, -z, or -s, respectively, in either
of two different contexts. One of these is Npl. (review [32b]), and the other is DLIpl. (review
[86]). In the vocative, however, these same consonants are replaced by -č, -ž, or -š, respectively
(review [88]); see [112] for more on consonant shifts.
The noun Turčin “Turk” displays a number of these phenomena. The stem is in fact Turk.
Because the singulative suffix -in requires a shift from -k to -č, the stem appears as Turčin in all
forms of the singular. In the plural, however, this suffix is dropped. The stem Turk- then under-
goes the regular consonant shift in Npl. and DLIpl., such that these forms are Turci and Tur-
cima, respectively. In Apl., however, no shift is required and the form is Turke. Finally the Gpl.
requires the insertion of a, such that the form is Turaka.
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stems ending in the appropriate consonant sequence are required to insert a between these conso-
nants before the Gpl. ending. In nouns, the counting form is like Gsg. in all but those with Gsg. in
-eta; in the modifiers, however, it differs from Gsg. (review [46a] and see [91]).
A number of neuter nouns with NAsg. in -e fall into a separate group. Among other things,
all of them take Isg. ending -om. More significantly, each of them adds an additional syllable in a
number of cases. Some of these add the syllable -en in all cases other than NAVsg. (review
[32h]). These include nouns like vreme / vrijeme “time; weather”, ime “name”, breme “bur-
den”, rame “shoulder”, and a few others. Others add the syllable -et in all cases of the singular
other than NAVsg., but not in the plural. This group includes nouns like dete / dijete “child”, jaje
“egg”, various male personal names, names of the young of animals, and a number of words for
objects (including all words formed with the diminutive suffix -če, on which see [163c]). Many
of these words have irregular plurals; for that of dete / dijete, see [90]. The nouns oko “eye” and
uho / uvo “ear” have a regular neuter declension in the singular, but their plural forms are femi-
nine; for details, see [111a].
NEUTER nouns
Nsg sèlo polje pìsmo gnijèzdo ime jàje
Asg sèlo polje pìsmo gnijèzdo ime jàje
Gsg sèla polja pìsma gnijèzda imena jàjeta
DLsg sèlu polju pìsmu gnijèzdu imenu jàjetu
Isg sèlom poljem pìsmom gnijèzdom imenom jàjetom
Vsg selo polje pìsmo gnijèzdo ime jaje
CF sèla polja pìsma gnijèzda imena jàja *
Npl sela polja pìsma gnijèzda imèna jàja
Apl sela polja pìsma gnijèzda imèna jàja
Gpl sèla polja pisama gnijèzda imèna jàja
DLIpl selima poljima pìsmima gnijèzdima imènima jàjima
J gnijezdo / E gnezdo * CF jajeta possible for some speakers
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[57a]). A number of nouns, however, take the Gpl. ending -i; furthermore, it is not always possi-
ble to predict which nouns will take which ending (review [57b] and see [157]). A few nouns
(mostly those denoting body parts, see [111a]) take the Gsg. ending -u.
The second feminine declension has considerably fewer case endings. NAsg. are always
alike, with a zero ending. Nearly all other case endings are written -i (although the Gpl. ending is
distinctively long). The DLIpl. ending is -ima, and the Isg. ending is either -i or -u. The latter
ending frequently requires a shift in the stem-final consonant (review [79b], and see [112a]). The
counting form is identical to Gsg. in nouns, but not in modifiers. The noun misao “thought” con-
tains a fleeting -a-, as do others formed from the same stem – care must be taken not to assign it
to the masculine declension. The noun kći “daughter” is irregular: its Asg. is kćer, which is the
base to which all other endings are added. The noun mati, an archaic word meaning mother, is
similarly irregular, with the Asg. (and stem) mater.
FEMININE nouns in -a
Nsg rùka knjiga djèvojka tetka bòrba učitèljica
Asg ruku knjigu djèvojku tetku bòrbu učitèljicu
Gsg rùke knjige djèvojke tetke bòrbe učitèljice
DLsg rùci knjizi djèvojci tetki bòrbi učitèljici
Isg rùkom knjigom djèvojkom tetkom bòrbom učitèljicom
Vsg ruko knjigo djèvojko tetka borbo učitèljice
NApl ruke knjige djèvojke tetke bòrbe učitèljice
Gpl rùku knjiga djèvojaka tetaka / tetki bòrba / borbi učitèljica
DLIpl rùkama knjigama djèvojkama tetkama bòrbama učitèljicama
J djevojka / E devojka
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nickname for Branko). These follow the declension of neuter nouns like jaje (except that the
Asg. is like the Gsg., since they refer to animate beings). As to names ending in -o, nearly all of
which are disyllabic, the declension depends on the accent. Those with a long rising accent (most
of which are nicknames) are declined like feminines in -a, while those with a falling accent are
declined like regular masculine nouns.
Female names which end in anything other than -a are not declined. Nearly all native
women’s names do end in -a, and foreign ones often tend to get reformulated so as to end in -a.
Recently, however, it has become more accepted to give girls names that do not end in -a (and
which do not take case endings).
MALE names
N Pètar Nìkola Hr̀voje Đorđe Brane Ranko Ivo
A Pètra Nìkolu Hr̀voja Đorđa Braneta Ranka Ivu
G Pètra Nìkole Hr̀voja Đorđa Braneta Ranka Ive
DL Pètru Nìkoli Hr̀voju Đorđu Branetu Ranku Ivi
I Pètrom Nìkolom Hr̀vojem Đorđem Branetom Rankom Ivom
V Petre Nìkola Hr̀voje Đorđe Brane Ranko Ivo
FEMALE names
N Nàd a Vesna Dràgica Ines
A Nàdu Vesnu Dràgicu Ines
G Nàd e Vesne Dràgice Ines
DL Nàdi Vesni Dràgici Ines
I Nàdom Vesnom Dràgicom Ines
V Nado Vesna Dràgice Ines
Men’s surnames follow the masculine noun declension, except those ending in -ski, which
are declined like adjectives. Women’s surnames are declined only if they end in -a. Surnames do
not have a separate vocative form when they are combined with personal names; however, those
which can take a separate vocative do so when they follow honorifics. The abbreviations G. and
Gđa stand for Gospodin “Mr.” and Gospođa “Ms.”, respectively; the vocative versions are Go-
spodine and Gospođo, respectively.
90 Irregular plurals
The neuter noun dete / dijete “child” and the masculine nouns brat “brother” and gospodin
“sir, gentleman” share an irregularity. The plural of each one takes the case forms of a FEMININE
SINGULAR noun in -a. Furthermore, the stem of each singular noun is altered slightly before the
addition of these feminine “singular” endings. The final -t of dete / dijete is changed to -c, and
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the final -t of brat is changed to -ć. In the case of gospodin, the singulative suffix -in is lost (re-
view [32g]). The counting form of brat and gospodin is like the Gsg., but that of dete / dijete
usually follows different rules (see [124c]).
The chart below gives the singular and plural forms of these nouns. Viewed in terms of their
endings alone, both of the paradigms look like singular ones. Much attention must be paid to re-
member that the words deca / djeca, braća, and gospoda are PLURAL in meaning, since not only
their endings, but also those of any modifiers, are identical with feminine singular ones. They do,
however, take plural verbs. Examples of usage are given following the paradigms.
SINGULAR (regular)
Nsg. dète dijète brat gospòdin
Asg. dète dijète brata gospòdina
Gsg. dèteta djèteta brata gospòdina
DLsg. dètetu djètetu bratu gospòdinu
Isg. dètetom djètetom bratom gospòdinom
Vsg. dete dijete brate gospòdine
CF [124c] [124c] brata gospòdina
PLURAL (irregular)
Npl. dèca djèca braća gospòda
Apl. dècu djècu braću gospòdu
Gpl. dèce djèce braće gospòde
DLpl. dèci djèci braći gospòdi
Ipl. dècom djècom braćom gospòdom
Vpl. deco djeco braćo gospodo
E dete / J dijete; E deca / J djeca
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forms for all the cases in both singular and plural, but also for all three genders. But although
masculine and feminine nouns can each follow two separate declensions (depending on whether
the Nsg. ends in -a or in a consonant), there is only one form of an adjective for each gender.
There are three separate declensions in nominative and accusative (both singular and plural). For
the remaining case forms, there are only two declensions in the singular (feminine and masculine-
neuter), and only one in the plural.
There are two separate sorts of adjectives, descriptive and pronominal. Adjectives of the
first type give additional information about a noun; most of them have variant forms of different
lengths. Adjectives of the second type relate a noun to various real-world situations. They also
have forms of different lengths, but according to a more restricted model.
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Masculine-Neuter Feminine
short long longer short long
Gsg. dobra * dobrog * dobroga * dobre
loša * lošeg * lošega * loše
DLsg. dobru dobrom dobrome, dobromu dobroj
lošu lošem lošemu lošoj
Isg. dobrim dobrom
lošim lošom
CF dobra dobra dobre dobre
loša loša loše loše
* and animate accusative
Masculine-Neuter-Feminine
long longer
Gpl. dobrih
loših
DLIpl. dobrim dobrima
lošim lošima
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Demonstrative pronominal adjectives (review [11b]) have a similar declension, except that
the masculine NAsg. looks like a short form, since it ends in a consonant (and has a vowel pre-
ceding it that is lost in other forms). Additionally, there are two different longer masculine-neuter
DLsg. forms, plus a distinctive counting form. This group includes ovaj “this”, taj “this, that”,
and onaj “that”. The forms of ovaj and taj are given; those of onaj are like ovaj.
The pronominal adjective kakav “what [kind of]” has short forms in NAsg.-NApl., and
long forms elsewhere; it can also have longer forms. The adjectives takav “such [a]”, onakav
and the like have similar declensions (review [36b]). The pronominal adjective sav partly follows
this model; note also that the final (or only) vowel of Nsg.masc. is lost in other forms. What is
different about sav is that in some cases it has not long forms but longer forms, but in others it
has both. Additionally, it is exceptional in taking “soft” endings (in -e instead of -o).
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Possessive pronominal adjectives (review [11a]) fall into two groups. The first includes
moj “my, mine”, tvoj “your(s)”, svoj “one’s own”, naš “our(s)”, and vaš “your(s)”. The NAsg. -
NApl. forms are short and the other case forms are long. In the first three of these, the Gsg. and
DLsg. case forms have contracted variants. The chart gives the declensions of moj and naš.
Masculine Neuter Feminine
Nsg. moj naš mòje naše mòja naša
Asg. moj * naš * mòje naše mòju našu
Npl. mòji naši mòja naša mòje naše
Apl. mòje naše mòja naša mòje naše
* inanimate only
The remaining possessive pronominal adjectives have short forms in NAsg.-NApl. and in
masculine-neuter Gsg. and DLsg.; elsewhere they have long forms. Croatian prefers the short
forms while Bosnian and Serbian tend to use the long forms; there is no difference in meaning.
Technically, these pronominal adjectives have longer forms as well but these are rarely heard
(and are not included in the chart below). This group includes njen / njezin “her(s)”, njegov
“his”, and njihov “their(s)” (review [11a]), and all possessive pronominals derived by adding the
suffixes -in or -ov to proper names (as well as a few other nouns; review [41b]). The charts be-
low give the declensions of njegov “his” and mamin “Mom’s”.
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Interrogative pronouns correspond to who and what in English. A number of other pro-
nominal forms can be made be adding prefixes to these; examples are nobody / nothing, some-
body / something, and the like (review [62]). Below are the declensions for ko / tko “who” and
one of its derivatives, netko / neko “someone”, as well as for šta / što “what” and one of its de-
rivatives, ništa “nothing”. Most case forms have both long and longer variants (the longer are
more frequent). The nominative case has only long forms, however, and the dative case has only
longer forms, in two variants. The locative is given with a preposition; see [93b] for the relevant
word order rules when negation is present.
Pronominal forms are very important in a language, and are often quite short. Not only this,
they often share the same form as another word. One must be on the lookout, therefore, for poten-
tial confusions as concerns the following pairs of words. It is very possibly because of this poten-
tial for confusion that the contracted forms of koji “which” have tended to fall out of use.
False friends
te NApl., Gsg. fem this ≠ te conjunction and, then
te NApl., Gsg. fem this ≠ te 2sg. Gen-Acc. clitic you
ti 2sg. Nom. full you ≠ ti 2sg. Dat. clitic you
ti Npl. masc these ≠ ti 2sg. Dat. clitic you
òna 3rd. Nsg. fem. she ≠ òna 3rd. Npl. neut. they
svom Isg. fem all ≠ svom ( = svojem) DLsg. masc-neut own
kom Loc. who ≠ kom ( = kojem) DLsg. masc-neut which
kòga Acc-Gen. who ≠ koga ( = kojega) Gsg. masc-neut which
kòmu Dat. who ≠ komu ( = kojemu) DLsg. masc-neut which
93 Review of prepositions
Although some prepositions have identical forms serving as adverbs (review [61a]), true
prepositions almost always occur with an object. This object can be a noun (optionally modified
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PREPOSITIONS BY NAME
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PREPOSITIONS BY CASE
Accusative kroz, na, o, u, uz, za
Genitive bez, blizu, do, iz, kod, nakon, od, oko, pored, posle, pre, s(a);
ispod, ispred, iza, između, iznad
Dative k(a), nasuprot, prema
Locative na, o, po, pri, u
Instrumental nad, pod, pred, s(a), za
Already it is clear that the genitive is by far the favored case among prepositions. For more on
prepositions and their meanings, see [156b, 157b, 158b, 159b].
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95 Future tense
The BCS future tense is a compound tense, composed of an auxiliary and the infinitive of
the verb. The auxiliary is the verb hteti / htjeti, which also means want. In the future tense, this
auxiliary can appear in the full form, the negated form or the clitic form. English speakers should
take advantage of the similarities between the BCS future tense and the same tense in English.
For instance, the future tense of to go in English is [I] will go, which can also be pronounced in
the shortened form I’ll go. This is a compound tense, composed of an auxiliary and a main verb
form in which the auxiliary – which carries the meaning of desire (of wanting or willing some-
thing to happen) – can occur either fully stressed or in shortened, unaccented form. All these
statements are also true of the BCS future.
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most neutral instances of the future tense, is equivalent to the negated form minus the accented
negative prefix ne- (for the overlap in meaning between the meaning want and the meaning of
simple future tense, see [95c]). The alternate negated future auxiliary (with the two components
written separately) is used in Croatian alongside the single-word negated auxiliary. As in the pre-
sent tense of to be (review [7b]), the clitic forms are used in most contexts. The full forms are
used in questions, single-word answers, and special emphasis. Negation can be expressed only by
the negated full form.
The meaning of future tense is expressed by the combination of the auxiliary and the infini-
tive. The only time the infinitive can be absent is if its meaning has already been stated and is
clear from the context. When the clitic auxiliary is used, it must (like all clitics) come in second
position. It follows the question particle li and precedes all other clitics; for analysis in terms of
the XYZ model, see [102]. When some word other than the infinitive occurs in initial position,
any clitics follow immediately. In this case, the infinitive can occur anywhere in the sentence.
Serbian can also use the da + present form of the infinitive to express future. Although
Bosnian can in principle form the future this way, in practice one almost always encounters the
infinitive future in Bosnian. Of course, whenever the da + present form is used, the clitic objects
must go in the clause with the present tense form of the main verb. This means that they are
separated from the future clitic (for more discussion, see [102]). The following set repeats the
above examples, now with the future tense expressed as da + present.
When the infinitive begins the sentence, it must necessarily be followed by the auxiliary. In
such instances, infinitives ending in -ti are pronounced together with the auxiliary. For most
verbs, this means that the consonant t is absorbed into the ć of the future auxiliary. As seen in the
examples below, Croatian continues to write the two separately (regardless of how the sequence
may be pronounced). Serbian, however, carries this pronunciation into the spelling, and writes the
two pieces together as a single word. If the infinitive ends in -sti, the resulting combination (st +
ć) is pronounced as šć, which is also reproduced in Serbian spelling. Bosnian can use either alter-
native: formerly the Serbian spelling predominated, but now the Croatian spelling is favored.
Note, however, that infinitives ending in -ći, however, are ALWAYS written separately.
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NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
present Nìsmo stùdenti. We’re not students.
Mi nìsmo stùdenti. [same]
future Nèćemo biti stùdenti. We won’t be students.
Mi nèćemo biti stùdenti. [same]
NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
present Zar nìste vi stùdent? Aren’t you a student?
Nìste li vi stùdent? [C] [same]
future Zar nèćete vi biti stùdent? Won’t you be a student?
Nèćete li vi biti stùdent? [C] [same]
present Zar nìje tàko? Isn’t that the way it is?
Nìje li tàko? [C] [same]
future Zar neće biti tàko? Isn’t that the way it’ll turn out?
Neće li biti tàko? [C] [same]
B,S da li ste / B,C jeste li; B,C vi / S Vi; S,B da li ćete / C,B hoćete li; S,B da li je / B,C,S je li; S,B da li će biti
/ C,B hoće li biti
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In the case of a single-word answer to a question, however, even this intonational clue can-
not be used. Here, the only recourse is to context. That is, it is only in the situation itself that one
can know whether the answer Hoću means “[Yes,] I will” or “[Yes,] I do [want to]”, or whether
the answer Neću means “[No,] I won’t” or “[No,] I don’t [want to]”. Usually the question to
which these words respond has provided the context. But in the case of negation, it is hard to dis-
tinguish the two even when the sentence is spelled out. This is because the negated auxiliary
draws the sentence intonation to itself much more strongly than does the affirmative one. The
following two sentences, for instance, are pronounced with almost exactly the same intonation:
negated future Nèću dòći večèras. I’m not coming this evening.
negated volition Nèću dòći večèras. I don’t want to come this evening.
Fortunately, the language structure itself now provides something of a safety valve. Recall
that there are two ways to express the idea infinitive: one with a single word and the other with a
sequence of da + present. In all other contexts of BCS, these two have the same meaning (review
[26c]). Here, however, they are in principle differentiated. If the negated form of hteti / htjeti is
followed by an infinitive, then the sentence should have future tense meaning. But if the negated
form is followed by da + present, then the sentence should mean not want. According to the rules
of grammar, this is the one instance in which Croatian permits (indeed, usually requires) the idea
infinitive to be expressed as da + present. In practice, however, many Croats avoid da + present
even in this meaning, while Serbs tend to use “da + present” in both meanings. The distinction is
thus blurred in both Serbian and Croatian. It is relatively well observed in Bosnian, however.
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negated future Nèću čìtati njègovo pìsmo. I’m not going to read his letter.
negated volition Nèću da čìtam njègovo pìsmo. I don’t want to read his letter.
negated future Sigurno neće to ràditi. They surely won’t do that.
negated volition Sigurno neće to da rade. Surely they don’t want to do that.
In the case of the existential verbs ima and nema, a special rule operates. The present tense
of this type of subjectless sentence uses the verbs ima and nema. But in the future tense, one
must use ANOTHER VERB: this verb is biti. Special attention must be paid here!
IMA
present Dàn as na pùtu ìma leda. There’s ice on the road today.
future Dàn as će na pùtu biti leda. There’ll be ice on the road today.
present Ìma li još? Is / Are there any more?
future Hòće li biti još? Will there be any more?
present Da, ìma ih još mnogo. Yes, there’s still a lot [of them].
future Da, biće ih još mnogo. Yes, there’ll still be a lot [of them].
NEMA
present Tamo nema nikoga. There’s nobody there.
future Tamo neće biti nikoga. There won’t be anybody there.
present Zar ih nema više? Aren’t there any more [of them]?
future Zar ih više neće biti? Won’t there be any more [of them]?
present Dàn as me nema. I’m not here today.
future Dàn as me neće biti. I won’t be here today.
Mene dànas neće biti. [same]
present Ni njega nema. He’s not here either!
future Ni njega neće biti. He won’t be here either.
S,B na putu / C,B na cesti; B,C ima li / S,B da li ima; C,B hoće li / S,B da li će; S,B biće / C,B bit će
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single action (and usually on its completion). To aid the English speaker in grasping this distinc-
tion, the chart below gives some rough parallels, using the English verb do. From these examples,
one can see that the English progressive tenses (is / was / will be doing) reproduce some (but not
all!) elements of the BCS idea “imperfective aspect”. Similarly, one can note that the verbs in
perfective sentences all refer in some way to future time: in each instance the verb do refers to an
action that has not yet been done. This also corresponds well to BCS usage, in which perfective
verbs are used either as an infinitive after a present tense verb, or after a conjunction which fo-
cuses on some sort of envisioned closure (review [53c]).
repeated action Od sàda ćemo ìzlaziti na vrème. From now on we’ll leave on time.
duration of action Bòjim se da će kiša padati I’m afraid it’s going to rain
cijèli dan. all day long.
lack of focus on Šta ćeš dànas ràditi? What are you going to do today?
completion
duration, no Čìtaću njègov novi ròman. I’m going to read [ = be reading]
completion his new novel.
J na vrijeme / E na vreme; B,C,S će padati / S će da pada; C,B cijeli dan / S ceo dan; B,S šta / C što; B,C ćeš
raditi / S,B ćeš da radiš; S čitaću / C,B čitat ću
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single action Ni dànas nèćemo ìzaći na vrijème! We’re won’t leave on time today, either!
Pazi, knjige će pasti sa stòla! Careful, the books will fall off the table!
completion Šta ćeš dànas uràditi? What will you get done today?
Pročìtaću njègov novi ròman. I’ll finish reading his new novel.
B,C nećemo izaći / S,B nećemo da izađemo; B,C će pasti / S,B će da padnu; B,C,S uraditi / C učiniti;
S pročitaću / C,B pročitat ću
IMPERFECTIVE BY SUFFIXATION
Differentiating Feature(s) Perfective Imperfective
(1) theme vowel alone sprem-i-ti > sprem-a-ti prepare
bac-i-ti > bac-a-ti throw
(2) theme vowel + final stem vowel odgovor-i-ti > odgovar-a-ti answer
pretvor-i-ti > pretvar-a-ti transform
odmor-i-ti se > odmar-a-ti se rest
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PERFECTIVE BY PREFIXATION
Differentiating Feature Perfective Imperfective
addition of prefix po - pi-ti < pi-ti drink
po - jes-ti < jes-ti eat
o - pra-ti < pra-ti wash
na - pis-a-ti < pis-a-ti write
po - češlj-a-ti < češlj-a-ti comb [hair]
iz - bris-a-ti < bris-a-ti erase
pro - bud-i-ti < bud-i-ti awaken
97 Reflexive verbs
The term reflexive is used in some grammars of BCS to refer to any verb accompanied by
the particle se. Since only very few se-verbs are truly reflexive, however, this terminology is mis-
leading (review [38, 74]). It is now time to examine the verbs which are indeed reflexive.
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In sentences where these verbs occur, the particle se fulfills the function of direct object,
and can be replaced by the full form object sebe without changing the sentence’s meaning. Prac-
tically all such verbs refer to actions taken upon one’s own body, actions which reflect back on
oneself. That is, the grammatical subject and object are one and the same. English translations do
not usually include the reflexive object (oneself or the equivalent) because the identity of the ob-
ject is almost always obvious. All such verbs also exist in non-reflexive, transitive variants – that
is, with a direct object that is not identical with the subject. When this direct object refers to a
portion of one’s own body, Croatian can add the dative reflexive particle si to emphasize this as-
pect of indirect reflexivity.
Here is a list of the most common reflexive verbs (together with their non-reflexive vari-
ants), followed by examples illustrating the difference between a reflexive verb (in which the ob-
ject is “oneself”) and a non-reflexive verb (in which the object is something or someone else). In
the list, the letter R marks a verb as reflexive; in the sentences themselves, of course, the fact of
reflexivity is marked by the particle se.
REFLEXIVE VERBS
imperfective perfective
R čèšljati se Мѝр а се дуго чѐш ља. Mira takes a long time on her hair.
čèšljati Мо̀ја сѐстра ме чѐш ља. My sister is doing my hair.
R oblàčiti se (I) Mòja жѐна се дуго о̀блачи. My wife takes a long time to dress.
R òbući se (P) Обу̀ците се, брзо! Hurry up, get dressed!
oblàčiti (I) Купа дѐт е, а онда га о̀блачи. She bathes the child, then dresses it.
òbući (P) О̀буци нови пуло̀вер. Put on your new sweater.
R brijati se Њен муж се нѐ брије сваки дан. Her husband doesn’t shave every day.
brijati Воли да га брије бѐрберин. He likes the barber to shave him.
R ùmiti se (P) Хајде, децо, у̀мијте се и обу̀ците! Come on, kids – wash up, and get
dressed!
umìvati (I) У̀мивам лѝце и пѐрем руке. I’m washing my face and my hands.
Ùmivam si lìce i pèrem si ruke. [C] [same]
E dete / J dijete; B,C,S njen / C,B njezin; S berberin / C,B brijač; E deco / J djeco; S,B umivam lice / C umivam si
lice; S,B perem ruke / C perem si ruke
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Several other verbs, normally used transitively with a broad range of meanings, can also
take on reflexive meaning by adding se. This meaning can only be properly called reflexive,
however, if the particle se can be translated by the idea oneself (or if the full form object sebe can
be substituted). Verbs which take an object in some other case are often grouped in this category.
In these instances, the reflexive object must be the long form (except for Croatian, which can use
the short form dative pronoun si).
vràtiti se return Kada ćete se vràtiti? When are you coming back?
vràtiti return [tr.] Moram ti vràtiti knjige. I must return the books to you.
ljùtiti se get angry Nèmoj da se ljutiš! Please don’t get angry!
ljùtiti anger To me najviše ljuti. That’s what makes me the angriest.
bùditi se wake up Uvijek se rano budim. I always wake up early.
bùditi awaken Molim te, probùdi me u 7. Please wake me up at 7:00.
radovati se rejoice Radujem se što si tu. I’m happy that you’re here.
radovati make happy To me najviše raduje. That’s what makes me the happiest.
jàviti se get in touch On se svaki dan javlja. He’s in touch daily.
jàviti announce Uvek javlja dobre vesti. S/he always communicates good news.
B,C ćete se vratiti / S,B ćete da se vratite: C,B moram ti vratiti / S,B moram da ti vratim; S,B nemoj da se ljutiš
/ C,B nemoj se ljutiti; J uvijek / E uvek; E vesti / J vijesti
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contain pairs of verbs used both as active verbs and in impersonal sentences. English has no ob-
vious way to translate impersonal sentences, since all English sentences must have a subject
(here, usually one or impersonal you). For more discussion and examples, see [140].
active Вечѐр ас идемо у по̀зориште. We’re going to the theater this evening.
impersonal Тамо се најбоље иде трамвајем. You can get there best by tram.
part of Da li si ti iz Zàgreba kao što Are you from Zagreb, like your parents
compound su tvòji ròditelji? [are]?
Pitam zato što tražim nekoga. I ask because I’m looking for someone.
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✩ NA + Acc Ìći ću u Pàriz na mjesec dàna. I’ll be going to Paris for a month.
A òna ide samo na nèdelju dàna. But she’s only going for a week.
Òsuđen je na 2 godine zàtvora He was condemned to 2 years in jail
ali je pušten nakon 4 mjeseca. but was released after 4 months.
J mjesec / E mesec; E nedelja / J nedjelja; S,B nedelju (nedjelju) / B sedmicu / C tjedan
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As a verbal auxiliary, the clitic portion of the future tense always comes in slot Y-2. Even when
this clitic is written together with the infinitive form according to the Serbian spelling norm (re-
view [95a]), it is subject to these rules: the infinitive part of the word occupies slot X and the
clitic part of it the first element in slot Y. In the diagrams below, these Serbian “amalgamated”
future forms are written with a hyphen to remind one that they are spelled as a single word.
By definition, sentences with future tense verbs very frequently contain clitics; when se-
verbs or verbs taking pronoun objects are included, then the number of clitics is increased. With
practice these sentences will feel natural; the XYZ model is intended to smooth this practice.
X Y Z
[spelling] 1 2 3 4 5 6
Ja ću ti se jàviti. I’ll call you tomorrow
[C] Jàvit ću ti se. [same]
[S] Jàvi- -ću ti se. [same]
Òna će me se bòjati. She’ll be afraid of me.
[C] Bòjat će me se. [same]
[S] Bòja- -će me se. [same]
Da li će ti se jàviti? Will she call you?
Hòće li ti se jàviti? [same]
Da li će me se bòjati? Will they be afraid of you?
Hòće li me se bòjati? [same]
When Serbian replaces the infinitive of the future by da + present, there are usually two
sequences of the XYZ model. The model below gives an abbreviated version of the six sub-slots,
since the Y-2 clitic can only occur in the first section, and clitics filling Y-3, Y-4, and Y-5 can only
occur in the second one.
X Y Z X Y Z
1 2 3 4 5
Ја ћу са̀да да му се јавим. I’ll call him now.
Ја ћу да му се са̀да јавим. [same]
Да ли ћете опет да ми се јавите? Will you call me again?
Да ли ћете да ми се опет јавите? [same]
О̀на ће одмах да ти све каже. She’ll tell you everything
О̀на ће да ти све одмах каже. right away.
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fore the infinitive ending in types 13-16, and the stem-final consonant of the infinitive stem is lost
before the infinitive ending in type 6. Some verbs of type 15b have an alternate infinitive formed
by adding -nuti to the present stem.
A few verbs do not fit precisely into the above schema, but must rather be described as
combinations of more than one type. First, the verbs pasti and sesti / sjesti (type 13) add n to the
present stem after the manner of type 15b (review [94e] and see [120, 153r]). Second, two verbs
have infinitives in -eti / -ijeti. One has a present tense like type 11 – umreti / umrijeti “die”, 1sg.
umrem (see [153m]), and the other has a present tense like type 14 – doneti / donijeti “bring”,
1sg. donesem (review [77b] and see [153q]). Third, one verb (stati) has a present tense like type
7 but an infinitive like type 10 (review [94e] and see [153g]). Fourth, the 1sg. of moći is -u with-
out consonant softening (review [14f]). Finally, one must learn as separate verbs the present tense
forms of biti (review [7b, 52c] and see [153u]) and hteti / htjeti (review [52d, 95a] and see
[153t]). As the above references suggest, full paradigms of all verb types together with discus-
sion of irregularities are given in [152-153].
VERB TYPES
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Verbs of types 3 and 12 drop the -ti of the infinitive and add the L-participle endings
directly. In ijekavian, however, the masculine singular form ends not in the expected * -jeo, but
rather in -io (although some verbs may permit the ending -jeo as well). Verbs of types 13-16 add
the L-participle endings directly to the PRESENT stem. Type 13 verbs drop the stem final -d or -t,
and add the L-participle endings directly. All others add the vowel a before the masculine
singular ending -o. Type 15b verbs drop the n which was added in the present, and type 16 verbs
shift the stem-final -d or -đ to -š before L-participle endings. The verbs hteti / htjeti and moći,
irregular in the present, are regular in the L-participle, following types 3 and 15a, respectively.
The verb umreti / umrijeti drops the infinitive theme vowel before the L-participle endings, and
the verb doneti / donijeti follows the model of types 3 and 12. The charts below illustrate the L-
participles for all these types, using the head verbs from the table in [103a].
Masculine Neuter Feminine Masculine Neuter Feminine
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J vidjeti / E videti; J vidio / E video; J vidjela etc. / E videla etc.; J smjeti / E smeti; J smio / E smeo; J smjela etc. /
/ E smela etc.; J umrijeti / E umreti; J donijeti / E doneti; J donio / E doneo; J donijela etc. / E donela etc.
The accent of the active participle is nearly always the same as that of the infinitive. The
only significant exception is the verb biti, which has short falling accent in the infinitive, but long
rising accent in all active participle forms except masculine singular.
QUESTIONS
present Da li su sàda kod vas? Are they at your place now?
Jèsu li sàda kod vas? [same]
past Da li su tàda bìli kod vas? Were they at your place at that time?
Jèsu li tàda bìli kod vas? [same]
NEGATIVE STATEMENTS
present Òni nìsu sàda kod vas. They’re not at your place now.
past Òni nìsu tàda bìli kod vas. They weren’t at your place at that time.
present Nìsu sàda kod vas. [same]
past Nìsu tàda bìli kod vas. [same]
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NEGATIVE QUESTIONS
present Zar nìsu kod vas? Aren’t they at your place?
[Nìsu li kod vas?] [C]
past Zar nìsu bìli kod vas? Weren’t they at your place?
[Nìsu li bìli kod vas?] [C]
S,C kod nas / B kòd nas; B,S da li su / B,C,S jesu li; S,C kod vas / B kòd vas
Similar word order rules are followed in all past tense sentences. Every past tense sentence
contains a form of the verb biti as verbal auxiliary, plus an L-participle. To express in the past
tense the idea that someone arrived, for instance – whether as a statement, a question, a negative
statement, or a negative question – one need only substitute the L-participle stigli for the L-
participle bili in each of the above past-tense model sentences. As concerns subject, verb, and
basic word order, all other elements of the sentence remain unchanged. Of course, adverbial or
prepositional phrases (such as kod vas “at your place”, sinoć “last night”, for instance) can be
added or subtracted according to the desired meaning.
• JE-FINAL
rule Màra je žèljela da ga da Pètru. Mara wanted to give it to Petar.
applies Da li mu ga je dàla? Did she give it to him?
Ti si žèljela da ga daš Rànku. You wanted to give it to Ranko.
does not apply Da li si mu ga dàl a? Did you give it to him?
• SE-MERGER rule
applies Màra se vràtila na vrème. Mara returned on time.
does not apply Mi smo se rano vràtili. We returned early.
B,S ona je željela da ga da / C,B ona ga je željela dati; E želeti / J zeljeti; B,S da li mu ga je / C,B je li mu ga dala;
B,S ti si željela da ga / C,B ti si ga željela dati; E vreme / J vrijeme
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Most expressions of the past tense contain both the auxiliary and the L-participle. When the
verbal meaning is understood from the context, one can answer a question without including the
L-participle. Only full form and negated auxiliaries can be used in this way however. English has
a similar rule, allowing the verbal auxiliaries do and have to stand alone in these contexts.
There are also two instances when the auxiliary can be omitted. The first concerns certain
vivid narrative contexts such as storytelling or newspaper headlines, where the L-participle alone
frequently transmits the full idea of past tense. In speech, this usage conveys an emotional reac-
tion to an event which has just occurred. The second instance concerns sentences in which two or
more past tense verbs occur with the same subject in the same sentence, in which case it is com-
mon for one auxiliary to serve them all. As the final example below illustrates, however, the
verbs must be clearly part of the same sentence.
Auxiliary alone
one-word Jèsi li mu kàzala vijesti? Did you tell him the news?
answers Jèsam. [Yes,] I did.
– Je li razgovàrao s njima o tome? “Has he talked to them about it?”
– Još nìje. “Not yet.” [ = He hasn’t (yet).]
L-participle alone
storytelling Bio jèdnom jèdan kralj … Once upon a time there was a king …
shared aux. Sinoć sam ìšla u grad i nàšla Last night I went to town and met up
se s drùštvom. with [some] friends.
compare: Ìšla sam sinoć u grad. Tamo Last night I went to town. There, I met
sam se nàšla s drùštvom. up with [some] friends.
C,B jesi li / S.B da li si; J vijesti / E vesti; B,C,S je li / B,S da li je; S,C u grad / B ù grad
masc.sg. 1st Ја да̀нас нѝсам био на факултѐту. I wasn’t on campus today. [male speaker]
masc.sg. 2nd Зашто нѝси био? Why weren’t you? [male addressee]
masc.sg. 3rd Го̀ран да̀нас нѝје био на факултѐту. Goran wasn’t on campus today.
Где је мој шѐшир? Ју̀ч е је био ту. Where’s my hat? It was here yesterday.
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fem.sg. 1st Нѝсам гледала тај филм. I haven’t seen that film. [female speaker]
fem.sg. 2nd Зашто га нѝси гледала? Why didn’t you see it? [female addressee]
fem.sg. 3rd Ни Јана нѝје гледала тај филм. Jana didn’t see the movie either.
Где је књига? Ју̀че је бѝла ту. Where’s the book? It was here yesterday.
plural, same Мушка̀рци су о̀стали у истој соби, The men stayed in the same room, while
gender док су жѐне прѐш ле у другу. the women moved to another one.
plural, not И мушка̀р ци и жѐне су бѝли Both the men and the women were
same gender задовољни. content.
deca/djeca Тво̀ја дѐца су се играла са мо̀јом. Your children played with mine.
braća Њена браћа су до̀ш ла на врѐме. Her brothers came on time.
2 Та два јака мо̀мка су по̀могла. Those two strong young men helped.
3 О̀на три кра̀тка пѝсма су бѝла Those three short letters used to be on the
тамо на сто̀лу – где су са̀да? table over there – where are they now?
4 О̀ва чѐтири дѐбела зида су нас These four thick walls hid us well.
лепо са̀крила.
šta / što Шта се тамо десило? What happened there?
Тамо се ништа нѝје десило. Nothing happened there.
ko / tko Ко је да̀нас до̀ш ао? Who came today?
Да̀нас нико нѝје до̀шао. Nobody came today.
E gde / J gdje; B,S juče / C,B jučer; S sijalo / B,C sjalo; E dete / J dijete; E deca / J djeca; B,C,S njena
/ C,B njezina; E vreme / J vrijeme; E lepo / J lijepo; B,S šta / C što; B,S desilo se / B,C,S dogodilo se; B,S ko
/ C tko; B,S niko / C nitko
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As in the future, a special rule operates in the case of the existential verbs ima and nema
(review [95d]). These subjectless sentences use the unchanging forms ima and nema in the
present tense. But in both the past and the future, a DIFFERENT VERB is used, biti. The following
examples illustrate the use of existentials in all three tenses. Existentials almost always require
the genitive case; on occasion, however, ima can be followed by a form of the number jedan plus
Nsg. (review [59b]). In the past tense, the verb can either agree with that noun, or take the
subjectless form (neuter singular L-participle).
IMA
present Ìma samo jèdan tàkav grad. There’s only one such city.
future Bit će samo jèdan tàkav grad. There will be only one such city.
past Bio je samo jèdan tàkav grad. There was only one such city.
present Ìma li na pùtu leda? Is there ice on the road?
future Hòće li na pùtu biti leda? Will there be ice on the road?
past Je li na pùtu bìlo leda? Was there ice on the road?
present Da li ih ìma mnogo? Are there are lot of them?
future Da li će ih biti mnogo? Will there be a lot of them?
past Da li ih je bìlo mnogo? Was there a lot of them?
NEMA
present О̀вде нема та̀квог чо̀века. There’s no such person here.
future О̀вде неће бити та̀квог чо̀века. There won’t be any such person here.
past Та̀квог чо̀века о̀вде нѝје бѝло. There was no such person here.
present Нема је да̀нас; нема ни њега. She’s not here today, nor is he.
future Неће је бити да̀нас; неће бити ни њега. She won’t be here today, nor will he.
past Да̀нас је нѝје бѝло; ни њега нѝје бѝло. She wasn’t here today, nor was he.
present Више нема добрих љу̀ди. There’s no good people left.
future Више неће бити добрих љу̀ди. There won’t be any good people left.
past Више нѝје бѝло добрих љу̀ди. There weren’t any good people left.
C,B bit će / S,B biće; C,B ima li / B,S da li ima; B,S na putu / C na cesti; C,B hoće li / S,B da li će; B,C,S je li bilo
/ S,B da li je bilo; S,B da li ih ima / C,B ima li ih; B,S da li ih je / C,B je li ih; E ovde / J ovdje; E čoveka / J čovje-
ka; B,C,S neće / C ne će
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This expression, mrzi me da ..., can be seen as the Serbian equivalent to Bosnian and Croatian ne
da mi se (review [82b]). For more on subjectless sentences, see [141].
Inclination to action: dative logical subject
present Nè spava mi se više. I’m not sleepy anymore.
past Više mi se nìje spàvalo. I wasn’t sleepy any more.
present Svim stùdentima se drema. All the students feel drowsy.
past Svim stùdentima se drèmalo. All the students felt drowsy.
Experience of state: accusative logical subject
present Stid ga je, nè može s njima He’s shy, he can’t talk to them.
razgovàrati.
past Bìlo ga je stid, nìje mogao govòriti. He was too shy, and couldn’t speak.
present Tàko me je sram! Šta mògu? I’m so ashamed! What can I [do]?
past Tàko me je bìlo sram! I was so ashamed!
present Jao, strah me je i pòmisliti! Oh, I dread to even think of it!
past Jao, bìlo me je strah i pòmisliti! Oh, I was afraid even to think of it!
present Baš me briga! What do I care?!
past Baš me bìlo briga! What did I care?!
Exception: state expressed as verb
present Mr̀zi me da idem. [S] I don't feel like going.
Mr̀zilo me je da idem. [S] I didn't feel like going.
B,S svim / B,C,S svima; E dremati / J drijemati; S,B šta / C što
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completion of Jùče su izàb rali novog prèdsednika. Yesterday they elected a new president
single action Vràtili smo se kući u 11 sàti. We got home at 11:00.
Prošlog pùta nam je pòmogla kàfa! Last time coffee helped us!
E uvek / J uvijek; E sedeo / J sjedio; J lijepo / E lepo; B,S šta / C što; B,S juče / C,B jučer; E predsednik
/ J predsjednik; S,B kafa / C kava / B kahva
Imperfective Kad smo žìvjeli u ònoj drugoj kući, When we lived in that other house,
repetition majka me je bùdila u sedam. Mother used to wake me at 7.
duration Jako dugo su kupòvali tu kuću. They were a very long time buying
that house.
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Perfective Pòjeli smo tri kolàča i pòpili dve We ate three cakes and drank two
[ completion ] boce šampànjca. bottles of champagne.
[ result ] Jao, sine! Šta si ti tu uràdio?! Oh son! What have you done here?!
B,C,S jesu li / S,B da li su; J živjeli / E živeli; E lepo / J lijepo; E dve / J dvije; S,B šta / C što; B,S uradio
/ C učinio
Prefixed verbs of this sort are usually given in dictionaries as variants of take, carry, lead,
or drive – that is, take in, lead out, carry away, or the like – and indeed the most basic meaning of
each of these verbs is the concrete, movement-based one. In fact, however, they are more fre-
quently used in abstract or idiomatic meanings. In the table below, each verb is given with both
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concrete and abstract meanings, the concrete one easily derivable from the meaning of the prefix,
and the abstract one derivable with some imagination. In the case of the basic prefixed verb
odneti / odnijeti, the derived imperfective is used more frequently in its abstract meaning
(accompanied by se), although it can also be used in the concrete meaning.
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Ма̀ра је ученица другог ра̀зреда. Mara is a second grader [ = a pupil of second grade].
Већ трећи пут по̀лажем ѝспит! [This is] the third time I’m taking the test!
О̀ни ста̀нују на првом спра̀ту. They live on the first floor [ = one flight above
the ground floor].
Ви ѝдите први. Ми ћемо други, You go first. We’ll go second, and they’ll
а о̀ни ће трећи. go third.
S,B na prvom spratu / C,B na prvom katu
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word meaning “ear”, this softening is regular in the form uho; for the form uvo (which is more
frequently used in Serbian), it must be learned as an irregularity.
Except for the fact that they also take Gpl. in -u, words concerning body limbs follow a
more regular declension. Here, the problem for English speakers will be in the scope of meaning.
Depending on the context, the same word can refer either to the entire limb or only to its extrem-
ity. Thus, ruka means either arm or hand, and noga means either leg or foot. The words for digits
and nails are similarly broad in scope: prst can mean either finger or toe, and nokat can mean
either fingernail or toenail. Normally, the meaning is clear from the context. If necessary, one can
use the more specialized nouns dlan “palm [of the hand]” or šaka “fist” in the precise meaning
hand; similarly, one can use the noun stopalo “sole [of the foot]” in the precise meaning foot.
The words leđa “back”, usta “mouth”, and prsa “chest” have neuter PLURAL forms, despite
the fact that they have SINGULAR meaning. The third of these also occurs in the form prsi, again
with singular meaning, and with feminine plural forms. Similarly, the word grudi “bosom” oc-
curs only with feminine plural forms. In Bosnian and Serbian, grudi has both the generalized
meaning of one’s chest and the more specific female meaning (a woman’s breasts). In Croatian,
grudi has only the specific female meaning: Croats use prsi in the general sense of chest.
The word rame “shoulder”, by contrast, has both singular and plural forms. It is declined
like ime (review [89b]).
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sick, fall ill, while the prefix pre- gives the meaning get well, recover. The prefix po-, by con-
trast, creates a durative verb with the meaning be ailing, do poorly.
Nearly all past tense auxiliaries occur in sub-slot Y-2, but the 3rd singular auxiliary je occurs in
sub-slot Y-6. This is the essence of the JE-FINAL rule. It is easy to state, but it takes much con-
scious effort to internalize.
The second rule, the SE-MERGER rule, has the effect of erasing je from a sentence. When-
ever what is depicted above as the concatenation of Y-5 and Y-6 occurs in a sentence, the je
merges into the se, and in essence drops out. This rule is encountered very often, both because of
the great number of se-verbs in BCS, and because of the tendency of these verbs to appear fre-
quently in 3sg. The rule is faithfully applied in Serbian and Bosnian, and is frequently applied in
Croatian (for more discussion on Croatian, see the following section). A similar merger can take
place when je follows either of the two accusative clitic pronouns me or te. In all three cases, the
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je slides into the preceding syllable and gets absorbed into it. This rule is optional in the case of
me and te, but it is encountered frequently, especially in the spoken language. A critical point to
keep in mind is that the disappearance of je does NOT affect the sentence’s meaning of “3rd sin-
gular past tense”.
The third rule, here called the JU-JE rule, comes into play when the feminine accusative
pronoun je would occur immediately before the 3sg. auxiliary je. In this case, the auxiliary je re-
mains, and the pronoun object je is replaced by the pronoun object ju. This rule is observed faith-
fully in Serbian, but less so in Bosnian and Croatian; for discussion, see the following section.
The examples below illustrate the ordering of clitics in past tense sentences. Sentences (1-
12) illustrate the JE-FINAL rule, and sentences (10-12) additionally illustrate the JU-JE rule. The
direct object pronoun ga in sentences (1-6) refers to a masculine noun (such as grad “the city”),
and the direct object pronoun je in sentences (7-12) refers to a feminine noun (such as pesma /
pjesma “a song”). Sentences (13-18) illustrate word order rules which concern se-verbs, and sen-
tences (16-18) illustrate the SE-MERGER rule. Finally, sentences (19-20) illustrate the optional
nature of the parallel merger after the object pronouns me or te.
X Y Z
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Mi smo mu ga pokàzali. We showed it to him.
2 Da li ste mu ga pokàzali? Did you show it to him?
3 Jèste li mu ga pokàzali? [same]
4 Òna mu ga je pokàzala. She showed it to him.
5 Da li mu ga je pokàzala? Did she show it to him?
6 Je li mu ga pokàzala? [same]
7 Ti si joj je ispjevala. You sang it to her.
8 Da li si joj je ispjevala? Did you sing it to her?
9 Jèsi li joj je ispjevala? [same]
10 Òna joj ju je ispjevala. She sang it to her.
11 Da li si joj ju ispjevala? Did you sing it to her?
12 Je li joj ju ispjevala? Did she sing it to her?
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quently use ju even outside the frame of sentences like (10-12) above. Thus, whereas Serbian and
Bosnian can express the meaning I bought it (referring to a dress, haljina) only with sentence
(22) below, Croatian permits either (22) or (23).
An additional difference in Croatian revolves around the use of the dative reflexive clitic si,
which is not used in Serbian at all, and which is rare in Bosnian. As a dative object pronoun, si
goes in sub-slot Y-3. If it occurs in the same sentence with the verbal auxiliary si (whose place is
sub-slot Y-2), the two will be adjacent to one another. This word order is fully permissible, and
indeed frequent, in Croatian. Sentences (24) and (25) below both express the idea You bought it
for yourself, with the purchased item in (24) being of masculine gender and in (25) of feminine
gender. Finally, Croatian does not apply the SE-MERGER rule as rigidly as Bosnian or Serbian.
That is, it permits sentences such as (26) below, in which se and je occur adjacent to one another.
X Y Z
1 2 3 4 5 6
[B] 21 Òna joj je je ìspjevala. She sang it to her.
[B,C,S] 22 Ja sam je kùpila. I bought it.
[C] 23 Ja sam ju kùpila. [same]
[C] 24 Ti si si ga kùpila. You bought it for yourself.
[C] 25 Ti si si je kùpila. [same]
[C] 26 Òna mu se je jàvila. She called him.
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Base Softened
K G H ➤ C Z S
type 15a-b verb, 3pl. pres type 15a-b verb, imperative (sg.)
obùk-u pòmog-nu ➤ obùc-i pomòz-i
type 15a-b verb, 3pl. pres type 15a-b verb, imperfect (1sg.)
pèk-u strig-n-u ➤ pèc-ijah strìz-ijah
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Base Softened
K G H C Č Ž Š Č
noun, masculine Nsg. noun, masculine Vsg.
vuk-Ø Bog-Ø duh-Ø otac-Ø ➤ vuč-e Bož-e duš-e oč-e
type 15a verb, 3pl. present type 15a verb, other present (2sg.)
tèk-u mog-u ➤ tèč-eš mož-eš
type 15a verb, 3pl. present type 15a vb, passive participle (Nsg.m. short)
rek-nu strìg-nu ➤ rèč-en strìž-en
type 15a verb, 3pl. present type 15a verb, 2-3sg aorist
rek-nu strìg-nu ➤ reč-e striž-e
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the type B chart). In terms of implementation, however, it is more effective to regard the two
types altogether separately, since the contexts in which they occur are quite different.
Type C softening occurs as follows: In nouns, it is found before the Isg. ending -u of femi-
nine nouns in -Ø (review [79b]) and in the formation of neuter collective nouns (see [115]),
while in adjectives it is found in the comparative degree of many adjectives (see [113b]). In
verbs it is found in all forms of the present tense of type 5, (review [14b, 52e, 103a] and see
[153e]), in the imperfect tense of types 2-3 (see [150b]), in several types of imperfective deriva-
tion (review [97a] and see [147a]), and in two forms of verb types 2-3 and 15 – the verbal noun
(review [108] and see [116]) and the passive participles (see [117a]). Type C softening is also
found in various other derivational categories.
Below are the correspondences, and examples. The group st usually shifts to šć, but it can
also shift to št; the correct choice must be learned with individual words. Because of the broad
range of consonants involved, not every type of shift is illustrated below. The last of the four
“base consonants” in the example chart, /B/, stands for all the labial consonants – p, b, m, v or f.
Base Softened
T D ST /B/ ➤ Ć Đ SĆ or ŠT /B/ + LJ
noun, feminine Nsg. noun, feminine Isg.
smrt-Ø glad-Ø kost-Ø krv-Ø ➤ smrć-u glađ-u košć-u krvlj-u
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Comparison of adjectives and adverbs in BCS is simpler in that the superlative form is
completely predictable: it is always made by prefixing the syllable naj- to the comparative form.
Superlatives are always written as a single word, but sometimes they are pronounced almost as if
they were two words. The syllable naj has a long vowel, and if the superlative form is three syl-
lables or more in length, it may be pronounced with its own accent in addition to the main word
accent. If it is prefixed to a word beginning with j- (such as najjači “strongest”), both instances
of j are pronounced, with a slight pause between them (see [167f] for more discussion). The fol-
lowing discussion will focus on the formation of comparatives, with the understanding that the
superlatives are derived by adding naj- to any one comparative form.
Comparative adjectives have long (and longer) forms only (review [42c, 66b]). Regardless
of the final consonant, masculine and neuter forms never take the variant of an ending beginning
with -o, but only the one beginning with -e (feminine adjective excluded, as in other adjectives).
The adverb is equivalent to the neuter Nsg. adjective, but sometimes with a different accent. The
accent of the comparative form is predictable: it is short falling on the first syllable unless the suf-
fix -ij is present, in which case it is short rising on the syllable immediately preceding -ij.
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SUFFIX -š
Positive Comparative Superlative
masc neut fem [adverb]
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Likewise, there are four adverbs which use a different word altogether in the comparative
and superlative forms; these are given below. The meaning of the first two is directly derivable
from the corresponding adjective: as in English, the adjective / adverb correspondences are good
vs. well and bad vs. badly. In the case of the second two, English provides a parallel as well, in
that the adverbial forms more and less are not related to the adjectives big and small. What is in-
teresting about BCS is that the adverb meaning less is identical in form to the neuter meaning
smaller, and that the adverb meaning more is identical in form NOT to the neuter adjective mean-
ing bigger, but to the one meaning taller. Each of these words should be learned as a separate
item, of course. The fact that they share the same form should not be allowed to confuse the issue.
ADVERBS
Positive Comparative Superlative
dobro bolje najbolje well / better / best
lòše / rđavo / zlo gore najgore badly / worse / worst
mnogo više najviše much, many / more / most
malo manje najmanje few, little / less / least
The latter two adverbs share another trait with English: they can be placed in front of an
adjective or an adverb to form a comparative or superlative form exactly parallel to English
phrases such as more intriguing or least easily. The adverbs više and najviše are normally used
only in front of adjectives which are very long, relatively infrequently encountered, or both.
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The conjunction nego can also express the idea of contrast even when no comparison is im-
plied; in this meaning it is very similar to već. The sequence of the two conjunctions nego i is
used in phrases which are equivalent to English not only … but also.
THAN: od Njèzin stroj je tiši od tvoga. Her machine is quieter than yours.
On je sposòbniji od tebe. He is more capable than you.
Gòran je srètniji od tebe. Goran is happier than you.
Òvaj restòran je bolji od ònoga. This restaurant is better than that one.
On gòvori bolje od tebe. He speaks better than you [do].
Òna je ljepša od svòje sèstre. She’s prettier than her sister.
THAN: nego On gòvori brže nego ti. He speaks faster than you [do].
Òna je ljepša nego ti. She is prettier than you [are].
Òna je ljepša nego što si ti. She is prettier than you are.
Uvek je bolje nàpasti pròtivnikovu It’s always better to attack an enemy’s
stràtegiju nego njègovu vojnu silu. strategy than [to attack] his manpower.
... nego što Òna piše bolje nego što gòvori. She speaks better than she writes.
[no THAN] Moj kùfer je tèžak, ali tvoj je teži. My suitcase is heavy, but yours is heavier.
Čìja je kuća veća? Whose house is bigger?
Čìja je kuća najveća? Whose house is the biggest?
Dàn as je srètniji – pitam se zašto?! He’s happier today – I wonder why?!
Kùpi mi bolji kompjùtor! Buy me a better computer!
Brže! Nèćemo stići na vrijème! Faster! We won’t make it on time!
nego Ne lèžim, nego sjèdim. I’m not lying down, I’m sitting [up].
“rather” To nìje cr̀no, nego bijèlo. That’s not black – it’s white.
To nìje cr̀no, već bijèlo. [same]
Òna nìje samo lèp a, nego je i She’s not only beautiful, [but] she’s also
pametna. smart.
Nemam drugog ìzbora nego da idem. I don’t have any other choice but to go.
B,C njezin / B,C,S njen; C stroj / B,S mašina; B,C,S tvoga / C tvojega; C sretniji / B,S srećniji; J ljepša / E lepša;
E uvek / J uvijek; B,C,S napasti / S da napadneš; B,S kufer / C kofer; C kompjutor / B,S kompjuter; B,C nećemo
stići / S,B nećemo da stignemo; J vrijeme / E vreme; J sjedim / E sedim; J bijelo / E belo
If the object is a phrase including a predicate adjective, then one must use the compound
comparative, formed by adding više to the positive forms. The word više is also used in several
fixed expressions, illustrated below. To express intensified degrees of comparison, one can add
modifiers such as još, puno, or kudikamo; the third conveys a significantly higher degree of
comparison than the other two. Finally, the comparative form of the adverb rado (radije) can be
used to describe inclinations to actions.
više On je više dobar nego loš. He is more good [than he is] bad.
Radijàtor je više hlàdan nego topao. The radiator is more cold than it is hot.
Njene oči su više plàve nego zelène. Her eyes are not so much green as blue.
više voljeti Tàko smo to više vòljeli. We preferred it that way.
Više volim ribu nego meso. I prefer fish to meat [ = I like fish better
than meat].
više ne Rànije sam to znala, ali sad više ne. I used to know, but I don’t any more.
Više o tome ne gòvorimo. We no longer talk about that.
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manje-više Zar nìje to manje-više isto? Isn’t it more or less the same thing?
Nìje li to manje-više isto? [B,C]
intensifiers Jùčer ih je bìlo malo, a dànas ih ima Yesterday there were not many, and
još manje. today there are even fewer.
Dàn as je vrijème puno ljepše nego The weather is much nicer today than
[što je bìlo] jùčer. [it was] yesterday.
Òvo će ga još više uvrijèditi. This will insult him even worse.
Bravo! Pišeš kudìkamo bolje nego Bravo! You’re writing much, much
prošle godine! better than [you did] last year!
radije Rado pùtujem, ali ràdije òstajem I like to travel, but I like staying at
kòd kuće. home [even] better.
B,S njene / C,B njezine; J voljeti / E voleti; J voljeli / E voleli; B,C,S zar nije / C,B nije li; C,B jučer / S,B juče;
J vrijeme / E vreme; J ljepše / E lepše; B,C,S ovo će ga uvrijediti (uvrediti) / S ovo će da ga uvredi; J uvrijediti
/ E uvrediti; B kòd kuće / S,C kod kuće
što / comp. Što je brže hòd ao, to se bolje òsećao. The faster he walked, the better he felt.
Što dalje, to gore. The further [one goes], the worse [it gets].
Što više, to vesèlije. The more the merrier!
Što nas je više, to je vesèlije. The more of us there are, the merrier it is.
Što više brod nèstaje, to joj je teže. The more distant the boat [ = the closer it
gets to disappearing], the harder it is on her.
Dòđite što brže! Mnogo je opàsno! Come as fast as you can! Terrible danger!
Molim vas, pìšite nam što pre. Write as soon as possible, please.
Govòrio je što je tiše mogao. He spoke as quietly as he could.
sve / comp. Taj pòsao biva sve lakši. This job gets easier and easier.
U ònoj bòlnici rade sa sve većim In that hospital they are working with
brojem bolesnìka. an ever increasing number of patients.
Sve više ljùdi je dòlazilo da ga vidi. More and more people kept coming to
see him.
E osećao / J osjećao; E što pre / J što prije
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perceived as a single unit ( = one). Such nouns are called collectives. They are grammatically sin-
gular in all respects, yet they clearly have a more plural-like meaning than the singular noun
which refers to only one item within the collective. Sometimes these collectives are the only way
to express the idea of plural, but often they also exist alongside the more usual plural form. These
collectives, illustrated below, are all neuter in gender. The stem-final consonant of the Gsg. of the
base noun (the one referring to a single unit of the item in question) undergoes Type C softening,
and the neuter singular endings are then added. In the chart below, hyphens after the relevant con-
sonants (in the Gsg. of the base noun and in the Nom. form of the collective noun) illustrate the
softening process. Examples following the chart illustrate usage, as well as the fact that the nouns
are declined as neuter singulars, and take singular verbs. They do not have plurals of their own.
The chart also illustrates the difficulty of finding a precise English translation for the BCS
concept of collective in every instance. English rarely has a corresponding collective noun; usu-
ally the best English translation for a BCS collective is simply an English plural. This is because
many of the items concerned are usually spoken of as a general idea rather than as individually
counted units. For instance, the English plural flowers normally refers to bouquets or gardens, or
the like, and not to specific blossoms. In BCS, the collective cveće / cvijeće means flowers in the
first, non-countable instance, while the plural cvetovi / cvjetovi means flowers in those less fre-
quently occurring contexts where each individual blossom is visualized as a unit. English has
some collective words which correspond roughly to BCS collectives; examples below are shrub-
bery and foliage. Care must be taken in translation, however, because the BCS collective usually
has a much broader meaning; for example, grmlje could be translated either by shrubs or shrub-
bery, depending on the context. Similarly, BCS lišće can mean foliage, but it also refers to the
remnants of such foliage, that which one must rake up in the autumn – in other words, leaves.
Singular Plural Collective
Nsg Gsg [neuter sg] sg / pl vs. collective
cvijet cvijet-a cvjetovi cvijeć-e flower (s) flowers
drvo drvet-a drvèta dr̀već-e tree (s) trees
drvo drv-a drva drvlj-e wood lumber, wood
gràna gran-e grane granj-e branch (es) branches, boughs
grm grm-a grmovi grmlj-e shrub (s) shrubbery, shrubs
kamen kamen-a kamenovi kamenj-e stone (s) rocks, stones
list list-a listovi lišć-e leaf (-ves) foliage, leaves
òsoba òsob-e osobe òsoblj-e person (s) personnel
J cvijet / E cvet; J cvjetovi / cvetovi; J cvijeće / E cveće
Да̀нас се види само вѐштачко цвеће. You only see artificial flowers these days.
Најбоље пѐчурке ра̀сту под дрвећем. The best mushrooms grow under trees.
Сваке јесени лишће пада са др̀већа. Leaves fall from the trees each autumn.
О̀сули су га дрвљем и камењем. They attacked him viciously [ = they
showered him with sticks and stones].
E veštačko / J vještačko; S,B veštačko (vještačko) / C,B umjetno; E cveće / J cvijeće; B,S pečurke / C gljive
Three additional nouns (listed below) are often grouped together with the above collectives,
since each is neuter singular, each has a general collective-type meaning, and each contains a
stem-final consonant which exemplifies Type 3 softening. But none of them fit completely into
the above category. In the first instance, the singular noun grob “grave” has given rise to a collec-
tive noun, groblje “cemetery”; however, the original collective has now become a fully fledged
noun of its own, with a singular and a plural declension. In the second instance, the singular noun
grozd itself already has something of a collective meaning: it refers not to a single grape but
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rather a single bunch of grapes. As to the third and fourth, there is no existing singular noun from
which they are derived, nor does the collective form have a plural. Each simply refers to the basic
category, much as does the English word fruit. Individual pieces of either category are referred to
by their separate names (as in English apple, carrot, potato, etc.).
Some grammarians also consider the nouns deca / djeca “children”, braća “brothers” and
gospoda “gentlemen” to be collectives. True collectives, however, are words which also have
both singular and plural forms. A more correct description of these three words (review [90]) is
“irregular plural”.
Singular Plural Collective
Nsg Gsg [neuter sg] sg / pl collective
grob gròb-a gròbovi groblj-e (pl. groblja) grav(es) cemetery
grozd gròzd-a gròzdovi grožđ-e bunch(es) of grapes grapes
vòće fruit(s)
pòvrće vegetable(s)
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VERBAL NOUN
type infinitive 3pl. present verbal noun
-anje 1 park parkìrati pàrkiraju parkìranje parking
know znati znaju znànje knowledge
conduct self ponàšati se ponàšaju se ponàšanje behavior
give birth (I) ràđati ràđaju ràđanje birth [process]
create stvàrati stvàraju stvàranje creation [process]
recall sećati se sećaju se sećanje recollection
feel òsećati se òsećaju se òsećanje feeling [process]
osećànje feeling [fact]
travel putòvati pùtuju putòvanje act of traveling
putovànje trip, travels
4 hold, keep dr̀žati dr̀že dr̀žanje carriage, bearing
10 call zvati zòvu zvanje act of calling
zvànje vocation, job
wash prati pèru prànje washing
-enje 2 mean znàčiti znače znàčenje meaning
think misliti misle mišljenje thinking, opinion
explain objàsniti òbjasne objašnjènje explanation
clean čistiti čiste čìšćenje cleaning
remember pamtiti pamte pamćenje memory
give birth (P) ròditi rode rođènje birth [fact]
create (P) stvòriti stvore stvorènje creature
3 see vidjeti vide viđenje seeing, meeting
15 bake, roast peći pèku pèčenje baking
pečenje roast meat
E sećati se / J sjećati se; E osećati se / J osjećati se: E sećanje / J sjećanje; E osećanje / J osjećanje;
E videti / J vidjeti
1. process Pòmaže majci s pèčenjem kruha. She helps her mother bake the bread
[ = with the bread baking process]
2. result Dàn as ìmamo jàgnjeće pečenje. Today we’re having roast lamb.
1. process Svjedòci smo ràđ anja demokràcije We’re witnesses to the birth of democracy.
2. result Rođènje prvog ùnuka je vèliki The birth of [one's] first grandchild is
događaj. is a great event.
Molim vas, napìšite dàtum rođènja. Write down your date of birth, please.
3. general Hoćemo li naći mjesto za parkìranje? Are we going to find a parking place?
Pri drugom čìtanju bìlo je bolje. It was better on second reading.
Pòčinjemo vèliko pròljetnje čìšćenje. We’re starting our major spring cleaning.
Dosta! Glàva me već bòli od ùčenja. Enough! My head aches from studying.
Je li zadovoljna svòjim putovànjem? Is she pleased with her trip?
Dosta je čekanja! [You’ve] waited long enough [ = there’s
been enough waiting, time for action]!
Do skorog viđènja! See you soon! [ = “until our imminent
seeing”, compare French au revoir]
B,C kruha / B,S hljeba (hleba); S,B jagnjeće / C,B janjeće; C,B hoćemo li / S,B da li ćemo; J mjesto / E mesto;
J proljetnje / E proletnje; C,B je li / S,B da li je
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117 Participles
Participles are adjectives formed from verbal stems. They obey all the grammatical rules of
an adjective, and indeed a number of them are indistinguishable from adjectives. Most, however,
retain enough of their verbal character to allow them to function in verb-like environments. The
active participle, for instance, better known as the L-participle, is primarily encountered as a
component of compound verbal tenses (where, in grammatical terms, it functions as a predicate
adjective). Rules for forming this participle are known (review [69, 104a]), and its primary func-
tion in the past tense (review [104, 106b]) is by now familiar. For other compound tenses which
contain the L-participle, see [131, 149].
In addition to the active, or L-participle, BCS has a passive participle, whose formation is
presented below. Active participles are formed from verbs of both aspects, but passive participles
are formed primarily from perfective, transitive verbs.
The chart below illustrates the formation of passive participles. For those verbs which un-
dergo Type C consonant softening, the relevant consonants are identified by hyphens. Those
verbs which have variant forms are summarized in a separate chart.
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It is harder to predict the passive participle for type 6 verbs, as well as for certain verbs of
types 1 and 10. When they take the participle in -t, the formation is regular. But when type 6
verbs take the participle in -en, the form is not predictable. It can end in -jen (based directly on
the 3rd pl. pres), or in -ven. In all these verbs, the choice of participle ending needs to be learned
individually with each verb. As a rule, however, one can say that the participles in -t are losing
ground among type 6 verbs, and those in -en are heard much more frequently. With respect to the
relevant verbs of type 1, participles in -t are preferred in Serbian and Bosnian, while participles in
-an are preferred in Croatian
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Similarly, a number of passive participles – all of them clearly derived from verbs accord-
ing to the rules outlined above – are now perceived more as simple adjectives. Sometimes these
are translated by English adjectives which are themselves participial forms; other times English
must resort to a participial phrase to translate BCS participles used as adjectives.
verb Passive participle used as adjective
otvoriti “open” Mòlim te, òstavi vràta òtvorena. Please leave the door open.
zatvoriti “shut” Radi bolje u zàtvorenom pròstoru. S/he works better in a closed space.
poznati “know” To je màrka poznata u cèlom svetu. That’s a brand known world-wide.
ne razviti Počela je da radi sa nerazvìjenim She has begun to work with under-
“not develop” zèmljama. developed countries.
pokvariti “spoil” Dijète ìma pòkvarene zube. The child has decayed teeth.
mleti “grind” Molim Vas, dajte mi mlevenog Give me some ground meat, please.
mesa.
osloboditi Sad smo na oslòbođenom terènu. Now we are in liberated territory.
“liberate”
odliti “pour out” Ùzmi šalicu s òdlitom / odlivènom Take the cup with [= which has] the
vòdom. water [you] poured off.
pronaći “find” Ìspravićemo prònađenu grešku. We will correct the mistake [which
you have / has been] found.
E celom svetu / J cijelom svijetu; S,B počela je da radi / C,B počela je raditi; J dijete / E dete; E mleti / J mljeti;
E mleven / J mljeven; B,C šalica / B,S šoljica (or šolja); S,B ispravićemo / B,C ispravit ćemo
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the original transitive verb. As seen earlier (review [74]), BCS can express the idea of passive-
ness by adding se to a transitive verb, a type of sentence quite foreign to English. This type of
passive sentence, by contrast, is directly parallel to its English equivalent.
relationship: OBJECT of active sentence SUBJECT of passive sentence
ACTIVE subject transitive verb object
My sister will write a letter.
Moja sestra će napisati pismo.
PASSIVE subject biti “to be” passive participle
The letter has been written.
Pismo je napisano.
The only significant difference between the English and BCS versions of the above two
passive sentences is in the tense form: present perfect in English (has been) vs. present in BCS
(je). This difference results from the fact that the BCS present tense covers a broader scope of
meaning than the English present tense (review [106a]). Thus, a passive sentence which refers to
a completed action usually requires the past tense in English, while the fact that the very same
passive sentence concerns the result of that past action (and its relevance in the present moment)
usually requires the present tense in BCS. If, however, the participial form is used adjectivally –
if it describes a state rather than a completed action – then English can use the present tense.
BCS, of course, uses the present tense in this meaning as well. It is usually clear from the context
which of the two meanings is intended. Thus, the simple sentence marked (1) can be translated
either by an English present tense or past tense verb, depending on whether the intended meaning
is that of a state, or of a result.
Participles by nature carry both verbal meaning and adjectival meaning. Some instances of
participles used in predicative position clearly refer to verbal action and others clearly describe
present states. Many, indeed, carry some of both meanings. Passive constructions in BCS are dis-
cussed in greater detail in [139].
BCS present, English past
Dosta je rečèno! Rezultat je jasan. Enough [has been] said! The result is clear.
Prònađena je màlеna cr̀na mačka. A small black cat has been found.
Prevezèna je u veterìnarsku stànicu. It was taken to the veterinary clinic.
BCS present, English past or present
Stvar je riješena. The matter is / has been decided.
Rasprava je zàvršena. The discussion is over / has been concluded.
Dogovòreno. Vidjet ćemo se u 8 sàti. [It’s] agreed [then] – we’ll meet at 8:00.
J riješena / E rešena; C,B vidjet ćemo / S,B videćemo
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When the need is to perform an action, usage pattern (2) continues to function as in English: the
person who needs to do something is the subject of trebati, and the infinitive follows. In usage
pattern (1), however, sentences with treba are technically subjectless. The person who needs to
do something is identified in the da-phrase which functions as infinitive, and can also be identi-
fied in the nominative. But the verb itself can only be 3sg. (with a past tense neuter L-participle).
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Earlier, pattern (1) was considered the only acceptable usage throughout BCS, and pattern (2) was
seen as substandard. Now, however, pattern (2) is fully acceptable in Bosnian, where it is used
alongside pattern (1). Serbian and Croatian differ markedly: only pattern (1) is acceptable in Ser-
bian, and only pattern (2) is acceptable in Croatian. For more on the verb trebati, see [127].
stasis verbs
stàjati stand lèžati lie sèdeti sit sjèditi
action verbs
stati stand [up] lèći lie [down] sesti sit [down] sjesti
stanem stanemo legnem legnemo sednem sednemo sjednem sjednemo
staneš stanete legneš legnete sedneš sednete sjedneš sjednete
stane stanu legne legnu sedne sednu sjedne sjednu
S sedeti / C,B sjediti; E sedim etc. / J sjedim etc.; E sesti / J sjesti; E sednem etc. / J sjednem etc.
stasis: sit Mi već tri sata sjèdimo òvdje. We’ve been sitting here for three hours.
Sèdeli smo tamo tri sata. We sat there for three hours.
stasis: stand Mòrat ćeš dugo stàjati u redu. You’ll have to stand in line a long time.
Kolìko si stàjala u redu? How long did you stand in line?
stasis: lie Pas lèži pod stòlom i rèži. The dog is lying under the table growling.
Cijelo je vrijème tamo lèžala. She lay there the whole time.
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action: sit Hajde da sednemo i pòpijemo! Let’s have a seat, and a drink!
Ko je seo na mòje mesto? Who sat [down] in my seat?
action: stand Ustani! Dosta čekanja! Up on your feet! Enough waiting around!
Ùstao sam rano, pa sam već ùmoran. I got up early, and am already tired.
Nadam se da će privreda uskoro I hope the economy will get moving [ = get
stati nà noge. on its feet] soon.
action: lie Lèzi odmah da nè padneš. Lie down right away, so you don’t fall down.
Sinoć smo legli dosta kasno. We went to bed fairly late last night.
J sjedimo / E sedimo; J ovdje / E ovde; E sedeli / J sjedili; C,B morat ćeš stajati / S,B moraćeš da stojiš; J cijelo
vrijeme / E celo vreme; E sednemo / J sjednemo; S,B hajde da sednemo (sjednemo) / C,B hajdemo sjesti; S,B ko
/ C tko; E seo / J sjeo; E mesto / J mjesto; B nà noge / S,C na noge
The stasis verbs are imperfective, and the action verbs are perfective. But they are NOT an
aspect pair! Rather, the action verbs have their own imperfective partners, which are given below.
These verbs refer to repeated instances of the movement in question. It is only when the action /
stasis pair is used as a base for verbal derivation that it begins to function as an aspect pair. In that
case, however (review [101]), all the aspect pairs take on quite different meanings altogether.
One must take special care with the infinitive stajati, which has two different meanings. If the
1sg. is stojim, it is a stasis verb, but if it is stajem, it is an imperfective action verb.
action: stand Tri pùta mi već staješ nà nogu! That’s three times you’ve stepped on my foot!
action: lie Mòji ròditelji liježu vrlo rano. My parents go to bed very early.
action: sit Uvijek sjeda za isti stol. He always takes a place at the same table.
B nà nogu / C,S na nogu; J liježu / E ležu; J uvijek / E uvek; J sjeda / E seda; C stol / S,B sto
121 Titles
There are numerous sorts of titles. One kind refers to works of art or institutions, as well as
to edifices connected with institutions. Another kind is based on a craft or knowledge that charac-
terizes a particular type of work, and is applied to the person who occupies himself with this
work, usually in a professional sense. Titles of the first sort must follow particular grammatical
rules when used in a sentence. Titles of the second sort function grammatically as nouns, but they
follow certain regular patterns as to their formation, both in reference to the profession in general
and to specifically gendered practitioners of it.
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title only То је цитат из Споредног неба. That’s [a quote] from Sporedno nebo.
Чѝт аш ли Травничку хро̀нику? Are you reading Travnička hronika?
title in То је из књиге Споредно небо. That’s from [the book] Sporedno nebo.
apposition О̀на чѝта ро̀ман Травничка S/he’s reading the novel Travnička
хро̀ника. hronika.
name only Пише чла̀нак о Ѝви А̀ндрићу. S/he’s writing an article about Ivo Andrić.
name in Чла̀нак је о рома̀нима чу̀веног The article is about the novels of the
apposition пѝсца Ѝве А̀ндрића. famous writer Ivo Andrić.
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Of course, the above list is not exhaustive; its intention is to illustrate the usage of certain
suffixes in the formation of professional names. A number of professions carry names borrowed
directly from Western languages, such as biolog “biologist”; these were not listed above unless
they corresponded to one of the names using a suffix on the list. For instance, Serbian uses ad-
vokat for “lawyer” and kompozitor for “musician” where Croatian uses odvjetnik for “lawyer”
and both kompozitor and glazbenik for “musician”.
These pairs illustrate a growing trend in Croatian to use Slavic-derived words vs. the oppos-
ing trend in Serbian to incorporate Western words (for more discussion of this topic, see [172a]).
While one cannot go so far as to say that Croatian avoids Western words altogether, there is a
tendency in Croatian to mark the difference from Serbian when it can. One way is to avoid adding
the final -a to a number of borrowed words, especially those ending in -ist. Thus, the words for
linguist, cellist, and architect are lingvist, čelist, and arhitekt in Croatian, but lingvista, čelista,
and arhitekta in Serbian (all are masculine gender). A second trend in Croatian that appears to be
increasing is to substitute words ending in -telj for those ending in -nik or -lac (as in upravitelj
and prevoditelj above).
It should also be noted that the intention of the above list is to illustrate the formation of
names of profession. While the suffixes in question are frequently encountered in such names,
this is not their only use: each also forms a number of nouns with other meanings. For more dis-
cussion of the role of suffixes in word formation, see [163b].
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AORIST TENSE
type 1 2 5 15 16 [1] biti
infinitive upìtati svràtiti povèzati reći ùći dati biti
3pl. pres. upìtaju svrate pòvežu reknu uđu daju
1sg. upìtah svràtih povèzah rekoh uđoh dadoh bih
2-3sg. upìta svrati povèza reče uđe dade bi
1pl. upìtasmo svràtismo povèzasmo rekosmo uđosmo dadosmo bismo
2pl. upìtaste svràtiste povèzaste rekoste uđoste dadoste biste
3pl. upìtaše svràtiše povèzaše rekoše uđoše dadoše biše
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IMPERFECT TENSE
type 1 2 BITI
infinitive gledati mòliti contracted full contracted full
1sg. gledah moljah bjeh bijah beh bejah
2-3sg. gledaše moljaše bješe bijaše beše bejaše
1pl. gledasmo moljasmo bjesmo bijasmo besmo bejasmo
2pl. gledaste moljaste bjeste bijaste beste bejaste
3pl. gledahu moljahu bjehu bijahu behu bejahu
J bjeh etc. / E beh etc.; J bijah etc. / E bejah etc.
aorist Òvdje si zbog tečaja? – upìta Gòran. “Are you here for the class?” asked Goran.
Jèsam – odgovori Marìna. “Yes, I am,” answered Marina.
Šteta što on neće biti tu – reče Ana. “It’s a pity he won’t be here,” said Ana.
Neće ti nedòstajati – reče Ivo. “You won’t miss him,” said Ivo.
Svràtih da te pòzdravim. I dropped by to say hello [to you].
Òdoh sad. I’m off now. [ = I left]
imperfect Bijahu jèdnom kràljević i princèza... Once upon a time there was a prince
and a princess...
J ovdje / E ovde; B,C,S zbog tečaja / S zbog kursa; B,C neće biti / S,B neće da bude; B,C neće ti nedostajati
/ S,B neće da ti nedostaje; J bijahu / E bejahu
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NA G DLI NA G DLI
2 (m-n) dva dvàju dvàma 2 (f) dve dvèju dvèma
both (m-n) oba obàju obòma 2 (f) dvije dvìju dvjèma
3 tri trìju trìma both (f) obe obèju obèma
4 čètiri četirìju čètirima both (f) obje obìju objèma
E dve / J dvije; E dveju / J dviju; E dvema / J dvjema; E obe / J obje; E obeju / J obiju; E obema / J objema
Numbers from 11-19 and multiples of 10 through 90 are formed by adding the suffixes -naest and
-deset, respectively, to the above numbers (the stem of četiri is abbreviated to četr-). The spell-
ing of 11, 50, 16, 60 and 90 reflects pronunciation changes which result from the addition of these
suffixes. These numbers were seen in [58b] and are repeated below.
The number 100 is sto; multiples are derived by prefixing the cardinal number, as in English.
Bosnian and Serbian have alternate forms for 200 and 300.
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There is an alternate word for hundred – stotina; and the word for billion is milijarda. The words
for thousand and million have different forms in Croatian and Serbian; Bosnian uses the Serbian
term. All of these words are treated as nouns: after 2, 3, 4 they take the counting form and after 5
and larger they take Gpl.
200 dve stotine 2000 dve hìljade / tìsuće 5000 pet hìljada / tìsuća
300 tri stotine 3000 tri hìljade / tìsuće 6000 šest hìljada / tìsuća
400 čètiri stotine 4000 čètiri hìljade / tìsuće 9000 devet hìljada / tìsuća
Compound numbers are formed as in English, by simply reading the components off in or-
der. The conjunction i is optionally placed between the last two items. If a number begins with
one thousand, or if the word stotina (and not sto) is the first segment of a number, the Asg. form
– hiljadu or tisuću (1000), or stotinu (100) – is used.
45 četrdèset pet / četrdèset i pet 101 sto jèdan / sto i jèdan [stotinu i jèdan]
313 tristo trìnaest / tristo i trìnaest 356 trista pedèset šest / trista pedèset i šest
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The ordinals of the larger numbers add a somewhat longer suffix, as shown below:
The ordinals of compound numbers are formed as in English: all segments except the last are
cardinal numbers, and only the final one is an actual ordinal. Compound ordinals also have the
option to join the final two segments using the conjunction i. Examples, in masculine singular:
45th četrdèset peti / četrdèset i peti 101st sto prvi or sto i prvi
313th tristo trinàesti / tristo i trinàesti 356th tristo pedèset šesti / tristo pedèset i šesti
1989th hìljadu dèvetsto osamdèset dèveti / hìljadu dèv etsto osamdèset i dèveti
2153rd dvije tìsuće sto pedèset treći / dvije tìsuće sto pedèset i treći
C tristo / B,S trista, tristo; B,S hiljadu / C tisuću; J dvije / E dve
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As in the case of English half and quarter, the presence of 2 or 4 in the denominator usually
requires a different word. The BCS word for quarter, used in many of the same meanings as its
English equivalent, is četvrt (Gsg. četvrti). In addition, Croatian uses četvrt and tri četvrt to
mark quarter hours in telling time. The BCS words for half are polovina / polovica, which are
often shortened to pola (or po / pol) when a noun follows. When telling time, pola plus the hour
number indicates the half hour before that number (review [61c]).
quarter Dòći će u osam i četvrt. He’ll come at 8:15 / quarter past eight.
Ìzašli su iz kuće u četvrt do pet. They left the house at 4:45 / quarter to five.
On pòznaje jèdnu četvr̀tinu stanovnìka, He knows one fourth of the [city’s] inhabitants,
ali u òvoj četvrti nikoga ne pòznaje. but he doesn’t know anyone in this quarter.
Molim vas, dajte mi tri četvrt kile [May I have] three-quarters of a kilo of
mljèvenog mesa. ground meat, please.
half Ìzašli su iz kuće u pola pet. They left the house at 4:30.
Dòći ćemo po vas u pet i trìdeset. We’ll come for you at 5:30.
Trebat ćeš kilu i pol šèćera. You’ll need a kilo and a half of sugar.
Nema ni pola metra te tkànine. There’s not even half a meter of that fabric.
C osam i četvrt / B,S osam i petnaest; B,C četvrt do pet / B,S petnaest do pet / C tri četvrt pet; B,C u ovoj četvrti
/ S,B u ovom kraju; B,C tri četvrti kile / S tri četvrtine kila (kile); J mljeven / E mleven; S,C po vas / B pò vas;
C pol / B,S po; B,C trebat ćeš / B,C trebat će ti / S trebaće ti
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Approximative numbers indicate that a number has been rounded off. English expresses this
idea using phrases such as fifteen or so or about twenty. If the idea of approximation is clear from
the context, English can also use a simple cardinal number. In BCS a suffix is used to express the
idea of approximation. This suffix, -ak, is usually added to the cardinal number; it contains a long
vowel, and causes a long rising accent on the syllable preceding it. In general, such forms are
usually made only from the decades, though they are also encountered in the teens. The word
meaning a hundred or so has an extended stem. However, to express the idea two or three, BCS
often states the two cardinal numbers in a single breath, and writes them connected by a hyphen.
English could translate this with a few, a couple of, or the like.
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When a counted unit is the subject of the sentence, the final segment continues to determine
the form of the verb. If this segment is (the adjective form) 1, the verb is singular, and the past
tense L-participle agrees with the adjective + noun phrase in gender. If the segment is 2, 3, or 4,
the verb is plural, and the past tense L-participle has the ending of the appropriate counting form.
If the segment is 5 or higher, the verb is 3sg., and the past tense L-participle is neuter.
final segment
1 Zvala te je jèdna djèvojka. A / One girl called you.
Jèdan čòvek je dòšao da te vidi. A / One man came to see you.
Dvàd eset jèdna djèvojka čeka da te vidi. 21 girls are waiting to see you.
Dvàd eset jèdna djèvojka je čekala da te vidi. 21 girls were waiting to see you.
Petsto četr̀deset jèdan čòvjek sjèdi u parku. 541 men are sitting in the park.
Petsto četr̀deset jèdan čòvjek je sjèdio tamo. 541 men were sitting there.
2 Dva jaka mòmka mi pòmažu. Two strong fellows are helping me.
Dva jaka mòmka su mi pomàg ala. Two strong fellows were helping me.
Četrdèset dva jaka mòmka rade u tvornici. 42 strong fellows are working in the
factory.
Četrdèset dva jaka mòmka su ràdila tamo. 42 strong fellows were working there.
3 Tri plave ptice pjevaju u sobi. 3 blue birds are singing in the room.
Tri plave ptice su pjevale u sobi. 3 blue birds were singing in the room.
Sva trista trìdeset i tri crna kònja su tr̀čala All 333 black horses were running
niz polje. down the field.
4 Sva ta devedès et čètiri grada su na spìsku. All 94 of those cities are on the list.
Sva ta devedès et čètiri grada su bìla na spìsku. All 94 of those cities were on the list.
5 Pet umornih žèn a ìzlazi iz kuće. 5 tired women are leaving the house.
Pet umornih žèn a je ìzašlo iz kuće. 5 tired women left the house.
7 Tih devedèset sedam crnih kònja tr̀či Those 97 black horses are running
niz polje. down the field.
Tih devedèset sedam crnih kònja je tr̀čalo Those 97 black horses were running
niz polje. down the field.
J djevojka / E devojka; E čovek / J čovjek; J sjedi / E sedi; J sjedio / E sedeo; B,C u tvornici / S,B u fabrici;
J pjevale / E pevale; S,C u sobi / B ù sobi; S,B na spisku / C na popisu
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When counted units appear in non-subject position, those ending in 1 behave as any “adjective +
noun” unit. Other numbers generally do not change form, although it is possible for 2, 3, 4 to do
so. After prepositions numbers other than 1 never change form.
numbers after prepositions
Nàšla sam se sa šest žèna. I met up with six women.
Svih sedam učesnika ga je potpìsalo. All seven participants signed it.
To je reklo hìljadu vojnìka. A thousand soldiers said it.
Čuje se sa stotinu prijatèlja. He’s in touch with a hundred friends.
“Tìsuću hr̀vatskih kùna” [novčanica] “One thousand Croatian kuna” [on money]
B,S sedam učesnika / C sedam sudionika; B,S hiljadu / C tisuću
The same is true of other forms that specify amounts, namely the adverbs of measure seen in
[59a]: the nouns following them do not change form after a preposition. The following pair dem-
onstrates the difference between a normal prepositional phrase (where a noun object takes the
required case) and a prepositional phrase whose object is “measured” by an adverb.
preposition + noun Daj mi čašu vòde sa ledom. Give me a glass of water with ice.
preposition + adverb Daj mi čašu vòde sa puno leda. Give me a glass of water with lots of ice.
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years, short Nìsam bìla tu od 79-e. I haven’t been here since ‘79.
Pedèsete godine su bìle mìrnije od The fifties were more peaceful than
šezdès etih. the sixties.
Ništa od toga nìsam vidio. Ja sam I didn’t see any of that. I’m a child of
dijète sedamdèsetih godina. Rođen the seventies. Born in ‘73, in fact.
sedamdèset treće, ustvari.
J vidio / E video; J dijete / E dete
As seen in several of the examples above, Croatian uses the old Slavic names for the
months, while Bosnian and Serbian use Latin-based names (review [67d]). One also sees the
month frequently identified by a Roman numeral. According to this usage, common in many
Western countries as well, one writes the date July 4, 1776 as 4.VII.1776. BCS carries this into
speech as well: the examples below illustrate a very popular way of identifying dates. This means
of expression allows speakers to specify a date unambiguously without having to use either mark-
edly Croatian or markedly Serbian month names, which no doubt contributes to its popularity.
4.VII.1776 četvrtog sedmog hìljadu sedamsto sedamdèset šeste
17.XII.1991 sedàmnaestog dvànaestog hìljadu devetsto devedèset prve
1.I.2002 prvog prvog dve hìljade druge
6.XI šestog jedànaestog
B,S hiljadu / C tisuću
In sum, the fullest form of the number naming a date includes three ordinal numbers in the
genitive case, the first two masculine and the third feminine. One can remember this sequence by
thinking of the nouns which name each of the time periods in question. The following schema, for
instance, illustrates the date July 4, 2005 (the fourth DAY of the seventh MONTH of the two thou-
sand fifth YEAR):
name dan mjesec godina
[gender] [masculine] [masculine] [feminine]
Genitive form: četvrt-og sedm-og dve hìljade pet-e
J mjesec / E mesec; E dve / J dvije; B,S hiljade / C tisuće
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The noun or pronoun identifying the components of the group is always Gpl. (as in English
the six OF US, the four OF THEM). If this form is a pronoun it precedes the number form. The noun
deca / djeca can only be counted by using the collective number (followed by the genitive).
“Group” numbers
males Idemo nas tròjica. The three of us are on our way.
Sva četvòrica su dòšla na vrijeme. All four of them came on time.
Uskoro im prìđoše dvòjica mladìća. Soon a pair of youths came to join them.
females Odmah zàtim prìđoše dvije djèvojke. Right after that came a pair of girls.
Sad možemo sve tri òtići na kàvu. Now all three of us can go for coffee.
Tada ćemo se sùsretati nas tri. The three of us will meet [often] then.
mixed Nèćemo vàljda biti samo nas dvoje. There probably won’t just be us two.
Uskoro će ih biti troje. Soon they will be three.
Ìma jedànaestoro dèce. She has eleven children.
Žìvot u dvoje je jeftìniji. Living as a pair is cheaper.
Šta kažete, vas dvoje? What do you say, you two?
Njih dvoje sad žìve u Valenciji. The two of them live in Valencia now.
Šestero mladih ljùdi polàko ùđoše. The six young people went slowly in.
Šestero se mladih ljùdi tamo skupilo. The six young people met there.
Četvero njihovih kolèga su prasnuli Their four colleagues burst into laughter.
u smijeh.
J vrijeme / E vreme; J dvije djevojke / E dve devojke; C kavu / B,S kafu / B kahvu; B,C ćemo se susretati
/ S,B ćemo da se susrećemo; B,C nećemo biti / S,B nećemo da budemo; E dece / J djece; S,B jedanaestoro
/ B,C jedanaestero; S,C u dvoje / B ù dvoje; B,C šestero / S,B šestoro; B,C četvero / S,B četvoro; J smijeh / E smeh
po + N / A Molim vas, ùđite jèd an po jèd an. Come in one at at time, please.
Dàl a je dèci po jèdnu jabuku. She gave the children one apple apiece.
po + Loc Ìma otprìlike 30 stòlica po sobi. There’s about 30 chairs per room.
Kolìki je gòdišnji dòhodak po glàvi What [ = how big] is the yearly income
stanovnìka? per capita?
E deci / J djeci; B,S otprilike / C po prilici
124e. Age
One’s age can be stated either with the verb imati, or with the possessive dative (review
[73e]); the latter is preferred. The verbs napuniti or navršiti state that one has reached a particu-
lar milestone (usually in years, though other measures are possible). In addition, the word
godište, which refers to any cohort identified by time frame (such as one’s school class), can be
used to identify one’s age. In this usage, it is modified by the ordinal number of one’s year of
birth and is (somewhat paradoxically) used in the nominative case.
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Acc. alone Jàvio se nèdelju dàn a nakon sàstanka. He called a week after the meeting.
Videli smo se dve godine poslije. We met two years later.
Instr. alone Nèdjeljom popòdne idemo na izlet. Sunday afternoons we go out.
B,S redovno / C redovito; B,S u decembru / C u prosincu; J ovdje / E ovde; E videli / J vidjeli; E meseca / J mje-
seca; B,S šta / C što; S,B desilo se / B,C,S dogodilo se; B,S 22. novembra / C 22. studenoga; B,S dešava se
/ B,C,S događa se; E mesec / J mjesec; S,B nedelju (nedjelju) / B sedmicu / C tjedan; E dve / J dvije; J poslije
/ E posle; J nedjeljom / E nedeljom
Acc. alone Ѝспит је трајао само јѐдан сат. The exam lasted only an hour.
О̀стао је тамо месец / годину да̀на. He stayed there for a month / a year.
Чекали смо вас сат времена. We waited an hour for you.
Instr. alone Где си бѝла? Чекали су те сатима! Where were you? They waited for
[ = were expecting] you for hours!
na + Acc. Идемо само на нѐдељу да̀на. We’re going only for a week.
О̀на иде у Па̀риз на месец да̀на. She’s going to Paris for a month.
za + Acc. Не мо̀гу то да за̀вршим за јѐдан дан. I can’t finish that in a [single] day.
Вѐнчаћемо се за десѐтак да̀на. We’re getting married in ten days or so
[ = ten days from now].
То се ради само за врѐме ру̀чка. That’s done only at lunchtime
[ = during the period of lunch]
[= za + Најбоље је то ра̀дити за дана. It’s best to do it during the day.
Gen.] Рѐтко је да неко то види за живо̀т а. You rarely see that in a lifetime. [ = It’s rare
that someone see that during his/her life.]
pre / prije Видео сам га пре пар дана. I saw him just a couple of days ago.
+ Acc. Каже да је послала пѝсмо пре She says she sent the letter a week ago.
нѐдељу да̀на.
Све се то дого̀дило пре десет година. All that happened ten years ago.
E mesec / J mjesec; B,S putovaću / B,C putovat ću; E nedelju / J nedjelju; B,S nedelju (nedjelju) / B sedmicu / C tjedan;
J gdje / E gde; B,C mogu to završiti / S,B mogu to da završim; E venčati / J vjenčati; C,B vjenčat ćemo se / S,B venča-
ćemo se (vjenčaćemo se); E vreme / J vrijeme; E retko / J rijetko; B,S neko / C netko; E video / J vidio; B,C,S dogodilo
se / S desilo se; E pre / J prije
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Events are located at these times of day by phrase: some are prepositional phrases while some
have become adverbs. The noun podne illustrates the transition. If it takes case endings, it adds
the syllable -ev before all endings other than NAsg. It also occurs without case endings, but still
appearing to function as the object of a preposition. The endpoint of the process is reached when
the adverbial phrases are transformed into nouns which themselves take the case forms with -ev.
Below are words referring to the time of day. The first chart gives the name of each time
period (in the top row) and the adverbial or prepositional phrase used to locate an event at that
time (in the bottom row): the corresponding words for day and night are given above the chart.
The second chart gives adjectives referring to the times of day. They do not have short forms.
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The most uniform system, however, is that which incorporates not only adverbs of place
and time but also question words. In this set, the marker for NOW is the consonant s- (seen earlier
in time-related suffixes), and the marker for HERE is the syllable ov- (known from the demonstra-
tive ovaj). The marker for both THEN and THERE is the syllable on- (known from the demonstra-
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tive onaj), and the marker for questions is the consonant k-. The chart below summarizes the re-
lationships. For the variable meanings of gdje / gde, kamo and kuda, see [55c, 84b]. The words
dovde, donde, and donle are somewhat archaic, and are often replaced by prepositional phrases
such as do ovde and the like.
Given that the relationship ovaj – taj – onaj also spans the gamut from near to far (review
[11b]), one might expect the consonant t- to play a greater role in this system. Instead, the few
existing adverbs formed on this model with t- have less predictable meanings.
Adjectives can be made from most of the above adverbs; in all instances but one the suffix
is -šnji. A few have variant forms in -nji, such as sadanji. None have short forms.
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trebati need
(1) Treba da budem na pòslu sutra u 7. I have to be at work at 7:00 tomorrow.
(2) Trebam biti na pòslu sutra u 7. [same]
trebati ought
(1) Čas je trebalo da se odr̀ži u pet. The class was supposed to be at 5 p.m.
(2) Sat se trebao odr̀žati u pet. [same]
Although type (2) sentences are generally the norm in Croatian, they are more frequently
used in the meaning need than in the meaning should / ought. Even in Croatian, therefore, one is
likely to encounter type (1) sentences (that is, subjectless sentences) in the latter meaning. In this
type of sentence, the verb is 3rd singular, and the L-participle of the past tense is neuter singular.
The verb which follows can be an infinitive, a sequence of da + present tense, or it can be left
unstated. If a logical subject is present, it is expressed in the nominative or in the verbal form of
the da + present version of the infinitive – but the form of trebati does not change. Only type (1)
is used in this meaning in Serbian, and it is also preferred in Bosnian.
Type (1)
without Томе се нѐ треба чудити. You / one shouldn’t be surprised by that.
subject Пси треба да се често воде у шѐтњу. Dogs should be walked often.
[ = One ought to walk dogs often.]
Нико не по̀ступа ка̀ко треба. Nobody acts the way they’re supposed to.
Требало је више у̀чити. You/one ought to have studied more.
Требало је нешто да се каже. Something had to be said.
Ту је требало упо̀рности. Persistence was required here.
logical Ти треба да чекаш о̀вде. You should wait here.
subject Треба да радимо више. We ought to work more.
Сту̀денти треба да у̀че 4 сата дневно. Students should study four hours a day.
Нѝје требало да он са̀зна. He wasn’t supposed to have found out.
Требало је да одем. I had to leave.
Требало је да нам каже ра̀није. He ought to have told us sooner.
B,S niko / C nitko; E ovde / J ovdje
Of course, trebati can also follow type (2) rules and take personal endings in this meaning, at
least in Croatian and Bosnian. This occurs more frequently in the past tense than in the present.
Type (2) Nìsi trebala dòći, bit će ti tèško. You shouldn’t have come, [it] will
be hard on you.
Trebao nam je rànije kàzati. He ought to have told us sooner.
C,B nisi trebala doći / S,B nije trebalo da dođeš; C,B bit će / S,B biće; C,B trebao je kazati / S,B trebalo je da kaže
The conjugated verb valjati means “to be worth [something]”. But when it is used as a 3sg.
subjectless verb, its meaning is equivalent to that of treba as seen above.
valja Nè valja tàko govòriti. You/one shouldn’t talk that way.
Valja da dođeš. You’d better come.
Pòrodične òbičaje valja poštòvati! One should honor family rules!
Valja nama preko rijèk e. We need [to cross] the river.
(iz pjesme Maka Dizdara) (from a poem by Mak Dizdar)
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valjalo je Nìje vàljalo tàko govòriti. One ought not to have talked that way.
Vàljalo je nekoga pìtati. We / one should have asked someone.
Vàljalo joj je nešto reći. Someone should have said something to her.
B,S porodični / C obiteljski; J rijeka / E reka; J pjesma / E pesma
The other major meaning of koji is as a relative conjunction. When used in this meaning, it
corresponds to English who, which or that, and occurs only in sentences of more than one clause.
The clause in which koji occurs is called a relative clause, and the function of koji in this clause
is to stand for a particular word in the sentence’s main clause. It is this relationship – between
koji in its own clause and the word it stands for in the other clause – which binds the entire sen-
tence together. According to the rules of relative clauses, the relative conjunction must take on
the number and gender of the word it refers to. Thus, in the first set of examples below, koji has
Nsg.fem. endings because in each case it stands for the fem.sg. noun knjiga. In the second set, it
has Npl.masc. endings, because in each case it refers to the masc.pl. noun studenti.
Such sentences contain two clauses. The one with koji cannot stand on its own: it must be
connected to the clause containing the word to which koji refers (called its antecedent). The
clause containing the antecedent, however, is a self-contained statement, which could function as
a simple sentence on its own. The grammatical bond between the two clauses is the requirement
that koji take on the gender and number of its antecedent. The critical point is that koji does NOT
take the case of its antecedent. Rather, each takes the case required by its own clause. In each sen-
tence below, for instance, the nouns knjiga and studenti are in different cases; but the relative
conjunction koji is in the nominative each time, since it is always the subject of its own clause. It
is important to study these examples carefully and grasp these facts about their structure.
English translations of koji in this meaning vary. A literal translation must render it by who
if it refers to a human and which otherwise (English also allows that in either of these meanings).
Frequently, however, English can omit it altogether: many of the examples below sound better
without the words which are placed in brackets. BCS can NEVER omit koji, though.
KOJI as relative
fem. sg. Čìja je knjiga kòja tamo lèži? Whose is the book [which is] lying there?
Kùpuješ li knjigu kòja tamo lèži? Are you buying the book [which is] lying
over there?
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Pročìtala sam to u knjizi kòja tamo lèži. I read it in the book [which is] lying there.
Šta si uràdila sa knjigom kòja je What did you do with the book which was
tamo lèžala? lying over there?
masc.pl. Stùdenti kòji tamo stòje su njeni The students [who are] standing over
prijatelji. there are her friends.
Pòznaješ li stùdente kòji tamo stòje? Do you know the students [who are]
standing over there?
Kolìko ìma stùdenata kòji ùče How many students are there [who are
fràncuski? currently] studying French?
Molim vas, rècite stùdentima kòji Please tell the students [who are] studying
tamo ùče da je vrijème da uđu. over there that it’s time to go in.
B,S šta / C što; B,S sa knjigom / C,B s knjigom; B,C, S njeni / C,B njezini; J vrijeme / E vreme
present Mnòžeći to sa 10, dòbijamo 1500. Multiplying that by 10, we get 1500.
– Slažem se, rekla je smìjući se. “I agree,” she said with a laugh [ = laughing].
past Ìzašavši iz kuće, pòšli su ulicom. Having left the house, they set off down
the street.
Ùšavši u dùćan, odlùčili su kùpiti Having entered the shop, they decided to
cvijeće. buy [some] flowers.
B,S dobijamo / C dobivamo; J smijući se / E smejeći se; C,B u dućan, u prodavaonicu / S,B u prodavnicu;
B,C odlučili su kupiti / S,B odlučili su da kupe; J cvijeće / E cveće
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Kad budeš slavila rođendan, sjetit ćeš se When you celebrate your birthday, you’ll
mene i bit će ti žao što nìsi pòšla think of me, and you’ll be sorry you
sà mnom. didn’t go with me.
J sjetiti se / E setiti se; C,B sjetit ćeš se / S,B setićeš se (sjetićeš se); C,B bit će / S,B biće
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In spoken Bosnian and Serbian, it is also common to simplify the forms bih, bismo, biste, and to
pronounce all six persons of the auxiliary simply as bi. The distinctions must be maintained in
writing, however. Croatian is also more likely to keep the forms distinct in speech as well, short-
ening them only in faster, very colloquial speech. The sample paradigms below give the auxilia-
ries in their fully distinguished form. The L-participle must agree with the verb’s subject.
CONDITIONAL
Singular Plural
infinitive masculine neuter feminine masculine neuter feminine
The forms of the conditional mood as given above are used in all meanings of the condi-
tional in Bosnian and Serbian. In Croatian (and in more archaic forms of Bosnian and Serbian),
there is also a past conditional, in which the verbal auxiliary is the compound past of biti.
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PAST CONDITIONAL
Singular Plural
masculine neuter feminine masculine neuter feminine
1 bio bih ìšao bìla bih ìšla bìli bismo ìšli bìle bismo ìšle
2 bio bi ìšao bìla bi ìšla bìli biste ìšli bìle biste ìšle
3 bio bi ìšao bìlo bi ìšlo bìla bi ìšla bìli bi ìšli bìla bi ìšla bìle bi ìšle
The conditional is a mood rather than a tense. Whereas the primary meaning of a verbal
tense (past, present, or future) is concerned with the idea of time, the primary meaning of a mood
makes reference to other factors of the speech situation. Thus, the ways in which the conditional
mood expresses the idea of time is dependent on each of its different meanings. The most widely
used of these is that which gives the conditional mood its name: its use in sentences of the sort if
A, then B. BCS differentiates three types of such sentences according to the speaker’s view of the
prediction inherent in such a statement. The conditional mood is also used to soften the force of a
statement or request, in the expression of various politeness formulas, to describe past repeated
action, and in clauses of purpose. All but the last of these uses parallel those of the English condi-
tional mood, albeit not exactly.
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REAL conditions
non-past Ako pada kiša, onda nè idemo. If it rains, then we’re not going.
Ako bude padala kiša, nèćemo ìći. If it rains, we won’t go.
Biće dobro ako to uskoro zàv ršiš. It’ll be good if you finish up soon.
Ako su ga pòzvali, sigurno će dòći. If they invited him, then he’ll surely come.
Zòvi me ako stigne na vrijème. Call me if he gets in on time.
Ako ne ùspijem òvaj put, nemam If I don’t succeed this time, I have nothing
šta više tràžiti. else to look for [ = no other outcome].
past Ako si htio ić̀i, zašto nìsi rekao? If you wanted to go, why didn’t you say so?
Ako su ga tàkve ikad i privlàčile, If such [women] ever did attract him, he’s
odavno su mu dosàdile. long since been bored by them.
S,B biće / C,B bit će; B,C će doći / S,B će da dođe; J vrijeme / E vreme; J uspijem / E uspem; B,S šta / C što;
B,C nemam šta (što) više tražiti / S nemam više šta da tražim; J htio / E hteo; B,C htio ići / B,S htio (hteo) da ideš
Other conjunctions can also be used. Two of these (the conjunction kad and the particle li)
are more frequently used with other meanings; the third is the conjunction ukoliko. Used in con-
ditional sentences, all three convey the general idea if, although kad can sometimes be translated
since in this usage. However, when a conditional sentence expresses a logical deduction, ONLY
the conjunction ako is possible. But English speakers must be very careful to use ako only in
conditional meanings. If English if can be replaced by whether without altering the meaning of a
sentence, then the corresponding BCS sentence is NOT a conditional one, but rather an embedded
question. In this case, the conjunctions li or da li must be used (review [51]).
REAL conditions
kad Kad već ìmaš tolìko nòvca, možeš If ( = Since) you have so much money,
mi pozàjmiti sto dolara. you can lend me a hundred dollars.
li Ustànovite li da smo pogrijèšili, If you discover that we have made [any]
molim vas da nas obavijèstite. errors, please inform us.
ukoliko Ukolìko nè postignu dogovor, If they don’t come to an agreement, war
može ìzbiti rat. may break out.
ako Ako je to prsten, mora biti okrùgao. If that’s a ring, then it is ( = must be) round.
Ako zgrada ìma jedàn aest spràtova, If (= Since) the building has 11 floors, it
sigurno ìma lift. certainly has (= must have) an elevator.
C,B možeš mi pozajmiti / S,B možeš da mi pozajmiš; J pogriješili / E pogrešili; J obavijestite / E obavestite; C,B može
izbiti / S,B može da izbije; B,C mora biti / S,B mora da bude; S,B spratova / C katova; B,C,S lift / C dizalo
As seen in the above examples, sentences about real conditions do not use the conditional
mood. Indeed, as one of the central functions of the conditional mood is to mark some sort of po-
tentiality or unreality, the very absence of these verb forms in the above sentences underscores
the realness of the condition. When the conditional mood does occur after ako, as in the follow-
ing example, it indicates a strong skepticism on the speaker’s part about the realness of the condi-
tion. For more on ako followed by the conditional mood, see the following section.
ako Ako bi òni [slučajno] dòšli, rèci im If they [should happen to] come, tell them
da me sàčekaju. to wait for me.
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A number of sentences do not bother to spell out the condition. Nevertheless, even though
they do not strictly follow the if A then B model, the fact that the speaker has a condition in mind
is seen by the presence of the conditional mood in them. As in other conditional sentences, the
meaning can be either present or past, with this distinction conveyed by verb choice, sentence
structure, and (in Croatian only) the optional use of the past conditional. One must of course real-
ize that in real life such sentences never occur in isolation, but rather in a spoken context that
provides numerous cues for interpreting the degree of pastness of any one situation.
CONDITIONAL (condition not spelled out)
non-past Ah, kàko bih vòlio da sam doma! Oh, how I wish I were home!
Svako bi to primijètio osim glupog Everyone but a stupid man would notice
muškarca. that.
past Svako bi to primètio, jèdino on nìje. Everyone but him would have noticed it.
Svatko bi to bio primijètio osim [same]
njega. [C]
Ah, kàko bih vòlio da sam bio doma Oh, how I wish I had been at home when
kad je òna svràtila! she came by!
J volio / E voleo; C doma / S,C kod kuće / B kòd kuće; S,B svako / C svatko; J primijetio/ E primetio; B,C,S osim
/ S sem
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IF A THEN B
type of condition conjunction tense / mood tense / mood
real – present
Kad ìmam i vremena i nòvca, zašto Since I have both the time and the
nè bih òtišao na put? money, why shouldn’t I go on a trip?
real – future
Kad budem ìmao vremena i nòv ca, When I get / have [enough] time and
ìći ću na put. money, I’ll go on a trip.
potential
Kad bih ìmao vremena i nòvca, ìšao If I had the time and money, I would go
bih na put. Možda jèdnog dana … on a trip. Someday, perhaps ...
unreal (once potential)
Da sam ìmao vremena i nòvca, ìšao If I had had the time and money, I would
bih na put. Šteta! have gone on the trip. Too bad!
Da sam ìmao vremena i nòvca, bio [same]
bih ìšao na put. Šteta! [C]
unreal (hypothetical)
Da ìmam vremena i nòvca, ìšao If I had the time and money, I’d go on a
bih na put. Ali nemam. trip. But I don’t [so there it is].
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S,B hoćete li (da li hoćete) da objasnite / B,C hoćete li objasniti; S,B stav / B,C stajalište; B,C biste li / S,B da li
biste; S,B želim da naučim / B,C želim naučiti; S,B španski / B,C španjolski; E želela / J željela; B,C …bih naučiti
/ S,B …bih da naučim; S,B šta / C što
The verb treba is especially interesting in this regard. In its direct meaning (corresponding
to English should / ought – review [127]), it already communicates a somewhat toned-down ver-
sion of the idea must. Nevertheless, the option to tone down further, while still expressing the
idea of should / ought, is something speakers take frequent advantage of. In the case of this verb,
the English versions can give only a rough equivalence of the shades of meaning communicated
by the BCS sentences with treba.
indicative (direct) conditional (toned-down)
(6a) You mustn’t turn [left or right]. (4b) You shouldn’t turn [left or right].
(7a) That’s for tomorrow. (5b) That’s supposed to be for tomorrow.
(8a) They should build hospitals far away (6b) They really ought to build hospitals
from city noise. far away from city noise.
(6a) Nè treba ni lijevo ni desno. (6b) Nè bi trebalo ni lijevo ni desno.
(7a) To treba za sutra. (7b) To bi trebalo za sutra.
(8a) Bolnice trebaju gràditi dalèko od (8b) Bòlnice bi trebali gràditi dalèko od
gràdske vreve. gràdske vreve.
J lijevo / E levo; C,B trebaju graditi / B trebaju da grade / S treba da grade; C,B bi trebali / S,B bi trebalo
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As seen in earlier discussions of trebati (review [119, 127]), this verb can appear both in
the subjectless 3sg. (as in the examples above) and as a conjugated verb with explicit subject.
Furthermore, the past tense conjugated forms are sometimes used in the indicative and condi-
tional with meanings that are the OPPOSITE of the ones outlined above. In the following example
of this difference, the indicative (non-conditional) usage of trebati in the past tense is restricted
to the specific speech situation illustrated, but the conditional usage is more general.
indicative (NB, idiomatic) conditional (NB, neutral)
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like (for discussion and more examples, see [143k]). English can use the conditional mood only
in the main clause, but BCS more often than not uses it in both clauses.
CONDITIONAL OF PURPOSE
da Da bi stvàrno naùčio jèdan jèzik, In order to really learn a language, one
čòv ek mora da ide u zèmlju gde has to go to the country where they
se taj jèzik gòvori. speak that language.
Stavi pìsmo tu da bih ga bolje Put the letter here so that I can [ = so I
vidjela. might] see it better.
Pišemo Vam na Vašem jèziku da We write you in your [own] language so
biste pòtpuno razùmeli pròblem. that you’ll fully understand the problem.
Da bih ga stavila na sto, ti bi trebalo For me to [be able to] put it on the table,
da skloniš svòje stvari. you’d have to move your things.
Òva knjiga mi treba da bih večèras I need this book in order to study with my
ùčila sa prìjateljima. friends this evening.
To je prèk ratko vrijème da bi se You can’t even learn the basics in such a
naùčile màkar i osnove. short time [ = that is too short a time for
even the basics to be learned].
kako Potr̀čao je zà njim kàko bi mu tajnu He ran off after him in order to [ = so he
šàpnuo u uho. might] whisper the secret in his ear.
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ne + li Vìkao je na sav glas nè bi li ga čuli. He shouted at the top of his lungs so they
would [ = that they might] hear.
Svud sam gledao nè bih li dragu I looked everywhere in search of [ = so as
vidio. to catch sight of] my darling.
E čovek / J čovjek; S,B mora da ide / C,B mora ići; E gde / J gdje; J vidjela / E videla; E razumeli / J razumjeli;
B,S sto / C stol; B,S bi trebalo da skloniš / C,B trebao bi (trebala bi) skloniti; B,C,S ova knjiga mi treba / C,B trebam
ovu knjiga; J vrijeme / E vreme; B zà njim / S,C za njim; B,C,S uho / S uvo
This lengthy foray into English grammar has been necessary in order to highlight the very
significant fact that BCS does NOT shift the tense of the verb in this type of subordinate clause.
In order to illustrate the lack of the shift in BCS, the exact BCS versions of the above sentences
are given below. In other words, as the sign = indicates, the verb in EVERY newly formed subor-
dinate clause is in the same tense as in the original sentence.
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English speakers learning BCS must pay a great deal of attention to this fact of grammar. In
particular, they must take care not to translate the second verb in She knew he WOULD come with a
BCS conditional (instead of the required future tense), and they must also resist the temptation to
use past tense forms after verbs of speaking, knowledge, and perception when a present tense
verb is required. The BCS rule is simple to state – but it is hard to internalize, because it forces
English speakers to disobey a rule which not only seems natural to them, but which is very deep-
seated (and quite unconscious). The best way to avoid these English-related mistakes in BCS sen-
tences such as the following is (a) to stay on the outlook for BCS past tense verbs of speech,
knowledge or perception; (b) to rephrase any subordinate clause following such a verb so that it
reflects the original state of speech, knowledge or perception; and (c) to remember NOT to change
the verb tense in this subordinate clause!
Rekli ste da ćete sklòniti stvari. You said you were going to move your things.
Znala sam da ćete me potràžiti. I knew you would come to look for me.
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To illustrate the mechanics of sentences with relative clauses, each of the following examples
identifies the relevant grammatical information both for the antecedent (marked A) and the rela-
tive conjunction koji (marked R). Note than in each case it is only the first segment of the identi-
fication, that corresponding to the case each is in, which differs. Otherwise, the two match.
In the sentences below (the first four of which are repeated from [128] but now dia-
grammed in this format), koji is the subject of its own clause. This is noted by the presence of N
(for nominative) in each one of the columns noted R (for relative conjunction). The antecedent in
the first two sentences is also the subject of its clause, which is noted by the presence of N in the
column noted A (for antecedent). In the next two sentences, koji continues to be in the nomina-
tive case (noted by N in its column), but the antecedent is in some other case – locative (L) in one
and genitive (G) in the other. The remaining marks in the columns identify the gender and num-
ber of the antecedent – feminine singular in the case of knjiga (sg.f), and masculine plural in the
case of studenti (pl.m). These marks must always MATCH over the two columns!
A R
Nsg.f Nsg.f Čìja je knjiga kòja tamo lèži? Whose is the book [which is] lying there?
Npl.m Npl.m Stùdenti kòji tamo stòje su njeni The students [who are] sitting over there
prìjatelji. are her friends.
Lsg.f Nsg.f Pročìtala sam to u knjizi kòja I read it in the book [which is] lying
tamo lèži. there.
Gpl.m Npl.m Kolìko ìma stùdenata kòji ùče How many students are there [who are]
fràncuski? studying French?
Asg.m Nsg.m Ùdala se za vojnìka kòji je bio She married a soldier who’d been in
u Sàrajevu u sàstavu snaga Sarajevo with the U.N. forces.
Ujèdinjenih nàroda.
Nsg.f Nsg.f Òvo je najljepša stvar kòja mi This is the nicest thing that’s ever
se ikad desila. happened to me.
Apl.m Npl.m Obje zà sobom òstavljaju dječàke They both leave behind boys who will die
kòji će ùmrijeti zbòg njih. because of them.
– iz pjesme Fèride Duràković – from a poem by Ferida Duraković
E sede / J sjede; B,C,S njen / B,C njezin; B,C Ujedinjenih naroda / S Ujedinjenih nacija; J najljepša / E najlepša;
B,S desila / B,C,S dogodila; J obje / E obe; B zà sobom / C,S za sobom; J dječak / E dečak; J umrijeti / E umreti;
B,C će umrijeti / S će da umru; B zbòg njih / C,S zbog njih; J pjesme / E pesme
Personal pronouns can also act as antecedents, in which case koji agrees with them in per-
son and number. Of course, the verb after koji must agree with it in person and number.
A R
N-1pl N-1pl Mi kòji žìvimo na sèlu sve to We who live in the country understand
razùmemo. all that.
D-2pl N-2pl Biće drago vama kòji to još You who haven’t seen it yet will be
niste vidjeli. pleased.
E razumemo / J razumijemo; S,B biće / C,B bit će; J vidjeli / E videli
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If koji fills some other grammatical function in its clause, it must be in that case. Below are
several examples illustrating this, given according to the same format. Study each sentence to
identify the antecedent referred to in the A column, and then see how the form of koji (referred to
in the R column) relates to it. Because the corresponding English sentences are often framed quite
differently, students may find it a help to reformulate the English sentence first so that it contains
a relative pronoun such as which, who or whom. It may not seem like it, but a relative pronoun is
always there in the logic underlying the English sentence.
A R
Asg.f Asg.f Прво треба ку̀пити карту ко̀ју First you have to buy a ticket which you
ћете дати воза̀чу ауто̀буса. will [then] give to the bus driver.
Asg.f Lsg.f Пазите да купите карту на ко̀јој Be careful to buy a ticket with [ = on
је да̀нашњи да̀тум. which is] today’s date.
Nsg.f Lsg.f А то је зграда у ко̀јој ја ста̀нујем! But that’s the building I live in [ = in
which I live]!
Asg.f Gsg.f По̀гледајте зграду из ко̀је о̀ни Look at the building they are now
сад ѝзлазе. coming out of [ = from which they
are exiting].
Npl.m Apl.m Сту̀денти ко̀је ја по̀знајем нѝсу The students [whom] I know aren’t yet
још спремни за ѝспит. ready for the test.
Npl.m Ipl.m Сту̀денти с ко̀јима сам у̀чио The students I was studying with
знају више о томе него ја. [ = with whom I was studying]
know more about that than I do.
Lsg.m Lsg.m Јѐсам ли на тргу на ко̀јем треба Am I on the square I’m supposed to be
да будем? on [ = on which I’m supposed to be]?
Nsg.m Asg.m Да ли је о̀во трг ко̀ји сте Is this the square [which] you
спомѐнули? mentioned?
B,C,S treba kupiti / B,S treba da kupite / C,B trebate kupiti; B,C,S ćete dati / B,S ćete da date; B,C,S jesam li
/ S,B da li sam; B,S treba da budem / C,B trebam biti; S,B da li je / B,C,S je li
A R
Nsg.m Dsg.m Kàko se zòve dèčak kòme si dao What’s the name of the boy you gave
loptu? the ball to [ = to whom you gave
the ball]?
Nsg.m Asg.m Je li òvo djèčak kòjega si Is this the boy [whom] you mentioned?
spomènuo?
Nsg.n Lsg.n Eno vam mjesta na kòjem je There [you have] the place where [= on
Gavrilo Prìncip ùbio nadvojvodu which] Gavrilo Princip assassinated
Franza Ferdinanda. Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Lsg.f Asg.f Òna je bìla profesòrica u srednjoj She was a teacher in the high school
školi kòju je on pohàđao. [which] he attended.
Apl.m Apl.m Novce kòje ste dàli za tečaj mogli You could have spent the money
ste potròšiti na nešto drugo. [which] you paid for the course
on something else.
Gsg.m Asg.m Kàko nìsi svjesna ùtiska kòji How can you not be conscious of the
òstavljaš? impression [which] you make?
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Apl.m Apl.m Òna radi za iste ljude za kòje i on. She works for the same people he does
[ = for whom he also (works)].
Asg.m Lsg.m Navràtila je u kàfić u kòjem je She dropped in at the café where [ = in
on ràdio. which] he worked.
Gsg.f Isg.f Skupio se poput ranjene živòtinje He huddled like a wounded animal over
nad kòjom kruže lèšinari. which the vultures were circling.
Nsg.n Gsg.n Òvaj svijet im bješe kràtko This world was but a brief stay after
boravište iza kòjeg ih vječni which eternal life awaited them.
žìvot čeka. – from a poem by A. B. Šimić
– iz pjesme A.B. Šìmića
E dečak / J dječak; S,B kome / C kojemu; C kojega / S,B koga; J mjesta / E mesta; B,C,S tečaj / S kurs; J svjesna
/ E svesna; B,C,S utisak / C dojam; J svijet / E svet; J bješe / E beše; J vječni / E večni
A R
Asg.f Asg.f Ljudi čìje su kuće srušene u The people whose houses were
pòtresu smješteni su u baràk e. destroyed in the earthquake were
housed in shacks.
[Gsg.f] Asg.f Dàn as će govòriti àutor čìju knjigu The author whose book the students are
stùdenti sad čìtaju. now reading will be speaking today.
Npl.m Apl.m Tamo leži čòvjek za čìje su nàlaze There lies the man whose test results,
liječnici rèkli da su vèoma loši. according to the doctors [ = about
whose test results the doctors say]
are very bad.
Asg.m Asg.m Jeste li kùpili kompjùter kàkav ste Did you buy the kind of computer [ =
i žèljeli? one of the sort which] you wanted?
Nsg.m Asg.m Nadam se da je on čòvek kàkvog I hope he’s the kind of person [ = one of
si tràžila. the kind which] you’ve been seeking.
J smješteni / E smešteni; B,C u potresu / S,B u zemljotresu; C liječnici / B ljekari (doktori) / S lekari (doktori);
B,C jeste li / S,B da li ste; B,S kompjuter / C kompjutor; J željeli / E želeli; J čovjek / E čovek
The form što is also frequently used as a relative conjunction. The meaning of such sen-
tences is exactly the same as if a form of koji were used. But since što as a conjunction cannot
take case endings, it is necessary to add something in order to identify the case function of the
relative pronoun. This something which is added is a pronoun object, which agrees with the
antecedent in number and gender, but takes the case form required by its own clause. The object
is the clitic form wherever possible. If the antecedent is an indefinite pronoun such as jedini,
nešto, sve, or the like, then the relative pronouns are ko / tko or što – the former if the antecedent
is human, otherwise the latter.
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The notation below continues to identify the grammatical requirements which the relative
conjunction must satisfy. Now, however, it is the accompanying pronoun which satisfies these
requirements in all cases other than nominative. Clitic pronouns must, of course, follow the rele-
vant word order rules – they must always come immediately after a relative conjunction.
A R
Nsg.f Nsg.f Čìja je òn a knjiga što tamo lèži? Whose is the book [which is] lying there?
Nsg.f Asg.f Je li òvo knjiga što si je Is this the book [which] you mentioned?
spomènula?
Nsg.m Dsg.m Kàko se zòve dèčak što ste mu What’s the name of the boy you gave the
dàli loptu? ball to [ = to whom you gave the ball] ?
Nom. Nom. On je jèdini ko to može da ùradi. He’s the only one who can do that.
Nom. Dat. Svako kòme se òbratiš će ti Everyone you turn to [to whom you turn]
pòmoći. will [be able to] help you.
Acc. Acc. Ponèsi sve što ìmaš. Take everything [which] you have.
Nom. Instr. Ìma li išta čìme bi se òna rado Is there anything [at all] she would like
bavila? to do [ = with which she might occupy
herself] ?
B,C,S je li / B,S da li je; E dečak / J dječak; B,S ko / C tko; B,S da uradi / C,B uraditi; B,S svako / C svatko;
C,B će ti pomoći / S,B će da ti pomogne; C,B ima li / S,B da li ima
X Y Z
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 Ja bih mu ga pokàzala. I would show it to him.
2 Òni bi ga se bòjali. They would be afraid of him.
3 Da li bi joj se jàvio? Would he call her?
4 Da li biste mu ga dàli? Would you give it to her?
5 Bi li mu ga dàla? Would she give it to him?
6 Biste li joj se jàvili? Would you call her?
7 Bih. I would.
8 Nè bih mu ga dao. I wouldn’t give it to him.
9 Ja mu ga nè bih dao. [same]
10 Zar mu se nè biste jàvili? Wouldn’t you call him?
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These sentences are formed according to the English grammar rule that both the main verb and
the gerundial or participial form modifying it (the form italicized in each sentence) must have the
same subject. Many English speakers no longer follow this rule, but rather add such forms to any
sentence, regardless of the subject of the verb. In BCS, however, the corresponding rule must be
followed without exception. A more useful parallel with English lies in the fact that the terms
present and past in the name of the BCS verbal adverbs do NOT refer to tense but rather to simul-
taneity. That is, present verbal adverbs describe an action which is (or was, or will be) in progress
at the same time as that of the main verb, while past verbal adverbs describe an action that was
(or will be) completed prior to that of the main verb. In the two English examples above, for in-
stance, all four actions take place in the past. The difference between the two sentences is that the
two actions in sentence (1) occur simultaneously, whereas in sentence (2) the first named action
was completed before the second named action took place.
Since present verbal adverbs refer to actions in progress and past verbal adverbs refer to
completed actions, it should be no surprise that the first are formed only from verbs of the imper-
fective aspect, while the second are formed from only verbs of the perfective aspect. Verbal ad-
verbs are encountered frequently in written language, but are quite rare in speech. A few have
given rise to adjectival forms, however, and these are quite common in everyday speech.
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present verbal Hoda ulicom nè gledajući ni u kòga. S/he walks down the street without
adverb [ = not] looking at anyone.
Vozeći se sporednim ulicama, nàišao I came across some very unusual house
sam na veòma neobične fasàd e. fronts as I drove down side streets.
Pòbegao je tr̀čeći preko mosta. He escaped [by] running across the
bridge.
Prìhvatili su to kao Božju volju, ne They took it as God’s will, finding fault
optùžujući ni nebo ni sebe. neither in heaven nor in themselves.
Pòzvali su ga da dođe, znajući dobro They invited him to come, knowing well
da nè može prìhvatiti pòziv. that he would be unable to accept
the invitation.
S,C u koga / B ù koga; E pobegao / J pobjegao; C,B može prihvatiti / S,B može da prihvati
Present verbal adverbs also occur in several semi-fixed adverbial phrases. Many of these are
better rendered in English by adverbial phrases that do not contain a gerundial form.
The adverb budući is often combined with the conjunction da to create a compound con-
junction with the meaning since, as, inasmuch as (for more discussion, see [143b]).
Будући да сваки сту̀дент мора понао̀соб Inasumuch as each student must do it for him-
то да ради, сви су врло заузети. or herself, all [the students] are very busy.
S,B mora to da radi / C,B mora to raditi
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past verbal Videvši šta je uràdila, zàplakala je. Once she saw [ = having seen] what she
adverb had done, she burst into tears.
Nè mogavši to više pòdneti, Not able [ = having become unable] to bear
okrènuo se i ìzašao iz sobe. it any more, he turned and left the room.
Zàš avši za ugao, nèstao je u noći. He turned the corner and [ = having turned
the corner, he] disappeared into the night.
Izvr̀šivši svòju dùžnost, dao si By doing your duty [ = having fulfilled your
prìmer drugima. obligation] you set an example to others.
E videvši / J vidjevši; B,S šta / C što; E podneti / J podnijeti; B,C to više podnijeti / S,B više da to podnese; S,C iz
sobe / B ìz sobe; E primer / J primjer
adjective Ìmaš li nòvca na tèkućem račùnu? Do you have cash in your checking account?
On je jèdan od naših vodećih He is one of our leading experts on [the]
stručnjaka za privredu. economy.
Moguće je da će dòći ìduće nèd elje. It’s possible she’ll come next week.
Pòslat će ga na sve moguće pretrage. They’ll send him for all possible tests.
Volim slušati umìrujuću glàzbu. I like to listen to relaxing music.
Ròdila se u bivšoj Jugòslaviji. She was born in the former Yugoslavia.
B,C imaš li / S,B da li imaš; S,B nedelje (nedjelje) / B sedmice / C tjedna; C,B poslat će / S,B poslaće; C,B pretrage
/ S,B ispitivanja; B,C volim slušati / S,B volim da slušam; C glazbu / B,C,S muziku
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What the two types share, of course, is the grammar underlying the basic idea of passive. In
each case, that which was the OBJECT in the active sentence – the letters in the case of the PP-
passive sentence and the lectures in the case of the se-passive sentence – is the SUBJECT of the
passive sentence. Both types also follow the basic rule of any BCS sentence: that the verb must
agree with its grammatical subject. In se-passive sentences, the verb is the same verb as in the
corresponding active sentence, while in PP-passive sentences – which by definition contain a pas-
sive participle – the verb is always a form of biti. The grammatical difference between these two
types is that PP-sentences require the presence of a passive participle, which must agree with its
subject in number and gender. Thus, the noun pisma in the first sample sentence above requires
that the passive participle napisana be neuter plural. By contrast, se-passive sentences are on the
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surface more similar to their active partners: in both the active and the passive versions of the
second sentence above, the verb is a form of slušati. Because it must agree with the subject, it is
3sg. in the active version, but 3pl. in the passive one.
In terms of meaning, the two types are similar: both express the idea passive. But not all
instances of passive meaning are the same. In fact, there are relatively few BCS verbs which can
express the idea “passive” both as a PP-passive and as a se-passive without a change in meaning.
Rather, the majority of verbal ideas are best stated in the passive using either one or the other of
these two models. In general, PP-passives are used when the focus is more on the result of an ac-
tion, and se-passives are used when the focus is more on the action itself. To a certain extent, this
also correlates with aspect, in that passive participles are usually formed from perfective verbs,
while se-passives tend to occur more frequently in sentences with imperfective verbs.
But as the examples below demonstrate, this is not a hard and fast rule. It does account for
the difference between the first two pairs below: the se-passives in (1a) and (2a) contain an im-
perfective verb and focus more on the action itself, while the PP-passives in (1b) and (2b) contain
a perfective verb (the participle) and focus more on the result of the action. The second two pairs,
however, would seem to violate the rule. The verbs in both (3a) and (3b) are perfective, but those
in both (4a) and (4b) are imperfective – and there is no clearly perceptible difference in meaning
between the (a) and the (b) sentences in either of the two pairs.
Passive sentences
(1a) se Òvdje se đàci strogo ocjènjuju. Pupils are graded strictly here. / They
grade pupils strictly here.
(1b) PP Òcijenjen je pozitivno od komìsije. He was judged favorably by the commission.
(2a) se Tamo se mnogo razgovàralo o The weather was spoken of a great deal
vremenu. there. / People talked a great deal about
the weather there.
(2b) PP Više pùta je rečèno da je tamošnje Several times it was stated that the weather
vrème nepodnòšljivo. there was unbearable.
(4a) se Njene knjige se često čìtaju. Her books are often read. / People often
read her books.
(4b) PP Njene knjige su vrlo čìtane. Her books are read a great deal.
J ovdje / E ovde; J ocjenjuju / E ocenjuju; J ocijenjen / E ocenjen; B,S od komisije / C od povjerenstva; E vreme
/ J vrijeme; J proljeće / E proleće; B,C,S njen / B,C njezin
The most reliable means of differentiation between the two types, in fact, is only rarely pre-
sent within the grammar of the sentences themselves. This difference concerns the possible pres-
ence of an agent. In grammatical terms, an agent is that which causes some sort of effect upon a
patient. In active, transitive sentences, the agent is the subject. In passive sentences, where the
focus is either on the action itself or on its result, the agent is not usually mentioned. If a speaker
does choose to specify the agent, s/he does so by stating it as the object of the preposition od (or,
in official administrative style, placing it after the phrase od strane). In the examples below (the
first of which repeats the passive sentence (1b) above), the agent is the subject in the active sen-
tence and the object of od (strane) in the passive one. Only PP-passives allow the specification of
the agent; BCS grammar does not allow such phrases with se-passives. Indeed, the expression of
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the agent occurs most frequently in official written contexts. While most BCS speakers would
accept the first passive sentence below, many find that the second sounds stilted and unnatural.
The difference between PP-passives and se-passives, therefore, lies in the possibility of
specifying an agent. Even if this agent is not explicitly stated, it is always potentially present in
the speaker’s conceptualization of the PP-passive sentence in question. Put differently, PP-
passives retain more of the logical connection with the corresponding active sentence, in which
the agent plays a central role. Se-passives, by contrast, put all the focus on the action itself. It is
nearly always possible, of course, to conceptualize an agent for the action communicated in a
passive sentence. But if a speaker has chosen a se-passive over a PP-passive, s/he has done so in
order to move the attention away from any agent and onto the action itself.
Each of the examples below is a passive sentence: by definition, each is based upon an un-
derlying transitive verb which allows the idea of an agent to be present. Nevertheless, the differ-
ence in focus can be seen, both in the BCS sentences and in their English translations. Both the
BCS PP-passives and their English renditions put the verbal information into a participle. This
creates a focus on the result of the action, and allows one a glimpse at the role of the agent re-
sponsible for the result (even though the agent may not be specified). By contrast, both the BCS
se-passives and their (optimal) English renditions put the verbal information into a conjugated
verb, focusing thereby upon the action itself and reducing the role of the agent to a minimum.
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Tišìna se samo òndje može dodìrnuti Only there can you [reach out and] touch
rùkom. the tranquility with your hand.
Òvde se ràkija pravi od šljiva. They make rakija from plums here.
Tàkva se greška često pravi. People often make such a mistake.
Tàlog se òstavi da se slegne. You let [ = leave] the sediment [to] settle.
Meso se mora stavljati na jelòvnik. You have to [ = one must] put meat
on the menu.
B,C,S tečaj / S kurs; B,S nedjelja (nedelja) / B sedmica / C tjedan; J pjesama / E pesama; J vidjela / E videla;
J ondje / E onde; E ovde / J ovdje; B,C meso se mora stavljati / S,B meso mora da se stavlja
Impersonal sentences
PP (a) Речѐно је да се све мења с It has been said that everything changes
временом. with time.
PP (b) Бѝло је речѐно да се све мења It had been said that everything changes
с временом. with time.
PP (a) Већ је до̀казано да се то нѐ може It’s already been proven that it can’t be done.
ура̀дити.
PP (b) Већ је бѝло до̀казано да се то нѐ It had already been proven that it couldn’t
може да у̀ради. be done.
PP (a) У̀ређено је да дoђете код нас. It’s been arranged that you come to our place.
PP (b) Бѝло је у̀ређено да дoђете код It had been arranged that you would come
нас. to our place.
PP (a) Дого̀ворено [је да...]. Agreed. [It’s agreed that...]
PP (b) Дого̀ворено је бѝло [да...]. It was agreed. [It was agreed that...]
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se (a) Види се да вас истински воле. It’s obvious [ = one sees] they truly love you.
se (b) Видело се да вас истински воле. It was obvious [ = one could see] that they
truly loved you.
se (a) Прати се па̀жљиво ка̀ко се диже. You attend it carefully while it rises.
se (b) Па̀жљиво се пратило к̀ако се One would attend to it carefully as it rose.
диже.
se (a) Никад се нѐ зна. You never know.
se (b) Никад се нѝје могло знати. It was never possible to know.
se (a) Од слика се не жѝви. You can’t live from pictures [alone].
se (b Од слика се нѝје могло жѝвети. One couldn’t live from pictures [alone].
se (a) Тамо се чека дуже и теже је You have to wait longer there, and it’s harder
до̀бити сто. to get a table.
se (b) Тамо се чекало дуже и теже је You used to have to wait longer there, and it
бѝло до̀бити сто. was harder to get a table.
se (a) Може се слободно путо̀вати из You can travel from one country to another
зѐмље у зѐмљу без пасоша. without a passport.
se (b) Могло се слободно путо̀вати из You used to be able to travel from country to
зѐмље у зѐмљу без пасоша. country without a passport.
se (a) О чѐму се ради у о̀вој књизи? What’s this book about? What does it concern?
se (b) О чѐму се ра̀дило? What was it about? What was going on?
What was the concern?
se (a) Не ѝсплати се путо̀вати даље. It’s not worth it to [try to] travel further.
se (b) Нѝје се испла̀тило путо̀вати даље. It wasn’t worth it to [try to] travel further.
E menja / J mijenja; C,B može uraditi / S,B može da uradi; S kod nas / B kòd nas / C k nama; E videlo / J vidjelo;
Е živeti / J živjeti; S,B sto / C stol; B,S bez pasoša / C bez putovnice
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reviews true subjectless sentences, and sections [141b-c] review subjectless sentences whose
logical subjects are in the dative and genitive cases, respectively. For a review of subjectless sen-
tences with accusative logical subjects, see [105].
Impersonal sentences
present О̀вде се добро једе и пије. One eats and drinks well here.
past Та̀да се врло лепо јело и пило. At that time one ate and drank really well.
present Ка̀ко се иде одавде? How do you go [ = get there] from here?
past Ра̀није се тамо ѝш ло трамвајем. You used to [be able to] get there by tram.
present Може се та̀ко рећи. You can say it that way.
past Могло се та̀ко рећи. You could have said it that way.
Modal sentences
present Ва̀ља нешто рећи. One ought to say something.
past Ва̀љало је нешто рећи. One ought to have said something.
present Нѐ треба ни лево ни десно. You mustn’t turn [either left or right].
[cond.] Нѐ би требало ни лево ни You shouldn’t have [had] to turn [either
десно. left or right].
E ovde / J ovdje; E lepo / J lijepo; E grmelo / J grmjelo; S prestanka / B,C prekida; E posle / J poslije; E levo
/ J lijevo; S ni levo ni desno / C ni lijevo ni desno / B nì lijevo nì desno
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Experienced states
present Drago mi je da vas vidim. I’m pleased to see you.
past Drago mi je bìlo da vas vidim. I was pleased to see you.
present Zar vam nìje òvdje dosadno? Aren’t you bored here?
past Zar vam tamo nìje bìlo dosadno? Weren’t you bored there?
present Tùžno mu je gledati. It makes him sad to look.
past Tùžno mu je bìlo gledati. It made him sad to look.
present U tàkvim mi situàcijama I get uncomfortable in such
pòstaje neugodno. situations.
past Odjèdnom mi je pòstalo All at once I felt uncomfortable.
neugodno.
J ovdje / E ovde; B,C neugodno / S,B neprijatno
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Adverbs of measure
present Kolìko vas dòlazi? How many of you are coming?
past Kolìko vas je dòšlo? How many of you came?
present Malo ih zna kìneski. Very few of them know Chinese.
past Malo ih je znalo kìneski. Very few of them knew Chinese.
present Puno stùdenata ùči noću. Lots of students study at night.
past Rànije je puno stùdenata ùčilo noću. Lots of students used to study at night.
present Kolìko je sàti? What time is it?
past Kolìko je bìlo sàti? What time was it?
“Existentials”
present Dàn as ih ìma mnogo. There’s a lot of them today.
past Jùčer ih je bìlo mnogo. There were a lot of them yesterday.
present Tamo nema dobrih ljùdi. There are no good people there.
past Tamo nìje bìlo dobrih ljùdi. There were no good people there.
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for this second verb is the complement. Modal verbs are conjugated like other verbs, and the
complement always appears as an infinitive (or its replacement, da + present). Some verbs have
only modal meaning, and some have both modal and non-modal meanings.
Modal verbs modal meaning non-modal meaning
umjeti / umeti Ùmije li dijète plivati? Does the child know how to swim?
J umije / E ume; B,C umije li plivati / B,S da li umije (ume) da pliva; J dijete / E dete
valjati Ne valja tàko govòriti. You / one shouldn’t talk that way.
With two exceptions, the examples above all illustrate the use of modal verbs in their
conjugated forms. But modals also occur frequently in subjectless usage. Indeed, the modal
meaning of valjati is possible only in 3sg. subjectless use. Similarly, trebati in its modal
meaning is used more frequently as a subjectless (3sg. only) verb than as a conjugated verb. For
examples of these verbs, review [127].
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In certain contexts, subjectless treba is so central a part of the general message that it is
omitted, and its infinitive complement stands alone. This occurs in recipes, manuals, and other
texts which communicate instructions about what to do. Most modals in subjectless usage are also
impersonal: this means that the sequence of modal + complement is accompanied by the se of the
impersonal usage (review [140]). The modal verb morati – either subjectless or conjugated – can
also be used to state an inference. A similar meaning is expressed by the 3sg. future of biti.
smeti Nè smije se tàko govòriti. You can’t / shouldn’t talk like that.
Pràva se nikome nè smiju No one is to be deprived [ = it is not allowed
uskraćìvati. to deprive anyone] of his/her rights.
Nìje se smjelo tàko govòriti. You shouldn’t have spoken like that.
J smije / E sme; B,C se tako govoriti / S,B tako da se govori; B,C se nikome ne smiju uskraćivati / S,B nikome ne
smiju (smeju) da se uskrate; J smjelo / E smelo; B,C nije se smjelo tako govoriti / B,S nije smjelo (smelo) da se tako
govori
trebati Staviti punu džezvu vòd e na Put a “džezva” full of water on the stove.
šporet. Primàknuti jèdnu Place an empty [coffee] cup nearby.
praznu šòljicu. Čim se vòda As soon as the water boils, [you
skuva, treba òdliti malo need to] pour a little of the water
skuvane vòde u tu šòlju. into that cup.
B,S šporet / C štednjak; S šoljicu / B,C šalicu; S skuva / B,C skuha; S skuvane / B,C skuhane
English speakers must take care when using negated forms of the modal verbs moći and
morati, as the meanings are quite different from their English counterparts. In the affirmative,
morati means that one is obliged to do something, that one must do something. In its negated
form, however, it simply conveys the absence of obligation. The stronger meaning, that one must
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not do something, is conveyed by the negated form of moći (which also has the expected mean-
ing of not be able).
Negation
morati To nè mora biti tàko. It doesn’t have to be like that.
Nìsam mòrao da to jedem. I wasn’t obliged to eat it.
moći Ne mògu više. I can’t [do] any more.
Deco, ne možete tamo ùći. You can’t [= mustn’t] go in there, children.
C,B mora biti / S,B mora da bude; S,B nisam morao da to jedem / C,B nisam to morao jesti; E deco / J djeco;
C,B možete ući / B,S možete da uđete
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There is also a group of conjunctions sharing the general meaning but. The most basic of
these is ali. The other two are već and nego, each of which has the added the meaning but rather
– that is, they always convey the idea of a contrast between something negative and something
positive, as in NOT A BUT rather B. Već and nego can be used either to connect smaller segments
or at the sentence level. Each also has other meanings: već is an adverb meaning already, and
nego is a conjunction meaning than (review [114]). In addition, nego (which is frequently short-
ened to no) is used to form compound conjunctions (for examples and discussion, see [143b]).
The conjunctions ali and a both require a comma to be written before them. For the use of
conjunctions meaning or, nor, either ... or, and both ... and, review [56c].
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preposition conjunction
English speakers learning BCS will be tempted to follow the model of English and use
prepositions as conjunctions with no change in form. They must take great care to remember that
BCS does not allow this. For a BCS preposition to function as a conjunction, it must be supple-
mented with a conjunction-like element, producing what is called a compound conjunction.
Sometimes this added element is the conjunction što alone, sometimes it is the compound phrase
toga što, and in one instance it is the conjunction nego (or its shortened version no) followed ei-
ther by što or li (review [114] for the use of nego vs. nego što with comparatives). Generally, the
preposition is retained as part of the compound conjunction. Indeed, in one case it even merges
into the conjunction: the compound conjunction posle toga što is frequently replaced by the
shortened version pošto. In two instances, the conjunction što is added not to a preposition but to
an adverb. The principle is the same, however: the single word adverb stands alone while the
compound conjunction introduces a clause.
The conjunction da also participates in what could be called compound conjunctions. In
most such instances, the relationship is less obvious because the word to which da is added is not
always easily defined as either preposition or adverb. In one instance, in fact, there is no formal
relationship at all between the simple function word and the compound conjunction. The preposi-
tion bez means without, and the function words a ne mean and not. The fact that the compound
conjunction a da ne means without must be learned as an individual vocabulary item. Students
must also remember that although English usually uses the gerundial form of the verb after the
conjunction without (as in He won’t leave without SEEING you), BCS uses a regularly conjugated
form of the verb (Neće otići a da te ne vidi).
The examples below illustrate these relationships: prepositions and adverbs are labeled P
and A, respectively, while the related compound conjunctions are labeled CC. For more on the
conjunctions kao što and kao da, see [143g]; for discussion of the particle ma, see [143h].
BEFORE
P= prije Zòvi me prije rùčka. Call me before lunch.
CC = prije nego što Zòvi me prije nego što ìzađeš. Call me before you go out.
P= prije Òna òbično dòlazi prije njega. She usually comes before him.
CC = prije nego li Prije nego li kupimo kuću, Before we buy the house, we
žèlimo da je i vi vidite. want you to see it too.
J prije / E pre
AFTER
P= posle Bàka spava posle rùčka. Grandma sleeps after lunch.
CC = posle toga što Shvatio je njene reči tek He got the gist of her words only
posle toga što je ìzašao. after he’d [already] left.
pošto Stigla je tek pošto je ìzašao. She arrived after he’d gone.
P= nakon Hajdemo na kàfu nakon toga. Let’s go for coffee after that.
CC = nakon što Zàspao je odmah nakon što je He fell asleep immediately after
zavr̀šio priču. finishing [ = after he finished]
[his] story.
E posle / J poslije; B,C,S njene / C,B njezine; E reči / J riječi; B,S kafu / C kavu / B kahvu
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THAN
P= nego On gòvori brže nego ti. He speaks faster than you.
CC = nego što Òna bolje piše nego što gòvori. She writes better than she speaks.
BECAUSE
P= zbog Dòšli smo zbog vas. We came because of you.
CC = zbog toga što Dòšli smo zbog toga što We came because we need to talk
trebamo s vama razgovàrati. to you.
P= radi Nèmoj to samo radi mene! Don’t [do] it just on my account!
CC = radi toga što Priča sa njom radi toga što hòće S/he talks with her because s/he
da joj pòmogne. wants to help her.
A= zato ... i zàto je nè volimo. ... and that’s why we don’t like her.
CC = zato što Pitam zàto što tražim jèdnu I ask because I’m looking for a
òsobu. [particular] person.
S,C zbog vas / B zbòg vas; C,B trebamo razgovarati / S,B treba da razgovaramo; C,S sa njom / B sà njom
JUST, ONLY
A= tek Pročìtao je tek polòvinu knjige. He’s finished only half the book.
CC = tek što Tek što smo pòpravili jèdno, The minute we fixed one [thing],
pokvàrilo se drugo. another [one] broke.
EXCEPT
A= osim Svi su tu – svi osim njega. Everyone’s here – all but him.
CC = osim [toga] što Osim što je kasno počeo, Other than starting late, the concert
kòncert je bio izvànredan. was outstanding.
BESIDE
A= pored Na stòlu je, pored zida. It’s on the table, next to the wall.
CC = pored toga što Pored toga što piše pjesme, What else does she do besides
čìme se još bavi? writing poems?
J pjesme / E pesme
SUCH, THUS, SO
A= tako Nèmoj tàko govòriti. Don’t talk like that [ = such].
CC = tako da Sjèdni kraj pròzora tàko da Sit by the window so [ in such a
možeš bolje vidjeti. way that] you can see better.
C,B nemoj tako govoriti / S,B nemoj tako da govoriš; J sjedni (sjedi) / E sedi (sedni); J vidjeti / E videti; C,B možeš
bolje vidjeti / B,S možeš bolje da vidiš
BEING, SINCE
A= budući Budući očev sin, nije izgùbio Being [ = as he was] his father’s
vrijème. son, he didn’t lose any time.
CC = budući da Budući da ću žìvjeti s njim, Since I’m going to be living with
žèlim upòznati njègove him I want to meet his parents.
ròditelje.
J vrijeme / E vreme; J živjeti / E živeti; C,B želim upoznati / S,B želim da upoznam
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WITHOUT
P= bez Sve je to napravio bez ičije He did it all without anyone’s
pomoći. help.
CC = a da ne Nè može da ìzađe, a da nè He can’t go out without
lupi vratima. slamming the door.
B,S ne može da izađe / C,B ne može izaći
KAKO (conjunction)
as, since Kàko sàda stòje stvari, to neće As things stand now, that won’t be
biti moguće. possible.
Uvijek radi sve kàko treba. He always does everything as he ought.
Ìma pet godina kàko / otkako It’s been five years since we’ve seen
ih nìsmo vidjeli. them.
[perception] Gleda ih kàko ìgraju kolo. He watches them dance the “kolo”.
Vidi kàko dupìni skaču! Look at the dolphins leap / leaping!
Video ih je kàko kràdu jabuke. He saw them steal the apples.
Prònašli su ih kàko lèže u They found them lying unconscious
besvesnom stànju pored drùma. by the road.
Primijètili su vlak kàko stiže. They noticed the train arriving.
that Sànjala je kàko je nàp ada. She dreamed [that] he was attacking her.
Isprìčali su nam kàko su lùtali po They told us [that / how] they were
br̀dima. roaming the hills.
Gledao je kàko se oblaci razìlaze. He watched the clouds lift.
Vidio je kàko su se oblaci ràzišli.[C] He saw that the clouds had lifted.
Izjàvili su kàko će podùzeti They announced that they would take
potrebne mjere. [C] the necessary measures.
J uvijek / E uvek; J vidjeli / E videli; C dupini / B,S delfini; E video / J vidio; E besvesnom / J besvjesnom;
S druma / B,C ceste; J primijetili / E primetili; C vlak / B,S voz; B,C poduzeti / S,B preduzeti; J mjere / E mere
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tion that is given in brackets. This enables English speakers not only to see how most such Eng-
lish sentences are grammatical either with or without the conjunction that, but also to remind
them to pay special attention to the fact that BCS does NOT have this option. BCS must ALWAYS
include the conjunction da.
In this meaning of da, the verb in the main clause must be one that takes a human subject,
although the sentence itself can be subjectless. In a slightly more specialized usage, da can be
placed after subjectless nema; this puts more emphasis on the speaker’s belief in the non-
existence in question. In this usage, the grammatical function of da is similar to that of a relative
pronoun. Recall also that da after subjectless mora or bit će / biće indicates a presupposition (re-
view [142]). In a related meaning, da + present tense can signify the perception of an action;
kako is more frequently used, however (review [143c]).
DA ( = English that)
statement Siguran sam da će stići na vrème. I’m sure [that] s/he will come on time.
Rekla je da nema para. She said [that] she has no money.
Mislim da je to dobro. I think [that] that’s good.
Nema sùmnje da je to bìlo There’s no doubt [that] it was deliberate.
nàmjerno.
Sànjala sam da me nàpadaju. I dreamed [that] they were attacking me.
Pa znam da znaš! Well, I know [that] you know!
subject- Rečèno je da se ništa nè menja. It’s been said that nothing [ever] changes.
less Òčito je da im je ponèstalo novca. It’s obvious [that] they’ve run out of money.
Prìčalo se da je bolestan. The word went around [ = it was said]
. that he was sick.
Vidi se da vas istinski vole. One can see [that] they truly love you.
after nema Nema lekàra da nè zna za tu There’s not a doctor that doesn’t know about
bolest. that disease.
Nìje bìlo žène da nìje znala presti. There wasn’t a single woman who [ = that]
didn’t know how to spin.
presuppo- Mora da je zbog nje dòšao. He must have come because of her [ = it
sition must be because of her that he came].
Bit će da je to ràzlog. That must be the reason.
perception Čujem ga da se penje uza I hear him coming up the stairs.
stepenice.
E vreme / J vrijeme; E lepo / J lijepo; J namjerno / E namerno; E menja / J mijenja; B,C novca / S,B novaca;
S,B lekara (ljekara) / C liječnika; S,C zbog nje / B zbòg nje; C,B bit će / S,B biće
The conjunction da nearly always depends upon a verb. However, on occasion it can follow
a noun. In such instances, English speakers must pay special attention to da, since the corre-
sponding English sentence normally contains of plus a gerundial form.
noun + da Прѝмили смо вест да ће до̀ћи. We got the news of their arrival [ = the news
that they are coming].
То нѝј е добар на̀ч ин да се то That’s not a good way of doing it [ = a good
у̀ради. way for it to be done].
E vest / J vijest
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DA ( = English to)
When a da-clause stands alone, this also communicates a wish, desire or request. It may
help the student to view such clauses as shortened versions of compound sentences whose main
verbs are ones such as wish, want, hope, or must. Accordingly, the following examples are given
together with a longer version which might be thought to underlie them. When such a phrase is
formulated as a question, the English translation must supply the accompanying modal verb. In
these instances, of course, the context of the BCS sentence must be known in order to choose the
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appropriate modal verb. Note that when da is followed by a first person plural verb, the meaning
is very similar to the usage of da as seen after hajde (review [78c]).
A self-standing da-clause with a negated verb has two possible interpretations. If the sen-
tence is a question, then it conveys the hope that something is not the case. But if it is a statement
with the verb in the past tense, it communicates a command in the form of a veiled threat.
DA [single clause]
In a related meaning, da expresses purpose or intention. The verb form following da can be
either in the present tense or the conditional mood (on the latter, review [134b]). In either case,
the general meaning is one of future time: the verbal action in the main clause is undertaken so
that the action or state of the subordinate clause will (or will not) be achieved. English often uses
additional modal verbs to express such meanings.
DA [ = E to, so as to]
purpose Idemo tamo da jedemo kruške. We’re going there to [= so we can] eat pears.
[+pres] Učvr̀sti to da se nè klima. Fix that [tight] so it doesn’t wobble.
Govòrio je tiho da ne pròbudi òstale. He spoke quietly so as not to wake others.
Zasùkao sam nògavice da ih ne I rolled up my trouser legs so as not to
ùprljam. [ = so I wouldn’t] get them dirty.
Òtišla je da kupi cigarète. She went out to buy cigarettes.
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purpose Pòdigla je nòvac iz bànke da bi She took money out of the bank [in order]
[+cond] pòslala djèci. to send [it] to the children.
Zasùkao sam nògavice da ih ne bih I rolled up my trouser legs so as not to
upr̀ljao. [ = so I wouldn’t] get them dirty.
B,S otišla je da kupi / C,B otišla je kupiti
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The factor of individual variation also plays a role: not all speakers make the same choices
(to replace or not) every time. Two predictions can be made with certainty, however. One is that
Croats will use infinitives much more frequently than they will use da + present and that Serbs
will follow the reverse pattern (they will use da + present much more frequently than infinitives).
The other is that some types of infinitives will be replaced more frequently than others. Although
these tendencies can sometimes be stated in grammatical terms, many of the choices made by
speakers depend a great deal upon situational and social contexts. For more discussion of this
complex sociolinguistic issue, see [171d].
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In the second type of sentence, the difference between da and što is both more subtle and
more significant. In these sentences it is the conjunction itself (and not the preceding verb) that
carries the meaning distinction. Namely, verbs in clauses introduced by što relate established
facts, while those in clauses introduced by da describe a situation which has not yet come into
full being. These situations can be of several sorts: simply a possibility, something imminent and
about to happen, or something already in the intitial stages. In other words, these da-phrases are
equivalent to infinitives (review [143e]), which is shown by the alternate phrasing of the da-
sentences below. The essential point here is that they are not completed results, and can therefore
not yet be viewed as established facts. This general distinction also accounts for the difference
between the compound conjunctions kao što and kao da (review [50]).
što Strah me je što ideš tamo. It frightens me that you’re going there.
da Strah me je da idem tamo. I’m afraid to go there.
[Strah me je ìći tamo.]
što Bìlo je vèo ma korisno što sam It was very useful to have read [ = that I read]
prvo pročìtao upute! the instructions first.
da Bìlo bi korisno da pročìtate upute. It would be useful to read the instructions.
[Bìlo bi korisno pročìtati upute.]
što Drago mi je što se čujemo. I’m glad that we’re talking [on the phone].
da Drago mi je da vas vidim. I’m happy [at the opportunity] to see you.
[Drago mi vas je vidjeti.]
što Pòstalo mi je neugodno što prèd njim I started to feel uncomfortable about [ = that
tàko gòvorim. I was] talking like that in front of him.
da Malo me je stid da prìznam, ali I’m a bit ashamed to admit it, but I really
stvarno volim sapùnice. love soap operas.
[Malo me je stid prìznati, ali
stvarno volim sapùnice.]
kao što Da li si i ti iz Zàgreba kao što su i Are you from Zagreb, like [ = as are] your
tvòji ròditelji? parents?
kao da Pònaša se kao da je bògat. He behaves as if he were rich.
C,B upute / S,B uputstva; B prèd njim / S,C pred njim; B,S da li si / C,B jesi li
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što-clause as subject
Bilo je veoma korisno što sam prvo Reading the instructions first [ = the fact that
pročitao upute! I read the instructions first] was very helpful.
Drago mi je što se čujemo. The fact that we’re talking [on the phone] pleases me.
The above translations are worded so as to underscore the factual nature of a što-clause. It is
particularly important for the foreign learner to grasp this idea of FACT, since the tendency will be
to translate English that with da (due to the simple fact that da occurs so much more frequently
overall in the language than što). In learning to use such BCS sentences, therefore, it is helpful to
remember the distinction between fact-clauses (introduced by što) and potentiality-clauses (intro-
duced by da) that was discussed in the previous section. This is because the corresponding Eng-
lish sentences rarely use the phrase the fact that. Instead, English uses a wide variety of expres-
sions, as illustrated in the examples below. The full subject of each BCS sentences is under-
scored, and the subject in each English translation is rephrased to include the phrase the fact
that... If students encounter difficulty translating a particular sentence into BCS, they may try re-
formulating the sentence using the phrase the fact that to see if the English sentence is one which
requires a subject clause introduced by što.
Many such BCS sentences spell out the factual nature of the što-clause more explicitly by
placing the pronoun to before što. This pronoun, which can also be placed before other clause-
introducing elements such as question words, allows the clause to function as either subject or
object within a larger sentence. The literal English rendering of to što is that what (or, in more
grammatical English, that which). Students may use the similarity of this phrase to the previously
discussed one, the fact that..., as a guide to understanding these sentences; certain of the examples
below have been rephrased in this manner. When the phrase is introduced by što and is the sub-
ject of the sentence, the to can sometimes be omitted. Otherwise, it is obligatory. When the
phrase functions as the object of a preposition, the to must appear in the appropriate case.
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Acc. Uvek ću misliti na to što je moglo I’ll always think about what [ = that which]
biti. might have been.
Nèću se nervìrati bez obzira I won’t get nervous no matter what [ = without
nà to što mi se dògodi. regard to that which] happens [to me].
Gen. Da pođemo od toga što već znamo. Let’s start from what [ = that which] we
we already know.
Sve zàvisi od toga kako će se Everything depends on how [ = the way in
ponàšati Rùsija. which] Russia behaves [ = will behave].
Loc. Bolje je ǹe misliti o tome što bi bìlo It’s better not to think of what [ = that which]
da je bìlo. might have happened had it been [thus].
Pròblem je u tome što mi nemamo The problem is [ = lies in the fact that] we
dòvoljno srèdstava. don’t have enough funds.
Razgovàrali smo o tome kàko dànas We talked about how [ = the fact that] everyone
svi voze kola. drives [a car] these days [ = today].
Ràzmišljam o tome gde bi se to I’m thinking about where [ = the place in which]
moglo dòbiti. one might get it.
Instr. Odùševljen sam tìme što dòlazi. I’m ecstatic [about the fact] that s/he’s coming.
Ohràbrili ste nas tìme što ste tu. You’ve given us courage [just] by [the fact of]
being here.
B,S da li vam smeta / C,B smeta li vam; J vidjeti / E videti; B,C ćete ga vidjeti / S,B ćete da ga vidite; B,C neću
morati ići / S,B neću morati da idem; E uvek / J uvijek; B,C moglo biti / S,B moglo da bude; C što / B,C šta;
B,S zavisi / C ovisi; E gde / J gdje; C,B se moglo dobiti / S,B moglo da se dobije
In the above sentences, the question word što introduces a clause, and the function word to
preceding it serves to emphasize this fact. Because it is a question word, it cannot change form.
But to (or the related form ono) can also precede the relative pronoun što, acting as its antecedent
(review [136c]). As in any relative clause, the antecedent and the relative pronoun each can (and
must) take the appropriate case forms required by the grammar of the respective clause. In the
following examples, the case of the antecedent (to or ono) and the case of the relative pronoun
(što) are given in the abbreviated form A / R.
Relative clauses
A/R = [case of antecedent / case of relative pronoun]
N/N Случај је о̀но што одређује It’s fate that [ = fate is that which] determines
место сваког од нас. the lot of each one of us.
Свиђа му се о̀но што се свиђа He likes what we like. [ = What pleases him is
и нама. that which pleases us as well.]
N/A То што ѝмам не врѐди много. What [ = that which] I have isn’t worth much.
A/A Пока̀заћу ти о̀но што сам добио. I’ll show you what [ = that which] I got.
A/A Не мо̀гу да о̀ценим то што ради I can’t evaluate what [ = that which] s/he
у вези с тим. is doing in this regard.
Слушала је пажљиво то што She listened carefully to what [ = that which]
је рекао. he said.
N/D Опет сте прѐкинули? То није You’ve broken up again? That’s not what
о̀но чѐму сам се на̀дао. [ = that which] I was hoping [to hear].
Е mesto / Ј mјesto; S,C od nas / B òd nas; E vredi / J vrijedi; S,B pokazaću / C,B pokazat ću; E oceniti / J ocijeniti;
S,B ne mogu da ocenim (ocijenim) / B,C ne mogu ocijeniti
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Comparison / equivalence
kako ... tako Kàko Pàriz, tàko i cijèla Fràncuska. As in Paris, so in all of France. [ = The
rest of France goes the way Paris goes.]
Kàko siješ, tàko ćeš i žeti. As ye sow, so shall ye reap.
Kàko se ti pònašaš prema ljudima, People will treat you the way you treat
tàko će se i òni prema tebi. them.
Kàko dòšlo, tàko pròšlo. Easy come, easy go.
Kàko dòšlo, tàko i òtišlo. [same]
kako ... tako i To biva kàko u gradu, tàko i na sèlu. It happens both in town and in the country.
kud ... tud Kud svi, tud i mi. We go with the crowd [ = where all (go),
so we (go) too].
Kud brod, tud i barka. One goes with the flow [ = where the ship
goes, there too goes the fishing boat].
što ... to Što joj se htilo, to joj se i snilo. She got what she wanted in her dreams
[ = as she wished, so she dreamed].
toliko ... Uzet ću tolìko kolače kolìko mi prìja. I’ll take as much cake as I want.
koliko
onoliko ... – Kolìko je od neba do zèmlje? “How far is it from heaven to earth?”
koliko – Od neba do zèmlje je tàman onolìko “It’s exactly as far from heaven to earth
kolìko je od zèmlje do neba. as it is from earth to heaven.”
– Jovan Jovanović Zmaj – Jovan Jovanović Zmaj
J cijela / E cela; J siješ / E seješ; J što / E šta; J htilo (htjelo) / E htelo; C,B uzet ću / S,B uzeću
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Indefinite conjunctions
bilo Pitaj bìlo kòga, svi će znati. Ask anyone [at all]; everyone will know.
Bìlo ko da zvòni, ne otvàraj Don’t open the door, no matter who rings
vràta. [the bell].
Bòjim se da on nìje pòuzdan izvor; I fear he’s not a reliable source, he’ll tell
reći će ti bìlo šta. you [just] any old thing.
Nìje vàžno kud idemo, hajdemo It’s not important where we go, let’s just go
bìlo kud. somewhere [ = anywhere].
S,B ko / C tko; S,B bilo šta / C bilo što; B,S kud / C kamo
ma Ma gdje gledaš, svud je isto. No matter where you look, it’s the same
everywhere.
Sàčekaću te ma kad da dođeš. I’ll wait for you no matter when you come.
Uzeo bi ma šta. He would / could take any old thing.
J gdje / E gde; B,S svud / C svugdje; B,S sačekaću / C,B sačekat ću; B,S ma šta / C bilo što
-god Hòće li tkogod biti kod kuće? Will there be anyone at home?
Idete li kadgod u bioskop? Do you ever go to the movies?
B,C hoće li biti / S,B da li će da bude; C tkogod / B,S kogod; S,C kod kuće / B kòd kuće / C doma; B,C idete li
/ S,B da li idete; S bioskop / C,B kino
god Šta god je uràdio, dobro je uràdio. What[ever] he did, he did well.
Kadgod pùtujem, čìtam novine. I read the paper whenever I travel.
Ùzmi kòji god kòlač žèliš. Take whichever of the cakes you want.
Nèmoj mi reći kàkve cìpele da Don’t tell me what sort of shoes to buy. I’ll
kupim. Kùpiću kàkve god hòću. buy whatever [ = the] kind I want.
Kolìko god je ùčio, nìje uspio No matter how much he studied, he didn’t
naùčiti fràncuski. manage to learn French.
B,S šta god / C što god; C,B nemoj mi reći / S,B nemoj da mi kažeš; S,B kupiću / C,B kupit ću; J uspio / E uspeo;
C,B naučiti / S,B da nauči
Question words used after the verbs imati and nemati also convey the idea of indefinite-
ness, but with a somewhat more poetic stylistic connotation. If the question word is an interroga-
tive pronoun, the meaning is equivalent to a sentence with the corresponding indefinite (or nega-
tive) pronoun (review [56a]). If other question words are used, the translation must insert addi-
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tional words. The first two examples below illustrate the use of interrogative pronouns in this
way. Example (1) is taken from an everyday speech context: (1a), with the interrogative pronoun,
is a shorter and quicker way to express the basic idea, and is often used in such contexts rather
than its synonym (1b). Example (2a) is quoted from a book of aphorisms by the Belgrade radio
announcer Dušan Radović. If the aphorism had been stated using negative pronouns, the relevant
portions would аppear as given in (2b). The meaning is the same; yet much of what makes
Radović’s expression aphoristic is the use of the interrogative pronoun in this indefinite meaning,
rather than the more conventional negative pronoun.
The third example, quoted to illustrate the use of a question word, reproduces the initial
stanza of a poem by the Serbian poet Desanka Maksimović. Here, the question word kad “when”
cannot be replaced by a pronoun: the only possible replacement is a noun such as vremena
“time”. Although the meaning is “the same”, the use of the question word definitely adds to the
poetic expression of the line.
3a Немам више времена за ду̀ге речѐнице I have no more time for long sentences
Немам кад да прего̀варам. I don’t have time to negotiate.
– Десанка Максимовић – Desanka Maksimović
S,B da idem / C,B ići; S,C u grad / B ù grad; B,S da ispričate / C,B ispričati; B,S šta / C što
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Future tense
imperfective Сутра ћу цео дан у̀ч ити. Tomorrow I will study all day.
perfective У̀чи, па ћеш нау̀ч ити. Study, and [eventually] you’ll learn [it].
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budem
future Ако од тога нешто буде, ја̀вићу се. If something comes of it, I’ll call [you].
Кад будеш у Рѝму, видећеш много When you are in [ = get to] Rome,
тога. you’ll see a lot of things.
“subjunctive” Бићемо ту, па шта буде, буде. We’ll be there, come what may [ = let
be what will be].
Боже, дај да буде он! Oh God, let it be him!
Нека буде што бити нѐ може. Let what cannot be come to pass.
(из Горског вијенца П.П. Његоша) (from Njegoš’s The Mountain Wreath)
S,B javiću se / C,B javit ću se; S,B bićemo / C,B bit ćemo; S,B šta / C što
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after koji, Ne kùpuj kola kòja nè budu ìšla Don’t buy a [ = any] car that doesn’t do
etc. ( = idu) sto milja na sat. 100 miles per hour.
Nagradu će osvòjiti tko bude ìmao The one [ = whoever] has the most points
( = ìma) najviše bòdova. will get the prize.
Vènut će tràva kud bude pròlazila Wherever the enemy army passes, the
neprijatèljska vòjska. grass will wither.
C tisuću / B,S hiljadu; C,B eura / S,B evra, C,B kupit ću / S,B kupiću; J osjećati / E osećati; C,B osjećat ću / S,B ose-
ćaću (osjećaću); B,S sopstvene / C vlastite; C tko / B,S ko; C,B venut će / S,B venuće
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future (review [144a]). Certain imperfective verbs can also be used in the first future with some-
thing akin to a conditional-like meaning, which suggests the likelihood of something which might
come about. This is the only time the first future can be used after a conjunction introducing a
subordinate clause.
Imperfective verbs are used freely in the imperative mood, either to express the general idea
of an action, or to express repeated action. After the negative particle ne, however, an imperfec-
tive imperative has the meaning of both aspects (review [78e]).
An infinitive is used either as the subject of a sentence or after another verb. Aspect choice
in the infinitive depends almost completely on the intended meaning. However, only imperfective
infinitives can be used after the verbs početi / počinjati “begin”, nastaviti / nastavljati “con-
tinue”, and prestati / prestajati “stop, cease”.
PRESENT
repeated action Mòja žèna gleda televìziju, a My wife watches TV, and I go [ = I am
ja idem na pìjacu. the one who goes] to the market.
action in Mòja žèna ide u samoùslugu, My wife is going to the [self-service]
progress da kupi hleb i mlèko. market to buy bread and milk.
fact of action Ja skupljam marke. I collect stamps.
[subordinate Ne prekìdaj me dok gòvorim! Don’t interrupt me while I’m talking!
clause] Jèdino žalim što odleću ptice. I’m only sorry that the birds are leaving
[ = flying off].
S,B pijacu / B,C tržnicu; S,B samouslugu / C,B samoposlugu; E hleb / J hljeb; S,B hleb (hljeb) / B,C kruh; E mleko
/ J mlijeko; E odleću / J odlijeću
PAST
repeated action Òbično je taj ples izvòdio. He usually performed that dance.
Cijelog dana im je to He would demonstrate it for them [over
demonstrìrao. and over] all day long.
Tamo smo se okùpljali svake We used to get together there every
nèd elje. Sunday.
action in U dubìni srca ga je mòrio Deep down [ = in the depths of his heart]
progress tèžak pròblem. a serious problem was tormenting him.
fact, no closure Svakome se radovao. He was glad [to see] everyone.
Tamo je ràdio, gle čuda, And what do you know, that’s where
Vlado. Vlado worked.
[completed in Tamo je ràdio pet godina. He worked there for five years.
past]
C,B taj ples / S tu igru; J cijelog / E celog; E nedelje / J nedjelje
FUTURE
repeated action Od svih vas sàda ću jèdino Of all of you, now she’s the only one
sretati nju, a nju najmanje I am going to be meeting, and she’s
volim vidjeti! the one I least like to see!
Uvijek se bòjim da će mi se I’m always afraid that people will make
rùg ati. fun of me.
no closure Dàn as nèćemo ništa ùčiti, We won’t learn any [grammar] today,
samo ćemo razgovàrati. we’ll just talk [among ourselves].
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IMPERATIVE
repeated action Пѝшите нам чешће! Write us more often!
lack of closure Пијте, једите, весѐлите се! Eat, drink and be merry!
after ne Не тра̀жите ме тамо, пријатељу. Don’t look for me there, [my] friend.
Не гово̀р ите на тај на̀ч ин. Don’t talk in that manner.
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PRESENT
after kad, etc. Upòznat ćete ih kad mi dođu You’ll meet them when they come to
[future] u posjet. visit me.
Ako umrem, ti i on sve dijelite If I die, you and he divide everything up
na dva dijela. into two [equal] parts.
Kad se opòravite, možemo When you get better, we can go there
tamo zajedno òtići. together.
[repeated] Kad obùče blùzu, ìzgleda kao When[ever] she puts the blouse on, she
beli oblak iza šàrene dùge. looks like a white cloud behind a
colorful rainbow.
repeated com- Ništa me drugo tàko ne òpusti Nothing relaxes me so well [each time]
pleted action kad se vratim s pòsla. I get home from work.
Òbično to zàvrši za jèdan dan. S/he usually finishes it in a single day
[each time].
predicted result Glad i vuka iz šume ìstjera. Hunger will drive even a wolf from the
forest.
Ko prođe, prođe. Whoever [is able to] get through [will]
get through.
after zašto ne Zašto ne prèskočimo taj deo? Why don’t we [just] skip this part?
B,C upoznat ćete / B,S upoznaćete; J posjet, posjeta / E poseta; B,S u posjetu (posetu) / C u posjet; J dijelite
/ E delite; J dijela / E dela; C,B možemo otići / S,B možemo da odemo; E beli / J bijeli; J istjera / E istera;
S,B ko / C tko; E deo / J dio
PAST
single action Jèdnoga dana mu se ìzjadao. One day he poured out his heart to him.
Polètio je da ga pròn ađe. He flew off to find him.
repeated com- On je svaki put požèlio da se Each time he wanted to rise up into the
pleted action vine u zrak, ali je to uvijek air, but it [ = each attempt] always
žalosno svr̀šilo. ended badly.
prior completed Bìlo mi ga je tužno gledati. It saddened me to look at him. He was
action Skupio se tamo poput huddled there [ = had contracted
ranjene živòtinje. himself] like a wounded animal.
Postùpao je prema njemu He acted as if he were dealing with a
kao da pred sobom ima business partner, and not the uncle
poslovnog partnera, a ne who had raised him [from childhood].
strìca kòji ga je othrànio.
J poletio / E poleteo; B,C zrak / S,B vazduh; J uvijek / E uvek; C,B svršilo / S,B završilo; B,C bilo mi ga je tužno
gledati / S,B bilo mi je tužno da ga gledam
FUTURE
projected com- Prijatelji, sve ćemo vam Friends, we will explain everything
pletion objàsniti. to you.
Pjesma će vam sve reći. The poem will tell you all.
Sutra će ga operìrati. They will operate on him tomorrow.
J pjesma / E pesma; B,C će vam reći / S,B će da vam kaže; B,C će ga operirati / S,B će da ga operišu
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IMPERATIVE
single action Pòzdravi Ljubicu. Give Ljubica my greetings.
Molim te, dòdaj mi so i bìber. Please pass the salt and pepper.
ne [caution] Ne zabòravi da kupiš mleko. Don’t forget to buy milk [if you want
some in your coffee in the morning].
Ne zezaj se sà mnom! Don’t mess with me!
S,B so / C sol; S,B biber / C papar; S,B ne zaboravi da kupiš / C ne zaboravi kupiti
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modes of narration and their English translations, the translation carries through this same mark-
ing system. That is, even though the English verbs of the translation are marked in three different
ways, it is obvious that they are almost all simple past tense verbs. The BCS narration, by con-
trast, shifts between different tense and aspect forms. To conserve space, paragraph breaks of the
original are not reproduced; accents are omitted so as to keep the focus on narrative.
Text 1
Poslije podne se pojavio Marko. Brzim korakom prišao je Šimunovu krevetu, pružio mu
ruku, sjeo na rub ležaja i započeo je razgovor, kao da pred sobom IMA poslovnog partnera,
a ne strica koji ga je othranio. Osjećao sam da u njegovim pitanjima o Šimunovu zdravlju
NEMA istinske zainteresiranosti za to kako SE OSJEĆA njegov stric. Držao sam novine pred
sobom, ne mogavši ih čitati, jer sam slučajno bio svjedok njihova razgovora. Marko je na
trenutak pošutio, a potom netaktično progovorio.
That afternoon Marko appeared. With a swift step he approached Šimun’s bed, ex-
tended a hand to him, sat down on the edge of the bed and began to talk as if he WERE
SPEAKING with a business partner and not the uncle who had brought him up. I did not
feel that there WAS any real concern in his questions about Šimun’s health about how his
uncle really FELT. I held the newspaper as if reading it, but couldn’t, since I was a chance
witness to their conversation. Marko was silent for a moment, and then he spoke out tact-
lessly.
Commentary to text 1:
This excerpt begins at a moment when the narrator is moving the story line forward briskly
with news of Marko’s arrival: Marko appears, approaches the bed, offers a greeting, sits down,
and starts to talk. The narrator states these events in a purely objective manner. He then shifts the
narrative into his own point of view, during which he relates opinions and actions of his own be-
fore resuming the more objective narration which concludes the passage, in which Marko falls
silent for a moment and then starts to speak.
Not counting the verbal adverb phrase “ne mogavši ih čitati”, this segment includes four-
teen verbs. The first five and the final two are foregrounded narration, and the intervening seven
constitute backgrounded narration. While all the verbs in the foregrounded sections are past tense
perfective verbs, those in the backgrounded sections vary. When the narrator describes his own
perceptions or actions, the verbs are past tense imperfectives (“osjećao sam”, “držao sam”, “bio
sam”). Verbs which are subordinated to verbs of perception are required by the rules of BCS to be
in the present tense (review [135]). There is one perfective past tense verb in the backgrounded
section. This verb, “othranio je”, must be perfective because it expresses pluperfect meaning. The
organizing principle of this narrative segment, however, is that the narrator’s perceptions of the
scene (and those actions of his which are related to his perceptions) form the background against
which the drama of Marko’s conversation with his uncle takes place.
Text 2
Noć JE. Svi moji supatnici SPAVAJU. Svi osim Šimun. Samo njegova noćna svetiljka škrto
OBASJAVA knjigu koju DRŽI u ruci. Primijetio je moj pogled. – Ako Vam smeta, ugasit
ću svjetlo – predložio je. – Ne, ne. I tako mi se ne spava – odgovorio sam. Sutra u
podne ĆE GA OPERIRATI. Noć uoči operacije teško JE usnuti. Tako je bilo i prije moje op-
eracije.
It WAS night. All my fellow sufferers WERE SLEEPING. All except Šimun. Only his meager
nightlight ILLUMINATED the book which he WAS HOLDING in his hand. He noticed my
glance. “If it bothers you, I’ll turn out the light,” he offered. “No, no, I’m not sleepy ei-
ther,” I answered. Tomorrow they WERE GOING TO OPERATE on him. I T’S always hard to
fall asleep the night before an operation. That’s how it was before my operation as well.
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Commentary to text 2:
The “action” in this excerpt consists primarily of a quoted conversation, given in the present
tense in both the original and the English translation. The verbs within the conversation are not
analyzed here since technically they stand outside the narrative: they are neither actions moving
the story line ahead nor are they events which provide the necessary background for this story
line. In this excerpt, then, there are three foregrounded verbs: one sets up the conversation and the
other two identify the speeches and the speakers. All three are perfective past tense verbs. The
backgrounded section, which sets the scene for the conversation and relates the narrator’s
thoughts about it, contains seven verbs, four of which precede the conversation and three of
which follow it, and only one of which (the last one, “bilo je”) is in the past tense. In the section
which precedes the conversation, the narrator uses the present tense to set the scene. This has the
effect of making the scene much more vivid and drawing the reader in more.
In the section following the conversation, the narrator makes three observations. The first is
a statement of fact about an upcoming event, Šimun’s operation. Within the base-line present
tense narration, this statement has to be in the future tense in BCS; the indirect discourse rules of
English, however, require that a re-narration of this statement be shifted further past (review
[135]). The second observation states a generic truth, which English also relates in the present
tense, and the narrator’s third observation is a small factual statement drawn from his own his-
tory. Only this final verb of the backgrounded section is in the past tense.
Another way in which a narrative can be rendered more lively is through the use of present
tense verbs of both aspects. This mode of narration, called the historic present, also makes use of
aspectual distinctions of foregrounding and backgrounding. Below are two short excerpts, the
first illustrating foregrounded narration, and the second illustrating backgrounded narration. It is
clear that the verbs in the first excerpt advance the story line: they are perfective, foregrounded
verbs. The second excerpt, by contrast, describes a scene. Without the context of the rest of the
passage, the first verb could conceivably be one that advances the story line. The context, how-
ever, makes it clear that it is part of the background to action yet to be related. All the verbs are
therefore imperfective, backgrounded verbs. In these excerpts, perfective verbs are again marked
in boldface, and imperfective verbs in italics (verbs in subordinate clauses which by the rules of
BCS are in indirect discourse are not marked). What is of interest is that although both stories
clearly narrate past actions, all the verbs in both excerpts are in the present tense. English uses
this narrative style on occasion, but much less frequently than in BCS. In addition, this style in
English is highly colloquial. In BCS, by contrast, it is found in all levels of literary writing, and is
considered to be a mark of high quality narrative prose.
Text 3
Пође дечак на пут. Дође до раскрснице, примети стару баку са кесом у руци. Она
га упита куд иде, и покаже му кесу. Узме је од ње и настави пут.
The boy set out on his travels. He came to a crossroads and noticed an old woman with
a bag in her hand. She asked him where he was going and showed him the bag. He took
it from her and continued on his way.
Text 4
Jašu oni kroz noć. Sija mjesec i pokazuje put. S obje strane puta gledaju ih visoka tamna
drveta. Jure i žure, jer znaju da za njima trče hajduci.
They rode / were riding through the night. The moon shone down and pointed the way.
Tall, dark trees looked down on them from both sides of the road. They were in a rush
because they knew that the bandits were racing after them.
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Just as many prepositions have more than one meaning, so do prefixes. For example, the
prefix s- also means with. In this meaning, it can appear either as s- or sa-. In the case of certain
verbs, there are even homonyms in which one verb uses the prefix s- in the meaning down from
and the other in the meaning with (one such pair is given in the above list, with the two different
meanings separated by a slash). In addition, as seen in the examples above, the prefixes pre- and
pro- do not correspond directly to any one preposition. Rather, they share certain of the meanings
of the preposition preko. Finally, there are three prefixes which bear little or no relationship to
the corresponding prepositions: these are po-, na-, and za-. There are only one or two instances
where the prefix za- carries the meaning after or behind, and there are no practical correlations
that can be drawn at all between the prepositions na and po and the corresponding prefixes. In-
deed, each of these three carries several quite separate meanings when used as a verbal prefix.
One of them, po-, imparts the idea that an action is done for a short period of time, while another,
za-, adds the idea that an action is beginning. The prefix na- is the most complex. On the one
hand, it imparts the idea that a particular portion of an action is brought to completion. On the
other hand, when it is combined with the particle se, it conveys the idea of an action carried
through to total satiation. Here are examples of these various meanings:
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depends on context. For instance, all of the following verb pairs are considered to be neutral as-
pect pairs. In some cases, one can see that the prefix might add a slight additional meaning, while
in others the question of whether there is added meaning is unclear, at least without seeing the
verb used in context. Indeed, a few of the verbs below are repeated from the list above. In these
verbs, the manner in which the prefix alters the meaning of the imperfective verb in the process of
making it perfective accords so well with the basic meaning of that verb that the prefixed form in
question is considered the “neutral” perfective partner.
Perfective partners
imperfective perfective imperfective perfective
IZ- brisati ìzbrisati erase gùbiti izgùbiti lose
lèčiti izlèčiti heal vaditi ìzvaditi extract
It is also possible for a verb to have more than one prefix. Examples of such verbs are given
below. Here too, the prefixes alter the meaning of the base verb, although it is usually more diffi-
cult to separate out the meanings of individual prefixes when analyzing the meaning of the pre-
fixed verbs as a whole.
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Multiple prefixes
prefixes base verb prefixed verb
IZ-, O- stati stand izòstati be missing
PRE-, DO- misliti think predòmisliti se change one’s mind
RAZ-, PRO- dati give raspròdati sell out
U-, PO- znati know upòznati make acquaintance
UZ-, PO- rèditi arrange usporèditi compare
ZA-, U- staviti put zaùstaviti hold back, stop, hold up
NA-, DO- platiti pay nadoplàtiti pay extra
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clude the consonant n in some form – either as the only present tense form or an alternate present
tense form, and sometimes an alternate infinitive as well (review [94c] and see [153r]).
One verb of type 10 forms its imperfective partner in a similar manner, but without any con-
sonant softening. In addition, the shift of the root vowel takes place with respect to the present
tense stem of the perfective verb, not its infinitive stem. One verb of type 15a also follows a simi-
lar pattern: in this case, however, an additional consonant is inserted before the shifted root
vowel, and the imperfective partner belongs not to type 1 but to type 2. These verbs are excep-
tional in that both members of the pairs are imperfective; the “errant” imperfectives in the perfec-
tive column are marked by an asterisk. A very few verbs form the imperfective partner by adding
a form of the suffix -va. One of these belongs to the expected pairing type 2 / type 1. The other
two, however, are quite different. In one, it is the perfective partner which belongs to type 1,
while the imperfective partner belongs to type 9; and in the other, the perfective partner belongs
to type 2 and the imperfective partner to type 8a. In both instances, the suffix in question is the
defining mark of the verbal type itself.
The chart below gives a summary of symbol meaning
these different types together with exam- a,i theme vowel a or i
ples. The final column identifies the formal sft-A,B,C Type A,B or C consonant softening
elements which characterize the imperfec- vwl shift in root vowel
tive partner. Suffixes or segments added in -n lack of stem marker N
the imperfective verb are noted as such; +C “added” final stem consonant
other changes are symbolized to the right.
PERFECTIVE IMPERFECTIVE
type type relationship
2 bàciti 1 bàcati throw [a]
prìmiti prìmati receive [a]
pružiti prùžati extend, give [a]
jàviti jàvljati announce [a, sft-C]
pùstiti pùštati allow, let [a, sft-C]
sjetiti se sjećati se recall [a, sft-C]
staviti stavljati put [a, sft-C]
vràtiti vràćati return [a, sft-C]
ròditi ràđati give birth [a, sft-C, vwl]
skòčiti skàkati jump [a, -sft-B, vwl]
7 krènuti 1 krètati move (intr) [a, -n, +C]
màknuti micati move (tr) [a, -n, sft-A, vwl]
dàhnuti dìsati breathe [a, -n, sft-A, vwl]
15b taći [tàknuti] 1 tìcati touch [a, -n, sft-A, vwl]
dići [dignuti] dizati lift [a, -n, sft-A, vwl]
stići [3pl. stignu] stizati arrive [a, -n, sft-A, vwl]
13 pasti [3pl. padnu] 1 padati fall [a, -n]
10 * brati [3pl. bèru] 1 bìrati gather [a, vwl]
15a * vući [3pl. vùku] 2 vlàčiti pull [i, sft-B, vwl, +l]
2 desiti se 1 dešàvati se happen [a, sft-C, +ava]
1 dati 9 dàvati give [+va]
2 kùpiti 8a kupòvati buy [+ova]
J sjetiti / E setiti; J sjećati / E sećati; B,S desiti se / B,C,S dogoditi se; B,S dešavati se / B,C,S događati se
* imperfective
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Some verbs which follow this pattern appear to be prefixed. Despite this, they are usually
classed within the simplex type of aspect pairs. This is because the corresponding non-prefixed
forms either do not occur, or occur with such a different meaning that they cannot be seen as as-
pect pairs derived by prefixation. In addition, the relationships which connect the two members of
the aspect pair are of the same sort as those connecting two non-prefixed verbs.
PERFECTIVE IMPERFECTIVE
type type relationship
2 priprèmiti 1 priprèmati prepare [a]
sprèmiti sprèmati put aside, store [a]
polòžiti polàgati put down [a, -sft-B, vwl]
slòžiti se 1 slàgati se agree [a, -sft-B, vwl]
poklòniti pòklanjati give [a present] [a, sft-C, vwl]
sklòniti sklanjati put away [a, sft-C, vwl]
dogòditi se dogàđati se happen [a, sft-C, vwl]
otvòriti otvàrati open [a, vwl]
pretvòriti pretvàrati transform [a, vwl]
stvòriti stvàrati create [a, vwl]
obùhvatiti obùhvaćati encompass [a, sft-C]
prìhvatiti prìhvaćati accept [a, sft-C]
shvatiti shvaćati understand [a, sft-C]
15b pòmoći [3pl. pòmognu] 1 pomàgati help [a, vwl]
òdmoći [3pl. òdmognu] odmàgati hinder [a, vwl]
11 ùzeti [3pl. uzmu] 1 ùzimati take [a, vwl]
òteti [3pl. otmu] òtimati grab [a, vwl]
ùmreti [3pl. umru] ùmirati die [a, vwl]
pòčeti [3pl. počnu] pòčinjati begin [a, sft-C, vwl]
zàčeti [3pl. začnu] zàčinjati conceive [a, sft-C, vwl]
ràspeti [3pl. raspnu] ràspinjati crucify [a, sft-C, vwl]
C obuhvaćati / B,S obuhvatati; C prihvaćati / B,S prihvatati; C shvaćati / B,S shvatati; E umreti / J umrijeti
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is identified by the addition of a prefix. In the second group, the addition of a prefix in each case
is presumed to be obvious, and the abbreviations refer to the identifying marks of the imperfec-
tive partner: for the meaning of these abbreviations, see introduction to the previous section.
Verbs of the final group, formed from the pair staviti / stavljati, deserve special attention.
This is because these verbs are very similar to the set of verbs created by adding prefixes to the
stati / stajati group (review [101]), leading to possible confusion. In some instances, the verbs
not only look alike but also have similar meanings. The critical difference between the two sets is
that verbs in the stati / stajati group are intransitive: they cannot take a direct object. By contrast,
verbs in the staviti / stavljati group are transitive, and usually require a direct object.
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teristic marks of an imperfectivizing suffix (theme vowel a preceded by the suffix -va), but it has
also transformed the preceding vowel (the original short theme vowel of the non-derived form)
into a long rising one.
Bi-aspectual verbs
momentary (perf.) = durative (imperf.) iterative (imperf.)
vidjeti / videti vidjeti / videti vìđati see
razùmjeti / raz̀umeti razùmjeti / razùmeti razumijèv ati / razumèvati understand
J vidjeti / E videti; J razumjeti / E razumeti; J razumijevati / E razumevati
The process of creating derived imperfectives illustrates another aspect of this relationship.
An aspect pair created by prefixation usually consists of a durative imperfective and a prefixed
perfective. But when this same formal process creates a perfective prefixed verb with a new
meaning, the aspect partner for this new verb is NOT the original durative imperfective, but the
newly derived iterative imperfective.
The relationships are best seen in those durative verbs Abbreviations
which can host several different prefixes, forming thereby dif- I durative imperfective
ferent perfective verbs – each with its own meaning, and each P [prefixed] perfective
paired with a separate iterative imperfective. The abbreviations II iterative imperfective
are given to the right, and the dotted boxes in the chart below
identify the aspect pairs as they are listed in standard dictionaries.
I > P > II
This means of forming aspect pairs is widespread in BCS, and verb nests of the above sort
are extremely common. There are several different iterative suffixes, all of which have the same
characteristic long rising syllable immediately before the theme vowel a. The most frequent are
-iva and -ava. Indeed, two verb types (review the list in [103a]) are defined solely by the pres-
ence of such a suffix (one which creates iterative imperfectives). These are type 8b, with the suf-
fix -iva (present tense form -uj, with a short vowel), and type 9, with the suffix -ava (present
tense form -aj, with a long vowel). Both of these suffixes are also found conjugated according to
type 1 (with no shift in the suffix in the present tense). Although one cannot predict with certainty
which derived (iterative) imperfectives will take which suffix, there are certain guidelines.
Namely, type 9 includes only iterative imperfectives from znati and dati, and the -iva suffix con-
jugated according to type 1 is usually limited to iterative imperfectives derived from verbs of type
6. Sometimes the derived imperfective does not include either of these suffixes but rather uses
suffixal formations of the simplex type (review [147a]), with the addition of the characteristic
long rising vowel.
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SUFFIX -AVA
[I] > [P] > [ II ]
Type: 1 1 9
znati know
sàznati > saznàvati [3pl. sàznaju] find out
upòznati > upoznàvati [3pl. upòznaju] make acquaintance
prepòznati > prepoznàvati [3pl. prepòznaju] recognize
dàvati / dati give
pròdati > prodàvati [3pl. pròd aju] sell
dòdati > dodàvati [3pl. dòdaju] add
prèdati > predàvati [3pl. prèdaju] hand over
[none] predàvati [3pl. prèdaju] lecture
Type 4 4 1
dr̀žati hold, keep
zadr̀žati > zadržàvati [3pl. zadržàvaju] keep, preserve
odr̀žati > održàvati [3pl. održàvaju] hold
sadr̀žati > sadržàvati [3pl. sadržàv aju] hold, contain
Type 2 2 1
vr̀šiti do
dovr̀šiti dovršàvati [3pl. dovršàvaju] bring to an end
izvr̀šiti izvršàvati [3pl. izvršàvaju] do, carry out
zavr̀šiti završàvati [3pl. završàv aju] end, finish
SUFFIX -IVA
[I] > [P] > [ II ]
Type: 2 3 8b
ràditi uràditi do
izràditi izrađìvati [3pl. izràđuju] produce, make
obràditi obrađìvati [3pl. obràđuju] process, work out
zaràditi zarađìvati [3pl. zaràđuju] earn
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Type: 6 6 1
liti pour
dòliti dolìvati [3pl. dolìvaju] top off
òdliti odlìvati [3pl. odlìvaju] pour off
prèliti prelìvati [3pl. prelìvaju] pour over
Other
[I] > [P] > [ II ]
Type 2 2 1
govòriti speak
odgovòriti odgovàrati [3pl. odgovàraju] answer
ugovòriti ugovàrati [3pl. ugovàraju] agree on, contract
progovòriti progovàrati [3pl. progovàraju] start to talk
misliti pòmisliti think
ràzmisliti razmìšljati [3pl. razmìšljaju] ponder
ìzmisliti izmìšljati [3pl. izmìšljaju] invent
zàmisliti zamìšljati [3pl. zamìšljaju] imagine, plan
Sometimes two different derived imperfective forms are possible in the same meaning: a
number of verbs can form the derived imperfective either in -ivati or in -avati; in these instances,
Croatian shows a preference for the form in -ivati. Only rarely is there a difference in meaning.
The astute student will have noticed that a number of the imperfective partners in simplex
relationships (review [147a]) are in fact iteratives. Historically, each of these iterative verbs was
derived from a durative verb according to the process outlined above. Sometimes the basic dura-
tive verb is one which is either very little used or is now quite archaic, such that the iterative form
is for all intents and purposes the only imperfective verb with the meaning in question: this is il-
lustrated below by type 2 verbs with type 1 imperfective partners. Sometimes, however, a verb
participates in both sets of relationships. That is, its basic aspect pair is one of the simplex sort:
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neither partner is prefixed, and aspect is marked by suffixation. But when prefixes are added to
the base perfective, the derivational processes seen above produce imperfective partners for these
prefixed verbs. This is illustrated below by a classic simplex pair composed of a type 2 (perfec-
tive) and a type 1 (imperfective) verb. But when the perfective is prefixed, derived imperfectives
of type 8b are produced.
Both instances demonstrate the extent to which the process of imperfective derivation is a
central and firmly established a part of the language.
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VERBAL NOUN
type infinitive verbal noun
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The two remaining tenses use a compound auxiliary. One, the past conditional, combines
the L-participle of biti with the aorist forms of biti (review [131]), while the other, the pluper-
fect, uses a past tense form of biti as its auxiliary. This auxiliary, in turn, can take the form either
of the compound past or the imperfect. Although in principle these two tenses are used in all
situations where English would use the corresponding English tenses, in practice these BCS
tenses are much more rarely encountered. In most situations, perfective verbs in the conditional or
the compound past convey the same meaning. Croatian uses the compound tenses somewhat
more frequently in the spoken language than Bosnian and Serbian, which prefer overall to phrase
sentences so as to communicate the same meaning in other ways. Both the pluperfect and the past
conditional are encountered in literary prose throughout BCS, however. The final example in the
set on the next page is taken from a story by the 19th century Serbian writer Laza Lazarević.
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past Da sam ìmao vremena i nòvca, bio Had I had the time and money, I
conditional bih otputòvao. [C] would have gone on a trip.
Da sam imao vremena i nòvca, [same]
otputòvao bih. [B,S]
pluperfect Nìje ga bìlo. Već je bio ìzašao He wasn’t there. He had already gone
kad se òn a jàvila. [C] out when she called.
Nìje ga više bìlo kad se òn a jàvila, He wasn’t there when she called;
ìzgleda da je već ìzašao. [B,S] apparently he [had already] gone out.
Čìta naglas ònu polòvinu Očenàša He recited aloud that half of the Lord’s
što je već bio naùčio. Prayer that he had already learned.
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A major characteristic of type 15b verbs is that they have alternate infinitive forms, one
ending in -ći (according to type 15) and the other ending in -nuti (on the model of type 7), and
that their present tense forms frequently contain the consonant n (again on the model of type 7).
Their past tense forms, however, are nearly always made according to the type 15 model. Al-
though a few of these verbs may form alternate L-participles with nu (on the model of type 7), the
aorist is always formed according to type 15. Some verbs which belong completely to type 7 also
have alternate aorist forms made on the model of type 15.
TYPES 7 and 15
sit lift jerk, recoil kneel shrug
infinitive [15] sesti dići sleći
[7] dignuti trgnuti kleknuti slegnuti
1sg. pres. [15]
[7] sednem dignem trgnem kleknem slegnem
masc.sg. [15] seo digao trgao slegao
L-participle [7] trgnuo kleknuo slegnuo
1sg. aor. [15] sedoh digoh trgoh klekoh slegoh
2-3sg. aor. [15] sede diže trže kleče sleže
[1sg. aor.] [7] dignuh trgnuh kleknuh slegnuh
E sesti / J sjesti; E sednem / J sjednem; E seo / J sjeo; E sedoh / J sjedoh; E sede / J sjede
IMPERFECT
Type 1 4 5 9 10
infinitive igrati stàjati pìsati dàvati brati (brati)
3pl.pres (igraju) (stòje) (pišu) (daju) (bèru) bèru
1sg. igrah stàjah pisah davah brah bèrijah
2-3sg. igraše stàjaše pisaše davaše braše bèrijaše
1pl. igrasmo stàjasmo pisasmo davasmo brasmo bèrijasmo
2pl. igraste stàjaste pisaste davaste braste bèrijaste
3pl. igrahu stàjahu pisahu davahu brahu bèrijahu
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Type 2 3 6 15a 16
infinitive (nòsiti) (žìveti) (čuti) (teći) (ìći)
3pl.pres nose žìve čuju tèku idu
1sg. nošah / nosijah žìvljah čujah tèčah / tècijah iđah
2-3sg. nošaše / nosijaše žìvljaše čujaše tèčaše / tècijaše iđaše
1pl. nošasmo / nosijasmo žìvljasmo čujasmo tèčasmo / tècijasmo iđasmo
2pl. nošaste / nosijaste žìvljaste čujaste tèčaste / tècijaste iđaste
3pl. nošahu / nosijahu žìvljahu čujahu tèčahu / tècijahu iđahu
E živeti / J živjeti
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Text 1. From the story Na groblju (At the Graveyard), by K.S. Đalski
Pala je prva jesenska kiša. Stari je Janko, lugar brezovački, javio da su šljuke došle. Od
toga časa starac Batorić ne imađaše više mira kod kuće, i tek što se sunce opet pokazalo
pa nastali oni nježno svijetli dani prve jeseni, pođosmo u lov. Nisam bio strastven lovac,
ali se ipak tako svaki put pridružih, jer JE plandovanje po tim dragim zagorskim brdima
uvijek puno tolikoga čara. Od rana jutra lovismo. Dječurlija što nam je za pogoniče
služila gotovo smalaksala, no Batorić još uvijek nije htio prestati. – Jedino jošte u Brez-
iku – odluči već kasno poslije podne – tamo ih mora biti na jata. Zar ne, Janko? A onda
za danas kraj! Da dođemo onamo, bilo nam je ići preko seoskoga groblja. Uđosmo na
razrušena, polupana vrata. Lugari i pogoniči odoše naprijed da se poređaju, a mi otpo-
činusmo. Ovako umorni povalismo se na prvu ledinu.
The first autumn rains had fallen. Old Janko, the Brezovica forester, announced that the
woodcocks had come. From that time on, the elder Batorić did not have any more peace
in the house, and as soon as the sun came out again and those sweet light days of early
autumn started up, we set out for the hunt. I was not a passionate hunter, but I joined in
each time nevertheless, because time spent in those dear Zagorje hills WAS always so
full of charm. We hunted from early morning. The kids who served as beaters were
nearly exhausted, but still Brezović did not want to stop. “Just in Brezik,” he decided in
the late afternoon. “There still must be flocks of them there, don’t you think, Janko?
And then that’s it for today!” To get there, we had to go through the village cemetery.
We went in through the dilapidated, broken down gate. The foresters and beaters went
off ahead to line things up and we rested a bit. Then, tired, we spread out over the first
field.
Commentary to text 1:
This excerpt, the opening paragraphs of the story in question, focuses attention almost im-
mediately on the first major action, that of the hunt. The background is set by two perfective
verbs in the compound past. Although these verbs (“pala je”, “javio je”) concern completed ac-
tions, the focus here is less on the actions themselves than it is on their result: they initiate the
time period during which the action denoted by the imperfect tense verb “imađaše” takes place.
Immediately following are two more perfective verbs in the compound past (“pokazalo je”,
“nastali su”), which play a similar role in the narrative. That is, the results of these completed ac-
tions lay more background and build up the narrative tension which will be resolved by the narra-
tive’s first perfective aorist, “pođosmo”. The narrator, who uses the generalized compound past to
note that he is not a passionate hunter (and therefore not a central figure in the action), then uses
an aorist form (“pridružih se”) to describe what seems like background information – the fact that
he frequently used to join such a hunting party. This seeming incongruity is no doubt intentional
on the part of the author. By switching into the aorist here, and presenting the narrator’s con-
scious decision to join this hunting party (and any of its sort) as foregrounded action, the author
underscores the narrator’s validity as a witness of the events to come.
The primary narration begins with the aorist form “lovismo”. The tense of the verb (aorist)
marks it as foregrounded, while its aspect (imperfective) opens the way for the narrator to add
backgrounded information in the compound past (“je služila”, “[je] smalaksala”, “nije htio”). This
again builds up the narrative tension, which is again resolved by the perfective aorist “odluči”.
The text then moves into a narrative segment in which a sequence of actions is related primarily
in perfective aorists.
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Text 2. From the story Prvi put s ocem na jutrenje (First Matins with Father), by L. Lazarević
Моја мати клону крај ковчега и онесвести се. Сестра врисну. Ја скоичих из
постеље. И Ђокица скочи. Седосмо доле на патос крај ње, љубисмо јој руку. Она
метну руку на моју главу и шапуташе нешто. Онда скочи, упали свитац, па
прижеже кандило пред светим Ђорђем. – Одите, децо, молите се Богу да нас
избави од напасти – рече она. Глас јој ЗВОНИ као звоно, а очи СВЕТЛЕ као
вечерњача на небу. Ми потрчасмо њој под икону и сви клекосмо, а Ђокица
клекао пред мајку, окренуо се лицем њој, *крсти се и, сироче, *чита наглас ону
половину оченаша што је већ био научио. Онда *се опет крсти и *лјуби матер у
руку, па опет *гледа у њу. Из њених очију ТЕКУ два млаза суза. Оне беху
управљене на свеца и на небо. Тамо горе беше нешто што је она видела; тамо њен
бог, ког је она гледала и који је у њу гледао. И онда јој се по лицу разли некако
блаженство и некаква светлост, и мени се учини да је бог помилова руком, и да
се светац насмеши, и да аждаја под његовим копљем зену.
Mother collapsed by the chest and fell into a swoon. Sister screamed. I jumped out of
bed, and Đokica did too. We sat down on the floor by her, and kissed her hand. She
put her hand on my head and whispered something. Then she leapt up, kindled a brand
and lit the lamp before the icon of St. George. “Come, children, and pray to God to de-
liver us from temptation,” she said. Her voice RANG out like a bell, and her eyes SHONE
like the evening star in the heavens. We ran to her side by the icon and all bowed down,
and Đokica, having bowed before mother and turned his face to her, crossed himself,
poor baby, and recited aloud the half of the Our Father which he had already learned.
Then he crossed himself again and kissed her hand, and looked at her again. Two
streams of tears FLOWED from her eyes. Her eyes were turned to the saint and to the sky.
There, on high, was something she saw; there was her God, whom she looked upon and
who looked upon her. And then some sort of blessedness and illumination diffused her
face and it seemed to me that God had caressed her and that the saint had smiled, and
that the mouth of the dragon under his spear had yawned wide.
Commentary to Text 2:
This excerpt is taken from the middle of the story, at a highly dramatic moment when the
mother and children have just learned of the family’s impending bankruptcy. The first section of
the excerpt contains a series of aorist verbs, whose function is not only to foreground the actions
in question but to emphasize their quick succession. Within this sequence is embedded the one
verb in the imperfect tense, “šaputaše”. The use of the imperfect here is a subtle but very effective
way to keep the focus on the emotions of the young boy whose voice is narrating the story. An
aorist verb would merely have stated that the mother had said something to the boy in a whisper,
but the imperfect verb emphasizes the calming effect of the fact that the whispering continued for
a specific time period – from the time the boy’s mother lay her hand on his head until the point
when she got up to light the icon candle. The drama of the latter moment is heightened by present
tense backgrounded verbs, describing the mother’s voice and eyes as she prepares to pray.
There follow two more foregrounded aorist verbs, after which the author names actions of
the youngest child, using a contracted form of the compound past, L-participles without the auxil-
iary (“klekao”, “okrenuo se”). The sequence of verbs which follows describing the child’s actions
is ambiguous: these imperfective verb forms could be read either as aorist (in which case they
would emphasize the fact that the child’s actions occurred in sequence) or as present tense; in the
latter case their backgrounded function would place into higher (and more poignant) focus the
child’s recitation of the only piece of a prayer that he had managed to learn by then (which fact is
noted in the pluperfect, “je bio naučio”). The conclusion of the passage is extremely dramatic: the
backgrounded narration communicates the fact of the mother’s tears (“teku”, historic present) and
the existence of a two-way relationship between her and the Almighty. The compound past is
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used very effectively here: the verbs “je videla”, “je gledala” and “je gledao” focus attention not
on the actions of seeing and looking themselves but on their results. In this way, they create the
tension which will be resolved by the sequence of foregrounded verbs in which the child
communicates his own vision.
5. There was in the days of Herod, the king of Judea, a certain priest named Zacha-
rias, of the course of Abia; and his wife was of the daughters of Aaron, and her name
was Elisabeth.
6. And they were both righteous before God, and lived in all ways according to all
the commandments and ordinances of the Lord blameless.
7. And they had no child, because Elisabeth was barren, and they both were now
well stricken in years.
8. And it came to pass, that while he executed the priest’s office before God in the
order of his course,
9. According to the custom of the priest’s office, his turn came to burn incense
when he went into the temple of the Lord.
10. And the whole multitude of the people were without and were praying at the
time of incense.
11. And there appeared unto him an angel of the Lord standing on the right side of
the altar of incense.
12. And when Zacharias saw him, he was troubled, and fear fell upon him.
Commentary to text 3:
It is the nature of Biblical narration to focus on foregrounded action. This text, like much of
the Bible, contains only aorist and imperfect tense forms. The narrative takes place during a
specified time, the days of Herod. The text begins with several verbs in the imperfect tense which
describe the state and the actions of Zacharias and his wife over that specified period. The fore-
grounded narration is introduced with the aorist forms “dogodi se” and “dođe”. This ties the im-
perfect verb forms which follow more specifically to a particular time period. That is, it was dur-
ing the time when Zacharias was serving in the priesthood (“služaše”, imperfect) that it came his
turn (“dođe”, aorist) to burn the incense. The time frame is then narrowed still more: it was dur-
ing the time that Zacharias was burning the incense that the multitude was out in the field and was
praying (“bijaše”, “moljaše”, both imperfects). This segment concludes with the major fore-
grounded action verbs describing the appearance of the angel and Zacharias’s reaction, all of
which are in the aorist. Within this sequence is embedded another verb in the imperfect, “stajaše”.
The use of the imperfect here instead of the compound past puts clear emphasis on the duration of
the time period: the angel remained standing by the altar throughout the entire narrative segment
(which continues beyond this particular quotation).
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Commentary to text 4:
This short song illustrates beautifully the narrative interactions of the three major tenses.
The foregrounded actions, related in the aorist, concern the narrator’s trip to the Bentbaša suburb
(the name is transcribed in some versions as Bembaša), his speech with his beloved there, and his
subsequent movements (and non-movements). The description of his emotions, a part of back-
grounded narration, is amplified by the use of the compound past form “išao sam” and “gledao
sam”, which, although they refer to protracted actions, communicate the emotional state as much
as the action. The one verb in the imperfect, “stajahu”, emphasizes the fact that all the other
maidens remained in the more accessible public spaces throughout the time of his conversation
with his beloved (who was in a space inaccessible to him). The final instance of the compound
past, “se udala”, concludes the story on a very poignant note: when the narrator arrives in
Bentbaša a day later than requested, he is faced with the result of an already completed action,
one which has painful repercussions for him.
Of course, modern narratives also use the aorist (and, very rarely, the imperfect). But the
balance has shifted significantly since the above narratives were composed. Now, the compound
past is the primary mode of narration, with the aorist used on occasion as an alternate form to en-
liven the narration. Although the shades of meaning found in earlier texts are largely absent, the
aorist and the imperfect still obey the basic rules outlined above: the aorist can only be used to
narrate foregrounded actions which occur in a sequence, and the imperfect can only be used to
describe an action or a state which was in effect over the duration of a specified period of time.
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marily for reading literary texts, and although the verbal noun and verbal adverbs can be learned
as separate vocabulary items, it is good to see their relationship to the verbal system.
The forms can be categorized with respect to the function they perform in sentences. Both
the infinitive and the verbal noun can be grouped within the general category [noun]. The verbal
noun, of course, is a noun in all ways, capable of taking all case endings within a sentence. The
infinitive, strictly speaking, does not fit into any particular category. But even though it does not
take case endings, it can on occasion function as the subject of a sentence; one can therefore pro-
visionally classify it at the level of a noun. The category [verb] is the central one, of course. In
BCS, this category includes the three forms of the imperative mood (singular, plural, and inclu-
sive), and the three simplex tenses (present, aorist, and imperfect), each of which has separate
forms in singular and plural – six for the present and five each for the aorist and imperfect. The
category [adjective] is also central, as one of the two adjectival forms plays a pivotal role in
forming the compound tenses of BCS. The adjectival forms can take all case and gender endings
in both singular and plural, although the L-participles appear almost exclusively with nominative
endings, due to their prominent role in compound tenses. The category [adverb] is relatively sub-
sidiary within the language; nevertheless the two verbal adverbs also play their part when needed.
The following chart summarizes these forms. In theory, any one verb will have a separate
form corresponding to each of the slots occupied by an abbreviation designated in boldface. Al-
though in practice not every verb has every single one of these forms, the full inventory is surpris-
ingly close to complete for each verb. Any “holes” are almost always a function of aspectual
meaning. Imperfective verbs frequently do not have forms for the past verbal adverb and some-
times also lack forms for the passive participle, while perfective verbs usually lack forms for the
present verbal adverb and the verbal noun, and can never be used in the imperfect tense. The ab-
breviations given below for verb forms (1sg., 2sg., etc.) are customary. Those for gender are more
elliptic than usual, and are used primarily for space reasons; it should be clear that m.sg. refers to
masculine singular, f.sg. to feminine singular, etc.
Verb inventory
[noun] infinitive verbal noun
[verb] present 1sg. 2sg. 3sg. 1pl. 2pl. 3pl.
aorist 1sg. 2sg. 3sg. 1pl. 2pl. 3pl.
imperfect 1sg. 2sg. 3sg. .pl. 2pl. 3pl.
imperative sing. incl. plur.
[adjective] L-part m.sg. n.sg. f.sg. m.pl. n.pl. f.pl.
pass. part. m.sg. n.sg. f.sg. m.pl n.pl. f.pl.
[adverb] present past
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This verb classification differs in certain ways from those found in standard native gram-
mars. The verb classes here are defined in such a way as to make the system as clear as possible
for the foreign learner. Once the basic forms and categories have been learned, it should be easy
to navigate within one of the more technically oriented handbooks written by and for natives.
Type 1
N gledati gledanje
V present gledam gledaš gleda gledamo gledate gledaju
aorist gledah gleda gleda gledasmo gledaste gledaše
imperfect gledah gledaše gledaše gledasmo gledaste gledahu
imperative gledaj! gledajmo! gledajte!
Adj L-part gledao gledalo gledala gledali gledala gledale
pass. part. gledan gledano gledana gledani gledana gledane
Adv gledajući [pogledavši]
Type 2
N nòsiti nošenje
V present nosim nosiš nosi nosimo nosite nose
aorist nòsih nòsi nòsi nòsismo nòsiste nòsiše
imperfect nošah nošaše nošaše nošasmo nošaste nošahu
imperative nòsi! nòsimo! nòsite!
Adj L-part nòsio nòsilo nòsila nòsili nòsila nòsile
pass. part. nošen nošeno nošena nošeni nošena nošene
Adv noseći nòsivši
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Type 3 (ekavian)
N videti viđènje
V present vidim vidiš vidi vidimo vidite vide
aorist videh vide vide videsmo videste videše
imperfect viđah viđaše viđaše viđasmo viđaste viđahu
imperative vidi! vidimo! vidite!
Adj L-part video videlo videla videli videla videle
pass. part. viđen viđeno viđena viđeni viđena viđene
Adv videći videvši
Type 3 (ijekavian)
N vidjeti viđènje
V present vidim vidiš vidi vidimo vidite vide
aorist vidjeh vidje vidje vidjesmo vidjeste vidješe
imperfect viđah viđaše viđaše viđasmo viđaste viđahu
imperative vidi! vidimo! vidite!
Adj L-part vidio vidjelo vidjela vidjeli vidjela vidjele
pass. part. viđen viđeno viđena viđeni viđena viđene
Adv videći vidjevši
Type 4
N dr̀žati dr̀žanje
V present dr̀žim dr̀žiš dr̀ži dr̀žimo dr̀̀žite dr̀že
aorist dr̀žah dr̀ža dr̀ža dr̀žasmo dr̀žaste dr̀žaše
imperfect dr̀žah dr̀žaše dr̀žaše dr̀žasmo dr̀žaste dr̀žahu
imperative dr̀ži! dr̀žimo! dr̀žite!
Adj L-part dr̀žao dr̀žalo dr̀žala dr̀žali dr̀žala dr̀žale
pass. part. dr̀žan dr̀žano dr̀žana dr̀žani dr̀žana dr̀žane
Adv dr̀žeći dr̀žavši
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Type 5
N pìsati pìsanje
V present pišem pišeš piše pišemo pišete pišu
aorist pìsah pìsa pìsa pìsasmo pìsaste pìsaše
imperfect pisah pisaše pisaše pisasmo pisaste pisahu
imperative pìši! pìšimo! pìšite!
Adj L-part pìsao pìsalo pìsala pìsali pìsala pìsale
pass. part. pisan pisano pisana pisani pisana pisane
Adv pišući pìsavši
Type 6
N piti pijenje
V present pijem piješ pije pijemo pijete piju
aorist pih pi pi pismo piste piše
imperfect pijah pijaše pijaše pijasmo pijaste pijahu
imperative pij! pijmo! pijte!
Adj L-part pio pilo pila pili pila pile
pass. part. [pòpit] [pòpito] [pòpita] [pòpiti] [pòpita] [pòpite]
[popìjen] [popijèno] [popijèna] [popijèni] [popijèna] [popijène]
Adv pijući [popivši]
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verb tonuti “sink” has tonjenje). The model verb has long rising accent which shifts in the rele-
vant forms, but it should be noted that most verbs in this group have short falling accent.
Many verbs in this group share certain forms with type 15b. In those forms, the stem-final
consonant is the one which appears in the verb’s imperfective partner. From the pair krenuti /
kretati, for instance, one can predict that the model verb below might have two sets of aorist
forms: krenuh, etc. and kretoh, etc. Indeed, part of the reason for the duplication of forms (that
is, the possibility of forms from both types 7 and 15b) is that certain forms of a perfective type
15b verb are indistinguishable from those of a type 5 imperfective verb. For instance, one cannot
tell whether the present tense dižem corresponds to the imperfective dizati (type 5) or the perfec-
tive dići (type 15b).
The verb stati “stand, become, stop” belongs partly to this type, although its infinitive, L-
participle, and past verbal adverb follow type 10 (stati, stao, stala, etc., stavši). Its present tense
and imperative belong here (stanem, etc., stani), but its aorist follows either type 10 (stah, etc.)
or type 13 (stadoh, etc.).
Type 7
N krènuti [svanùće]
V present krenem kreneš krene krenemo krenete krenu
aorist krènuh krènu krènu krènusmo krènuste krènuše
imperfect [tònjah] [tònjaše] [tònjaše] [tònjasmo] [tònjaste] [tònjahu]
imperative krèni! krènimo! krènite!
Adj L-part krènuo krènulo krènula krènuli krènula krènule
pass. part. [dignut] [dignuto] [dignuta] [dignuti] [dignuta] [dignute]
Adv [dižući] krènuvši
Type 8a
N kupòvati kupòvanje
V present kùpujem kùpuješ kùpuje kùpujemo kùpujete kùpuju
aorist kupòvah kupòva kupòva kupòvasmo kupòvaste kupòvaše
imperfect kùpovah kùpovaše kùpovaše kùpovasmo kùpovaste kùpovahu
imperative kùpuj! kùpujmo! kùpujte!
Adj L-part kupovao kupovalo kupovala kupovali kupovala kupovale
pass. part. kupovan kupovano kupovana kupovani kupovana kupovane
Adv kùpujući kupovavši
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Verbs of type 8b are very similar to type 8a verbs; the only formal difference is that 8b
verbs have -iva- wherever 8a verbs have -uva-. Verbs in this group are all derived imperfectives
(review [147c]). Their clearly imperfective meaning prevents the appearance of a past verbal ad-
verb in any verb of this type. Wherever -iva- appears, the accent is long rising on the first syllable
of this sequence, and wherever -uj- appears, the accent is short rising on the preceding syllable.
Type 8b
N kazìvati kazìvanje
V present kàzujem kàzuješ kàzuje kàzujemo kàzujete kàzuju
aorist kazìvah kazìva kazìva kazìvasmo kazìvaste kazìvaše
imperfect kazìvah kazìvaše kazìvaše kazìvasmo kazìvaste kazìvahu
imperative kàzuj! kàzujmo! kàzujte!
Adj L-part kazìvao kazìvalo kazìvala kazìvali kazìvala kazìvale
pass. part. kàzivan kàzivano kàzivana kàzivani kàzivana kàzivane
Adv kàzujući kazìvavši
Type 9
N dàvati dàvanje
V present dajem daješ daje dajemo dajete dàju
aorist dàvah dàva dàva dàvasmo dàvaste dàvaše
imperfect davah davaše davaše davasmo davaste davahu
imperative daj! dajmo! dajte!
Adj L-part dàvao dàvalo dàvala dàvali dàvala dàvale
pass. part. davan davano davana davani davana davane
Adv dàjući dàvavši
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Type 10
N brati brànje
V present bèrem bèreš bère bèremo bèrete bèru
aorist brah bra bra brasmo braste braše
imperfect brah braše braše brasmo braste brahu
imperative bèri! bèrimo! bèrite!
Adj L-part brao bralo brala brali brala brale
pass. part. bran brano brana brani brana brane
Adv bèrući bravši
Type 11
N ùzeti [poduzèće]
V present uzmem uzmeš uzme uzmemo uzmete uzmu
aorist uzeh uze uze uzesmo uzeste uzeše
imperfect [kùnijah] [kùnijaše] [kùnijaše] [kùnijasmo] [kùnijaste] [kùnijahu]
imperative ùzmi! ùzmimo! ùzmite!
Adj L-part uzeo uzelo uzela uzeli uzela uzele
pass. part. uzet uzeto uzeta uzeti uzeta uzete
Adv [kùnući] uzevši
C,B poduzeće / B,S preduzeće
Type 12 (ekavian)
N ùmeti umèće
V present ùmem ùmeš ùme ùmemo ùmete ùmeju
aorist ùmeh ùme ùme ùmesmo ùmeste ùmeše
imperfect ùmejah ùmejaše ùmejaše ùmejasmo ùmejaste ùmejahu
imperative ùmej ùmejmo ùmejte
Adj L-part ùmeo ùmelo ùmela ùmeli ùmela ùmele
pass. part.
Adv ùmejući ùmevši
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Type 12 (ijekavian)
N ùmjeti umijèće
V present ùmijem ùmiješ ùmije ùmijemo ùmijete ùmiju
aorist ùmjeh ùmje ùmje ùmjesmo ùmjeste ùmješe
imperfect ùmijah ùmijaše ùmijaše ùmijasmo ùmijaste ùmijahu
imperative ùmij ùmijmo ùmijte
Adj L-part ùmio ùmjelo ùmjela ùmjeli ùmjela ùmjele
pass. part.
Adv ùmijući ùmjevši
Type 13
N jesti jedenje
V present jedem jedeš jede jedemo jedete jedu
aorist jedoh jede jede jedosmo jedoste jedoše
imperfect jeđah jeđaše jeđaše jeđasmo jeđaste jeđahu
imperative jedi! jedimo! jedite!
Adj L-part jeo jelo jela jeli jela jele
pass. part. jeden jedeno jedena jedeni jedena jedene
Adv jedući jedavši
Type 14
N tresti trèsenje
V present trèsem trèseš trèse trèsemo trèsete trèsu
aorist trèsoh trèse trese tresosmo tresoste trèsoše
imperfect trèsah trèsaše trèsaše trèsasmo trèsaste trèsahu
imperative trèsi! trèsimo! trèsite!
Adj L-part tresao trèslo trèsla trèsli trèsla trèsle
pass. part. trèsen tresèno tresèna tresèni tresèna tresène
Adv trèsući trèsavši
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Type 15a
N teći tèčenje
V present tèčem tèčeš tèče tèčemo tèčete tèku
aorist tekoh teče teče tekosmo tekoste tekoše
imperfect tècijah tècijaše tècijaše tècijasmo tècijaste tècijahu
imperative tèci! tècimo! tècite!
Adj L-part tekao teklo tekla tekli tekla tekle
pass. part. tèčen tečèno tečèna tečèni tečèna tečène
Adv tèkući [tekavši]
Most type 15b verbs also have stems ending in -k or -g, and follow the same rules as type
15a in the aorist, imperfect, imperative, L-participle, and passive participle. The difference be-
tween the two sub-types is that type 15b verbs have a number of alternate forms following the
model of type 7. These forms are almost always used in the present tense, and on occasion in
other paradigms as well.
The extent to which any one verb permits these alternate forms varies. The model verb, for
instance, is also known under the infinitive form stignuti, and uses only the -ne- forms in the pre-
sent, imperative, and passive participle (the type 15 passive participle formation is illustrated by
forms from the verb strići “shear”). Other past tense forms of stići, however, all follow type 15a.
The verb dići “lift” is similar, in that the infinitive dignuti is also used, and only present tense
forms with -ne- are used. This verb also forms the passive participle on the model of type 7 (dig-
nut). Its other past tense forms, however, are formed on the model of type 15a.
In addition, two very common verbs with stems in -d also follow this model. These are
pasti “fall” and sesti / sjesti “sit”. Both their present tense and imperative forms follow type 7,
although the imperative of the latter verb has forms of both types: sjedni / sedni (type 7) and sedi
/ sjedi (type 15). Their past tense forms follow type 13 (padoh, pade, etc., pao, pala, etc.).
Type 15b
N stići stizanje
V present stignem stigneš stigne stignemo stignete stignu
aorist stigoh stiže stiže stigosmo stigoste stigoše
imperfect stizah stizaše stizaše stizasmo stizaste stizahu
imperative stigni! stignimo! stignite!
Adj L-part stigao stiglo stigla stigli stigla stigle
pass. part. [strižen] [striženo] [strižena] [striženi] [strižena] [strižene]
Adv stižući stigavši
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Type 16
N dòći
V present dođem dođeš dođe dođemo dođete dođu
aorist dòđoh dòđe dòđe dòđosmo dòđoste dòđoše
imperfect [iđah] [iđaše] [iđaše] [iđasmo] [iđaste] [iđahu]
imperative dòđi! dòđimo! dòđite!
Adj L-part dòšao dòšlo dòšla dòšli dòšla dòšle
pass. part. [nađen] [nađeno] [nađena] [nađeni] [nađena] [nađene]
Adv [idući] došavši
HTETI (ekavian)
N hteti htenje
V present ću ćeš će ćemo ćete će
hòću hòćeš hòće hòćemo hòćete hòće
nèću nećeš neće nèćemo nèćete nèće
aorist hteh hte hte htesmo hteste hteše
htedoh htede htede htedosmo htedoste htedoše
imperfect hòćah hòćaše hòćaše hòćasmo hòćaste hòćahu
hòtijah hòtijaše hòtijaše hòtijasmo hòtijaste hòtijahu
imperative
Adj L-part hteo htelo htela hteli htela htele
pass. part.
Adv hòteći htevši
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HTJETI (ijekavian)
N htjeti htejnje
V present ću ćeš će ćemo ćete će
hòću hòćeš hòće hòćemo hòćete hòće
nèću nećeš neće nèćemo nèćete nèće
aorist htjeh htje htje htjesmo htjeste htješe
htjedoh htjede htjede htjedosmo htjedoste htjedoše
imperfect hòćah hòćaše hòćaše hòćasmo hòćaste hòćahu
hòtijah hòtijaše hòtijaše hòtijasmo hòtijaste hòtijahu
imperative
Adj L-part htio htjelo htjela htjeli htjela htjele
pass. part.
Adv hòteći htjevši
BITI
N biti
V present sam si je smo ste su
jesam jesi jeste jesmo jeste jesu
nìsam nìsi nìje nìsmo nìste nìsu
budem budeš bude budemo budete budu
aorist bih bi bi bismo biste biše
imperfect bejah bejaše bejaše bejasmo bejaste bejahu
imperative budi! budimo! budite!
Adj L-part bio bìlo bìla bìli bìla bìle
pass. part.
Adv budući bivši
E bejah etc. / J bijah etc.; B,S jeste / C jest
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sessed cannot logically be one and the same. In more metaphorical usage, however, svoj can
modify a noun in the nominative case. In this usage, it means one’s own either in the sense of be-
ing autonomous and independent, or in the sense of being part of a group considered as one’s
own. In the second usage, context is of course critical in order to define the group in question.
The nominative subject of a BCS sentence is not always translated as an English subject.
English sentences almost always place the subject before the verb. In BCS, however, the verb
frequently precedes the subject. This places more emphasis on the verb than on the subject, and
such emphasis is frequently translated by another phrase altogether in English.
NOMINATIVE
subject Gòran čeka pred zgradom. Goran waits in front of the building.
predicate Vi ste mi jèdini nàsljednici. You are my only heirs.
Pravila su pravila! Rules are rules!
Taj čin je bio pòvod za Prvi That act was the cause of the First
svjetski rat. World War.
Zvàli su ga Pètar. They called him Peter.
Posle je pòstao prèdsednik. Later he became president.
Gòran se pravi vàžan. Goran is putting on airs [ = pretending
to be important].
apposition Radi u preduzèću Orbis. He works for the firm [called] Orbis.
Odùševljena je romànom Rat i She’s enchanted by the novel War and
mir. Peace.
kao U knjigu je bìla ùmetnuta A photograph had been placed in the
fotogràfija kao podsjetnik. book as a reminder.
Mogla bi pròći kao rođena She could pass for a native-born
Meksìkanka. Mexican.
po Ùlaze jèd an po jèd an. They come in one by one.
svoj On je svoj čòvjek. He’s his own person.
Svoj čòvjek sluša samo sebe [Someone who is] his own person obeys
i nikoga drugoga. only himself and no one else.
Svòji smo. [ = Naši smo.] We’re [among] our own.
inverted Òstalo ga nij̀e previše ni zanìmalo. He wasn’t really interested in the rest
word order [ = the rest didn’t really interest him].
Pròdaje se kuća. There’s a house for sale [ = a house
is being sold].
Traži se kućna pomòćnica. Housekeeper sought [ = one seeks a
a housekeeper].
J nasljednici / E naslednici; J svjetski / E svetski; E posle / J poslije; E predsednik / J predsjednik; S,B u preduzeću
/ C,B u poduzeću; J podsjetnik / E podsetnik; C,B mogla bi proći / B,S mogla bi da prođe; J čovjek / E čovjek
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The vocative is also used in certain instances to refer to people without necessarily address-
ing them. If followed by the form jedan it can convey either a very strong insult or a grudging
and affectionate admiration. Often it is used with the pronominal adjective moj to convey en-
dearment. In epic folk poetry, the vocative is often used in the meaning nominative, expressing
the subject of a sentence. Although surnames otherwise never take the vocative form, epic poetry
allows either the personal name or the family name to appear in the vocative. The reason for this
is purely metrical, since it allows a masculine name to acquire the extra syllable that allows it to
fill out a line of poetry in a verse form which has very rigid metrical requirements. In any one
epic song, therefore, male names can appear in any one line either in the nominative or the voca-
tive, with no difference in meaning.
VOCATIVE
calling Мѐх меде! До̀ђи о̀вамо! Mehmed! Come here!
address Децо, шта ту радите? What are you doing here, children?
(in speech) Сѐди, пријатељу. Све ћу да ти Sit down, [my] friend. I’ll tell you
кажем. all [about it].
(in poetry) О звездо светла! Oh, bright star!
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to name the person in the accusative in these sentences. In the case of fear, that which one is
afraid of is expressed in the genitive. In one exceptional instance, the state is expressed as a 3sg.
verb (review [105]).
Some Croat grammarians claim that in Croatian one can now express the idea of a se-
passive with an accusative object. Normally, a passive sentence expresses its relationship to an
active sentence through the transformation of the active sentence’s object into the passive sen-
tence’s subject; the fact of passive is marked either by the presence of a passive participle or by
the particle se (review [139]). For all Serbs and Bosnians, and for most Croats as well, this is the
only way to construct a proper passive sentence. Examples of the proposed Croatian passive with
accusative object are given below; it must be noted, however, that Bosnians and Serbs cannot say
such sentences at all, and that many Croats reject them as well.
ACCUSATIVE as object
direct object Primijètila je moj pògled. She noticed my glance.
Pròdao je svòju kuću i vìnograd. He sold his house and vineyard.
[phrase in E] Kòju srednju školu pòhađa? What high school does he go to?
Sutra će ga operìrati. They will operate on him tomorrow.
Kolìko si plàtio tu knjigu? How much did you pay for that book?
Okrènuo sam 37. strànicu. I turned to page 37 [ = the 37th page].
body-ache Jako me bòli glàva! I have a terrible headache.
Kòga od vas bòli zub? Who among you has a toothache?
state Strah ga je guštera. He’s afraid of lizards.
Radim kad me je volja. I work when I feel like it [ = when
the will is there].
state as verb Mrzi me da ide tamo. I don’t feel like going there.
Croatian se- (Pròdaje se kuću.) [C] There’s a house for sale [ = someone
passive is selling a house].
(optional) (Traži se kućnu pomòćnicu.) [C] Housekeeper sought [ = one seeks
a housekeeper].
J primijetila / E primetila; B,C operirati / S operisati; C,B će ga operirati / S,B će da ga operišu (operiraju)
The accusative also occurs in a number of adverbial phrases. These usually specify time,
but can also identify a measure of space. Time-phrases, in turn, normally specify the duration of
time over which an event occurs (review [125b]). But they can also identify a point in time, ei-
ther a point in the past seen in relation to another point in the past, or a point in the present. If a
period or point in time is the logical subject of the sentence, the sentence is subjectless (review
[141]) and the time period is expressed in the accusative.
ACCUSATIVE as adverbial
duration Три месеца су путо̀вали по зѐмљи. They were traveling around the
country for three months.
Био је тамо нѐдељу да̀на. He was there [for] a week.
Течај о̀бично траје годину да̀на. The course usually lasts a year.
На дијѐти сам цео дан. I’m on a [restricted] diet all day.
point in time Видео их је нѐдељу да̀на ка̀сније. He saw them a week later.
Дан уочи по̀следњег часа срео га The day before the last class he
је на улици. met him on the street.
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For most of the above prepositions, the English translations given above correspond most
closely to the meaning found in the Location column. When used with the accusative, the prepo-
sitions među, nad, pod, pred, and za denote movement into the position specified. The preposi-
tions u and na with the accusative are usually best translated simply as to, however. In certain
instances u corresponds to English into and na to English onto, but in general one must simply
learn which nouns take u and which ones take na (review [67b]). In the case of the final two
prepositions, the English translations given above with the accusative are limited specifically to
that case. Each of these two prepositions occurs much more frequently used with the locative, and
with a very different meaning (review [68b-c], and see [158c]). With the accusative, o means
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movement against, in the sense of striking something, while po indicates the goal of movement
undertaken; in this meaning it is used only after verbs of motion.
The idea of motion can also be conceived of metaphorically. Sometimes this can still be
perceived of in a directional sense, but more often the idea is one of intention. The vast majority
of such examples are with the prepositions u and na.
na Pòslat će ga na sve moguće They will send him for all possible tests.
pretrage.
Žùrim na pòsao. I’m in a hurry to get to work.
Sutra idem na prègled. I’m going tomorrow for a checkup.
Bàcio je pogled na fotogràfiju. He glanced at the photograph.
Liječnik je vìkao na nju. The doctor shouted at her.
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na Òdlaze zajedno na kàfu. They go out with each other for coffee.
Onda je pògledao na sat. Then he looked at his watch.
Prišìvala je dugme na blùzu. She was sewing a button on the blouse.
Skòči Sèkul nà noge lagane. Sekul jumped lightly to his feet.
B,C poslat će / B,S poslaće; C,B pretrage / S,B ispitivanja; C liječnik / B ljekar (doktor) / S lekar (doktor); S,C na
nju / B nà nju; B,S kafu / B kahvu / C kavu; B nà noge / S,C na noge
The accusative with prepositions also expresses the idea of time. The preposition na is pri-
marily used to specify the length of time one intends to spend on an action, and is also used in
certain idiomatic expressions. The preposition pred refers to a point in time immediately preced-
ing an impending action, while the preposition pre / prije specifies a time point in the past with
relation to the present: it is translated by English ago. The preposition u locates an event in time
when it happens on a day of the week or at an hour on the clock; it can also refer to a specified
period of time. Finally, the preposition za indicates the duration of time that elapses before an
action is expected to be completed.
ACCUSATIVE: time
na Idem u Špànjolsku na tri mjeseca. I’m going to Spain for three months.
Uvijek se vràćao na vrijème. He always returned on time.
Na Novu godinu se rano probùdio. On New Year’s Day, he awoke early.
B,C u Španjolsku / B,S u Španiju; J mjeseca / E meseca; J uvijek / E uvek; J vrijeme / E vreme
pre / Da si otìšao na prègled prije mjesec If you had gone for a checkup a month
prije dàn a, sad bi ìmao bolje izglede. ago, you’d now have better prospects.
Napìsao je to pre skoro tri godine. He wrote it almost three years ago.
J prije / E pre; J mjesec / E mesec
pred Òsjećali su se slično srednjoškòl- They felt like high school kids on the
cima pred matùru. verge of graduation.
Bìlo je to pred Bòžić. It happened just before Christmas.
J osjećali / E osećali
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The prepositions uz and za usually mean along[side] and for, respectively. The latter, how-
ever, can often be translated by other prepositions. In particular, it can frequently mean about.
The preposition po can signify distribution, or specify occurrence in a sequence.
ACCUSATIVE: individual
uz Uz fotogràfiju su priložili nekakav They put some words [ = some sort of
tekst. text] next to the photograph.
On im je uz osmijeh pružio ruku. He held out his hand to them with a smile.
Žìvjeti uz rijèku, to je tàko pòsebno. Living by the river is really special.
Nemam novaca uza se. I don’t have any money on me.
za Za dòručak volim jesti šunku. I like to eat ham for breakfast.
Rùže su za mòju žènu. The roses are for my wife.
Sàznali su za njègovu tùgu. They learned of his sadness.
A evo Šimuna, za čìje nàlaze And here is Šimun, [about] whose test
liječnici kažu da su vèo ma loši. results the doctors say [they] are
very bad
Vidiš da te zezaju zà nju. They’re teasing you about her, you know.
po Radi po cijèli dan. He works all day long.
Ùlaze jèd an po jèd an. They come in one by one.
J uz osmijeh / E uz osmeh; J živjeti / E živeti; J rijeku / E reku; C,B novaca / S,B novca: C,B volim jesti / S,B volim
de jedem; C liječnici / B ljekari (doktori) / S lekari (doktori); B zà nju / S,C za nju; J cijeli / E celi; B,C cijeli dan
/ S ceo dan
Although prepositions almost always require full form pronoun objects, certain clitic form
objects can be used after prepositions in ACCUSATIVE MEANING ONLY. This alternate usage oc-
curs mostly in high-style written forms. If the preposition ends in a consonant, the vowel a is
added to it. This usage is restricted to the clitic objects me, te, and se; the clitic object ga takes
the form nj in these cases. The preposition always takes the accent (usually in the form of a fal-
ling accent on the first syllable).
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ACCUSATIVE in phrases
na na taj nàčin like that, in that manner
na prìmjer for example
na vrijème on time
ljùbav na prvi pogled love at first sight
pegla na paru steam iron
štednjak na dr̀va wood-burning stove
na zdravlje! Cheers! To your health!
bez obzira na regardless of
u u isto vrijème at the same time
sve u svoje vrijème everything in its [proper] time
u neku ruku to a certain extent
za za uzvrat in return
za ràzliku od as distinguished from, unlike
za dlaku by a hair’s breadth
vrijème za spàvanje bedtime
daska za peglanje ironing board
prìbor za pecanje fishing gear
lijek za kašalj cough medicine
mesto za parkìranje parking place
slùžba za zapošljàvanje employment office
J primjer / E primer; J vrijeme / E vreme; B,S pegla / C glačalo; C štednjak / B,S šporet; S,B peglanje / C glačanje;
J lijek / E lek; E mesto / J mjesto
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may occur include a shift in the form of the stem-final consonant, or in the accent of the stem.
The Gsg. form, therefore, provides the form of the stem for all other cases. For instance, the entry
momak, momka means that all other forms of the noun will add endings to the stem momk- and
not to the stem momak-. For more on fleeting vowels, see [167g], for more on consonant shifts
due to assimilation, see [167e], and for more on accent shifts, see [166, 166b].
The Gpl. form of nouns is often problematic, and many dictionaries give the Gpl. form of a
noun as well. Some nouns take the ending -a and some take the ending -i; the vowels in these
endings are always long. Most (but not all) nouns which take the ending -a will insert an extra -a-
in the preceding syllable; this -a- is also long (for more on these inserted vowels, see [164f]). The
rules are relatively straightforward for most nouns (review [57a]), but it is much harder to predict
the Gpl. ending of a feminine noun in -a. Many dictionaries give more than one possibility for a
number of these nouns, and not all dictionaries agree. Two tendencies can be identified, however.
One is that nouns referring to female humans generally take -i (except for devojka / djevojka).
The other is that if a noun’s stem ends in -pt, -tk, -vk, -žb, -db, -lb, -rb, -rm, -kv, -šnj, -dnj, or
-tnj, it is likely at least to have variant endings. The ending -i is also somewhat more likely to be
chosen in Serbian than in Croatian. Some nouns retain the ending -a but without the inserted
vowel; this is the least frequent variant. The list below gives a very rough sense of the variation
for certain nouns. Forms in parentheses are somewhat less likely to occur.
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times with the preposition of, sometimes with another preposition, and quite frequently as a sim-
ple noun compound (a phrase composed of two nouns in which the first acts like an adjective). In
a somewhat poetic style of usage, the genitive can denote a quality: this usage is equivalent to
English of as in a man OF good taste. Such phrases must include an adjective.
The genitive can also occur as the object of a sentence. This usually includes the idea of
limitation as well. Most such objects convey the meaning called partitive, usually rendered in
English by the phrases some [of] or not any (review [45]). Sometimes the object of a negated
verb appears in the genitive; in these cases, partitive meaning is usually present as well, but some-
times not so much as to require marking in English translation. Certain verbs (most of which are
se-verbs) require a genitive direct object, and while the idea of limitation may not be an obvious
part of their meaning, it can sometimes be inferred metaphorically. The meaning of limitation is
also clear in the use of the genitive after the existentials ima and nema (review [59b]), where the
translations some, any, none or not any are frequent. Finally, the genitive is used after adverbs of
measure (review [59a]), after most numbers (review [58, 124a, 124c]), and after location indica-
tors such as evo (review [44c, 73f]).
GENITIVE: in phrases
of-phrase Presèlio se nakon gubìtka sina. He moved after losing his son [ = after
the loss of his son].
Promijènio je nàčin živòta. He changed his way of life.
Nosim ti pozdrave prijatelja. I bring you greetings from friends
[ = the greetings of friends].
Pojàvio se u pràtnji advokàta. He came accompanied by a lawyer
[ = in the company of a lawyer].
Nìje svjesna ùtiska kòji She’s not conscious of the impression
òstavlja she makes [ = leaves].
Centar za ùčenje stranih jezika Center for the Study of Foreign
Languages
quality grad šìrokih ulica a city of wide streets
òsoba dobrih namjera a well-intentioned person
mlàdić krupnih òčiju a wide-eyed young fellow
GENITIVE: as object
partitive Хо̀ћеш ли кола̀ч а? Do you want some cake?
[Дај] во̀де! Water!
Узео је сира. He took some cheese.
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The genitive case also occurs adverbially, in expressions of time. Here too, the idea of limi-
tation is present: the time period in question must be specified by an adjectival form of some sort.
Such adverbial phrases – which must contain a modifier– usually refer to a specific point in time,
but can also refer to a repeated time or to a period of duration (review [61b]).
GENITIVE as adverbial
point in time Jèdnoga dana mu se ìzjadao. One day he poured his heart out to him.
Umrla je pròšle jeseni. She died last autumn.
Htio je da ga dovède još tog He wanted to bring him that very
poslijepòdneva. afternoon.
repeated Tu smo se okùpljali svake We used to get together there every
nèd elje. Sunday.
duration Prenijela je pozdrave prijatelja She brought greetings from friends who
kòji su se pròteklih dàna had been asking about me over the
raspitìvali o meni. last [several] days.
J htio / E hteo; B,S htio (hteo) je da ga dovede / C,B htio ga je dovesti; J poslijepodneva / E poslepodneva; E nedelje
/ J nedjelje; J prenijela / E prenela
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causality. Several prepositions are also compounds, composed of two prepositions fused into a
single word. Sometimes the base preposition also takes the genitive, and sometimes it takes an-
other case (the accusative or the instrumental). Compounds always take the genitive, however.
Many of these prepositions can also be used as adverbs; these are noted in the third column be-
low. Starred forms in this column are now used primarily as adverbs. For compounds whose sim-
ple form takes the instrumental case, see the charts in [156b, 159b].
simple compound [adverb]
space near BLIZU blizu
by, next to DO
along DUŽ UZDUŽ
from, out of IZ
by, with KOD
next to, alongside KRAJ NAKRAJ, POKRAJ
among, between IZMEĐU
through, along, beside MIMO
in place of MJESTO UMJESTO
above IZNAD
under NIŽE niže
from, away from OD
around OKO, OKOLO
below, under ISPOD
next to, by PORED
in front of, before ISPRED
across PREKO preko
against PROTIV NAPROTIV protiv
down from S, SA
amid SRED NASRED, USRED
inside UNUTAR unutra*
outside VAN IZVAN van*
above VIŠE POVIŠE više*
above VRH NAVRH, POVRH
with, by [possession] U
behind, after IZA
time until DO
after NAKON nakon
since OD
after POSLIJE poslije
before PRIJE prije
on the eve of UOČI
during ZA
other without BEZ
except for OSIM
like, similar to POPUT
due to, for the sake of RADI PORADI, ZARADI
because of ZBOG
J mjesto / E mesto; J umjesto / E umesto; J poslije / E posle; J prije / E pre; B,C,S osim / S sem
The meanings of most of these are self-explanatory (the preposition u, better known in its
use with the accusative and locative, has when used with the genitive a meaning very similar to
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that of kod). Although prepositions whose basic meaning concerns space can in principle be used
to denote concrete spatial relationships, most are used with more abstract (though clearly related)
meanings. Prepositions whose basic (or alternate) meaning concerns time usually are restricted to
the more concrete meaning of time. Since numbers do not take case forms after prepositions, the
idea of a case form is in fact a moot point in most time expressions.
The derivation of a compound prepositions by the addition of the preposition iz (ispod, is-
pred, iza, između, iznad) originally added a more specific meaning of motion to the prefix in
question: OUT FROM under, OUT FROM behind, etc. Now, however, each of these compound
prepositions carries all the meanings of the respective non-prefixed preposition except directional
motion. Thus, while iznad can refer both to something located over something else, or something
(such as an airplane) moving over something else, only nad can refer to the movement which
brings something into a position over something else.
od Bòlnice bi trebali gràditi dalèko They should build hospitals far away
od gràdske vreve. from urban activity.
Od toga neće biti ništa. Nothing will come of that.
oko Zèmlja kruži oko Sunca. The Earth revolves around the Sun.
Digla se vèlika bùna oko plàća. A big fuss arose over salaries.
pored Tamo je, pored kàs e. It’s over there, by the cash register.
Pored sve hràb rosti nìje uspio. Despite all his courage, he did not
succeed.
preko Žìve preko pùta. They live across the street.
Valja nama preko rijèk e. We need to cross the river.
– M. Dizdar – M. Dizdar
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protiv Nemam ništa protiv toga. I don’t have anything against that.
s(a) Vraćam se kasno sa pòsla. I get off [ = return from] work late.
Prepòznao sam je s fotogràfije. I recognized her from the photograph.
sred Sunce je usred svemira. The Sun is in the middle of the universe.
vrh Vrh hridi crne tr̀ne zadnji rùmeni Atop the black cliff the last crimson
zrak. – A. Šantić ray disappears. – A. Šantić
između To je između stòla i vràta. It’s between the table and the door.
Treba izàbrati između njih. You have to choose between them.
iznad Stànuju iznad nas. They live [on the floor] above us.
To je iznad očekìvanja. That surpasses [all] expectations.
ispod Ispod njègovog pòtpisa bio je Under his signature was inscribed
ùpisan jučèrašnji dàtum. yesterday’s date.
ispred Čekaću te ispred kuće. I’ll wait for you in front of the house.
iza Iza toga se nešto krije. There’s something hidden behind it.
Iza njih òstala su dva sina. They left two sons. [ = When they died,
two sons remained behind.]
B,C trebali bi graditi / S,B trebali bi da grade; C,B oko plaća / S oko plata; B,S pored kase / C pored blagajne; J uspio
/ E uspeo; J rijeke / E reke; B,S usred svemira / C usred vasione; B,S rumeni zrak / C rumena zraka; B,C,S treba
izabrati / B,S treba da izabereš / B,C trebaš izabrati; B,S čekaću / C,B čekat ću
GENITIVE: time
do Ràdio je tu do prije 10 godina. He worked here up until ten years ago.
iz Iz dana ù dan lètio je sve dalje. From one day to the next he flew further.
nakon Tàko je nakon nàpornog ràdnog That’s how it is after a hard week
tjedna. at work.
od Od sutra sam opet na pòslu. I’ll be back at work as of tomorrow.
poslije Poslije časova ìzlaze na kàfu. They go out for coffee after classes.
preko Mačka preko dana spava. The cat sleeps during the day.
prije Teško je bìlo prije operàcije. It was hard before the operation.
unutar Treba to završiti unutar dva dana. You must finish it within two days.
uoči Zanìmalo ih je o čèmu je dan They were interested [to learn] what he
uoči bijega prìčao s nama. had said to us on the eve of his escape.
za Pojàvio se za nekoliko dana. He appeared a few days later.
J prije / E pre; B ù dan / S,C u dan; J letio / E leteo; C radnog tjedna / S,B radne nedelje (nedjelje) / B radne sedmice;
J poslije / E posle; S,B časova / C satova; S,B kafu / C kavu / B kahvu; J bijega / E bega
GENITIVE: other
bez Ràdio je sve bez greške. He did it all error-free.
Dòručak bez nòvina nìje pravi Breakfast without the newspaper isn’t
dòručak. a real breakfast.
osim Svi spàvaju. Svi osim njega. They’re all asleep. All but him.
Pòstoje i druge stvari osim knjiga. There are other things [in life] than
books.
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GENITIVE with do
biti do Nìje mi bìlo do šètnje. I wasn’t up for a walk.
Nìje mu baš do šàle. He’s not in the mood for a joke.
Meni je do suza. I could cry.
stati do Njemu je stalo samo do nòvca. All he cares about is money.
Mnogo mu je stalo do toga. He’s extremely interested in that.
doći do Ukljùčio je u knjigu sve pjesme He put into the book all the poems he
do kòjih je mogao dòći. could get [hold of].
Nezadovòljstvo biràča dòšlo je The voters’ dissatisfaction was voiced
do izražaja na vrlo jasan nàčin. [ = came to expression] very clearly.
Dòšlo je do svađe. Things led to a quarrel.
C,B biti do suza / S biti do plakanja; J pjesme / E pesme; C,B mogao doći / S,B mogao da dođe
GENITIVE in phrases
bez bez obzira na [+ Acc.] regardless of, no matter what
bez veze silly, foolish
bez reda any which way, at random
iz iz toga slijèdi ... hence [it follows from this that ...]
između između os̀talog among others
kod kod kuće at home
od od stràne [+ Gen.] by
osim osim toga besides
pored pored òstalog in addition, among other things
pored svèga toga despite all that
preko preko mere excessive
prèći preko close one’s eyes to
radi radi ilustràcije by way of illustration
reda radi as a formality, for the sake of appearances
promjena radi promjene change for its own sake
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of verbs simply take a dative object; sometimes these correspond to direct objects in English and
sometimes to prepositional phrases (review [73b]).
The other major use of the dative is to signal that someone or something is affected by the
action or state expressed by the verb of the sentence (review [73f]). A person can experience a
state, or the desire to undertake an action (review [82]), or a person can simply be affected by an
action. Generally, the affected person appears as the grammatical subject in English versions of
the sentences in question. The BCS version is frequently subjectless, though it may have a sub-
ject. The possessive dative expresses the connectedness of ownership (review [73e]), and the
ethical dative is sometimes used by speakers to include the addressees in the communication.
DATIVE: as object
direct + indirect Prinio sam fotogràfiju očima. I brought the photo to my eyes.
Pružio mu je ruku. He extended his hand to him.
Donijela mi je štrùdlu od jabuka. She brought me apple strudel.
Hòću ti nešto predlòžiti. I want to propose something to you.
indirect only Trećìna pjesama pòsvećena je A third of the poems are dedicated to the
Dunavu, mòjoj rijèci. Danube, my river.
Neka njemu knjige! Let him have his books!
Gòdila mi je njèzina pàžnja. Her attention pleased me.
Uskoro im mladìći prìoše. Soon the young men approached them.
verb object Bòjim se da će mi se rùgati. I’m afraid they’ll make fun of me.
Mnogo im je pòmogao. He helped them a lot.
Ipak ti nè verujem. I still don’t believe you.
Zahvàlio sam joj pòljupcem. I thanked her with a kiss.
Više se ničemu nìje znao He wasn’t able to take pleasure in
radovati. anything any more.
Godina se blìži kraju. The year is nearing its end.
J prinio / E prineo; J donijela / E donela; B,C,S štrudlu / C savijač; C,B hoću ti nešto predložiti / S,B hoću nešto da ti
predložim; J pjesama / E pesama; J rijeci / E reci; B,C njezina / B,C,S njena; B,C,S pažnja / C pozornost; E verujem
/ J vjerujem; B,C se nije znao radovati / S,B nije znao da se raduje
DATIVE: “affectedness”
state Одјѐдном ми је по̀стало Suddenly I felt uncomfortable.
непријатно.
Жао ми је што га нѐћу видети. I’m sorry that I won’t see him.
desire for И та̀ко ми се нѐ спава. I’m not sleepy anyway.
action Више ми се нѐ чека. I don’t feel like waiting any longer.
affected by Марѝни је ѝш ла грама̀т ика. Marina was good at grammar.
action Њему ће недо̀стајати течај. He’s going to miss the course.
Мени се о̀на заиста свиђа. I really like her.
О̀ни су ми доса̀дили. I’ve gotten bored with them.
У̀спело ми је да купим нећаку I succeeded in buying my nephew an
стан. apartment.
Отело ми се питање ... I couldn’t help but ask... [ = the question
was torn from me...]
Весѐљу нѝје бѝло краја. There was no end to the rejoicing.
possessive Супер ти је фризу̀ра! Your hairdo is great!
Смена ми зав̀ршава за сат. My shift is over in an hour.
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Of these, the prepositions u and na occur with by far the greatest frequency. As in the accu-
sative, they can convey both a concrete spatial meaning (in this case, that of location), and the
metaphorical extension of this meaning.
Of the other prepositions with the locative, o is the most consistent in meaning: it nearly
always means about, concerning. The others have a relatively wide range of meanings.
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LOCATIVE: individual
o Raspitìvali su se o mom zdravlju. They kept asking about my health.
Bolje je nè misliti o tome. Better not to think about that.
Òna sanja o nekom fudbalèru. She’s dreaming about some soccer player.
O čèmu gòvorite? What are you talking about?
Sàbrao je pjesme o vòdi. He gathered poems about water.
Znao je raspìtati se o redu vòžnje. He was able to ask about the timetable.
Òni prìčaju samo o polìtici. They talk only about politics.
po Cijèla soba je zamirìsala po The whole room took on the fragrance of
cìmetu. cinnamon.
Ràzlikovali su se samo po stilu. They differed only in style.
Uzalud su ga tràžili po gradu. They looked for him in vain throughout the
city.
Čula sam da je dòbra frìzerka, a I heard she was a good hairdresser, and I
po tvòjoj frizùri vidim da je to see by your hairdo that it’s really true.
zbilja tačno.
Po završètku časa su se ràzišli. At the end of the class they went their
separate ways.
Mòja žèna se lupila po čèlu. My wife struck herself on the forehead.
prema Šta si ti prema njemu? You’re nothing compared with him!
Radi to iz ljùbavi prema vama. S/he does it out of love for you.
Pazi da sve radiš prema uputama. Be careful to do everything according to
the directions.
pri Dr̀žite ga pri niskoj temperatùri. Keep it at a low temperature.
Ràdnja je pri kraju ulice. The shop is at the end of the street.
Nìje pri zdravoj pameti. He’s taken leave of his senses.
Pri ràdu je zàbranjen razgovor. No talking during working hours.
B,S o fudbaleru / C,B o nogometašu; J pjesme / E pesme; C,B znao je raspitati se / S,B znao je da se raspita; J cijela
/ E cela; C,B zamirisala po cimetu / S zamirisala na cimetu; B,S tačno / C točno; B,S časa / C sata; B,S šta / C što;
C,B uputama / S uputstvima; B,S radnja / C dućan / B prodavnica; C pri radu / B,S za vrijeme (vreme) rada
Of the prepositions which take the locative, only u is normally used in time expressions: it
specifies time as to month (and optionally, year). The preposition po can be used in certain ex-
pressions meaning during and in archaic usage, the preposition o can identify a point in time.
LOCATIVE: time
u Bìlo je to u martu mesecu. That was in the month of March.
Nàp ravio je sve u jèdnom danu. He did it all in a single day.
Nàp ravio je sve u toku jèdnog dana. [same]
Ožènio se tek u pedèsetoj godini. He got married only at 50 [ = in his
fiftieth year].
U šezdèsetim godinama je bìlo There was a lot of that in the sixties.
mnogo toga.
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As in other cases, there are a number of fixed phrases composed of prepositions plus the
locative case.
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INSTRUMENTAL of means
concrete Putòvao je autòbusom u Niš. He traveled by bus to Niš.
Možemo li plàtiti čèkom? May we pay by check?
Bolje je to pòslati poštom. It’s better to send it by mail.
Pod vòdom se snima specijalnim Underwater photography is done with
fotoaparàtom. a special camera.
Zahvàlio sam joj pòljupcem. I thanked her with a kiss.
Odmah ga je pòzvala telefònom. She immediately called him on [ = by
means of] the phone.
Dodìrnuo sam pr̀stima hladnu I dipped my fingers in [ = touched with
vodu. my fingers] the cold water.
abstract Brzim korakom prìšao je krèvetu. He came briskly [ = with a brisk stride]
up to the bed.
Ceremònija je počela dizanjem The ceremony began when they raised
zastave. [ = with the raising of] the flag.
Uz fotogràfiju je bìla poruka kòjom Next to the photo was a notice asking
se svi kòji su ga videli mòle [by means of which was asked]
da to prìjave. anyone who had seen him to report it.
Gledala ga je ùplašenim očima. She looked at him with terror in her
eyes [ = with terrified eyes].
Srpski se piše i ćirìlicom i latìnicom. Serbian is written in both Cyrillic and
Latin [letters].
Pòsula je kolàče šèćerom. She dusted the cakes with sugar.
Nàpisano je rùkom. It was in handwriting [ = written by hand].
B,C možemo li platiti / S,B da li možemo da platimo; E videli / J vidjeli
INSTRUMENTAL as object
noun Čìme se bavite? What sort of work do you do?
Svaki put zàlupi vràtima. He slams the door every time.
Hvàlila se svòjim ùspjehom. She boasted of her success.
Slegnuo je ramènima. He shrugged his shoulders.
Kimnuo sam glàvom. I nodded my head.
Pònosi se svòjim nećakom. He’s proud of his nephew.
Pas maše repom. The dog wags its tail.
Dobro vlada ruskim jèzikom. S/he’s fluent in Russian.
Dijète nè može vlàdati sobom. The child can’t control itself.
Ùpravlja vèlikim domaćìnstvom. She runs a large household.
adjective Liječnik je do jùčer bio zadòvoljan Up until yesterday the doctor was
mòjim opòravkom. satisfied with my recovery.
Bìli smo neugodno iznènađeni We were unpleasantly surpised at her
njenim drskim prijèdlogom. brazen proposal.
Nìsam baš odùševljen filmom. I’m not too crazy about the film.
J uspjehom / E uspehom; J dijete / E dete; B,C ne može vladati / S,B ne može da vlada; C liječnik / B ljekar
(doktor) / S lekar (doktor); C,B jučer / S,B juče; B,C,S njenim / B,C njezinim; J prijedlogom / E predlogom
INSTRUMENTAL as predicate
Taj čin, kàsnije prozvan Sàrajevskim That act, subsequently called the Sarajevo
atentàtom, bio je pòvod za Prvi assassination, was the cause of the First
svjetski rat. World War.
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Ràdi kàko ti se čìni ispravnim. Do as you think fit [ = as seems fit to you].
Ne žèlim da ìspadnem smèšnim. I don’t want to appear ridiculous.
To ja zòvem dobrim òbrokom! [Now] that [is what] I call a good meal!
J svjetski / E svetski; B,S želim da ispadnem / C,B želim ispasti; E smešnim / J smiješnim
The instrumental is used in numerous adverbial phrases to specify the time of an action, the
space over which an action takes place, or the different aspects of the way an action is carried out
(review [81b-c]). With the exception of the word zorom “at dawn”, time phrases in the singular
refer to regularly repeated actions. Time phrases in the plural refer to long periods of time (lasting
several of the units mentioned). The beginning, middle, and end of a particular time period may
also be noted in the instrumental. With respect to space, the instrumental denotes the path of a
movement (but not its destination). The final example below is from a poem by the Croatian poet
Antun Gustav Matoš (1873-1914).
INSTRUMENTAL: adverbial
intervals Нѐдељом идемо на пецање. We go fishing on Sundays.
Радним даном у̀стајем рано. I get up early on weekdays [work days].
Шта о̀бично радиш викендом? What do you usually do on weekends?
but: Крѐнули су раном зо̀ром. They set out at the crack of dawn.
long periods Годинама се нѝсмо видели. We haven’t seen each other for years.
Снег је падао данима. It snowed for days [on end].
Сѐдела је тамо сатима. She sat there for hours [at a time].
measure До̀лазим почѐт ком а̀вгуста. I’m coming at the beginning of August.
Курс завр̀ш ава средѝном маја. The course ends in the middle of May.
Крајем године пу̀тују у They’re going to Poland at the end of
По̀љску. the year.
space Монотоне сјене ријѐком пливају. The flat shadows drift along the river.
– A.G. Matoš – A.G. Matoš
E nedeljom / J nedjeljom; S,B šta / C što; Е videli / Ј vidјeli; Е sneg / Ј snijeg; Е sedеla / Ј sјedila; B,S avgusta
/ C kolovoza; B,S maja / C svibnja; J sjene / S sene; J rijekom / E rekom
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INSTRUMENTAL
među Òvo je strogo među nama. This is strictly confidential [ = between us].
Što se vidi među golim grànama? What can you see amidst the bare branches?
nad Crni òblaci se nàdvijaju nad sèlom. Black clouds are gathering over the village.
Nestr̀pljivi lèšinari krùžili su nad Greedy [ = impatient] vultures cruised in
ranjenom živòtinjom. circles above the wounded animal.
pod Sve je sad pod vòdom. It’s all under water now.
Pòlja su pod vìnogradom. The fields are cultivated in vineyards.
On je pod mòjom zaštitom. He’s under my protection.
Žìve pod Velèbitom. They live at the foot of Mt. Velebit.
pred Dugo je čekala pred zgradom. She waited a long time in front of the
building.
Klèče pred ìkonom. They kneel in front of the icon.
s Dugi dimovi se izmjènjuju s Long stretches of smoking alternate with
kràtkim rečènicama. short sentences.
Čìtanje je razgovor s najùmnijim Reading is a conversation with the most
ljudima iz neke zèmlje. intelligent people of a [certain] country.
Čìtam Prohujalo s vihorom. I’m reading Gone With the Wind.
Okrènuo sam strànicu s posvetom. I turned to the page with the dedication.
za-1 Puši cigarètu za cigarètom. S/he smokes one cigarette after another.
Stàjali su za šankom. They stood at [ = behind] the bar.
Òstavlja za sobom žènu i dvoje He leaves [behind] a wife and two
djèce. children.
za-2 On je lud za tobom! He’s crazy about you!
Njègova je želja za lèt enjem bìla He had a very strong desire to fly.
vrlo jaka.
Njihova je žùdnja za materijalnim Their thirst for material [pleasures] is
bestidna. indecent [ = without shame].
Nè žalim ni za čim. I don’t regret a thing.
C što / B,S šta; E lešinari / J lješinari; J izmjenjuju / E izmenjuju; J djece / E dece; C,S za tobom / B zà tobom
In addition to the fixed phrases containing instrumental case forms, several nouns in the
instrumental now are used as adverbs, and one preposition normally used with the instrumental
functions very productively to create both adjectives and nouns (see [163a] for more discussion).
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INSTRUMENTAL: phrases
među- međunàrodni international
(adj) međusobni mutual, reciprocal
međugràdski interurban, intercity
(noun) međučin intermission [theater]
međuvrijème interval, interim
međupròstor space, gap
(adverb) međùtim however, on the other hand
pod pod br̀dom at the foot of the hill
pod znakom pìtanja questionable
pod tìme mislim by this I mean
pod ùslovom da on condition that
pod ùvjetom da [same]
pred pred òvim činjenicama in light of these facts
s sa zadovòljstvom gladly, with pleasure
s vremenom in time, with time
za (nešto) ide (nekome) za rùkom (someone) succeeds at (something)
(adverbs) mahom primarily, chiefly
pòsredstvom by means of, via, through
rodom of origin, by birth
srećom fortunately
šaptom, šapatom sotto voce
većìnom mainly, mostly, predominantly
J međuvrijeme / E međuvreme; B,S pod uslov / C pod uvjet
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According to this diagram, every verb must have a stem, a theme vowel, and an ending. At first
glance, it would seem that this diagram contradicts the one given at the top of this page. That dia-
gram presented the stem as containing all segments other than the ending (and the suffix as includ-
ing everything which is not a prefix, root or ending) while this diagram appears to use the term
stem in place of root, and to introduce a new segment called a theme vowel.
Both diagrams are correct, however: they simply represent different points of view among
analysts. The concept of stem is a flexible one, and within the context of verbs it is generally
more acceptable to speak of verbal stems rather than verbal roots. The segment which carries the
name theme vowel is both significant and problematic. It is significant because it serves to sepa-
rate verbs into conjugation types, and it is problematic because it is halfway between an ending
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and a suffix. Endings by definition occur at the end of a word, while theme vowels by definition
precede verbal endings. Furthermore, the category ending is restricted to morphemes which carry
the very specific sort of meanings marking the distinctions of a grammatical paradigm (person,
number, case, or gender); the more technical term desinence is sometimes used in this meaning.
Suffixes, by contrast, occur in non-final position, and carry a much broader range of meanings.
Furthermore, their meaning is usually of the lexical sort, although some suffixes come close to
carrying purely grammatical meaning (such as those which mark a verb as imperfective). For all
these reasons, linguists usually choose to use the specific term theme vowel for the segment which
identifies a verb’s class, while continuing to use the terms suffix and ending for other segments
which occur in non-final and final positions, respectively.
Verbs can be derived from a number of sources via suffixation, and from other verbs via
prefixation. Most such instances are connected with the marking of conjugation types or the for-
mation of aspectual pairs, phenomena which have been reviewed extensively in previous chap-
ters. There are several points which are specifically relevant to the study of derivation, however.
One is the fact that certain suffixes carry more than one type of meaning: that is, they not only
define a verb as belonging to a particular type but also endow many verbs of that type with a par-
tially predictable shade of meaning. Another is the relationship between the verbal suffix and the
type of root to which it is added. In certain instances, one can partially predict the meaning of the
derived verb from the grammatical class of the root to which it is added. Prefixation, by contrast,
is straightforward: the fact that most prefixes add another shade of meaning to the verb is one of
the central facts of aspect derivation, a process which has already been discussed in detail (review
especially [146b]). Although one can rarely predict with full certainty the meaning that any one
prefix will add to any one verb, certain generalizations can be made (see [162b]).
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Two other suffixes, by contrast, both define a verb class and have separate, specific mean-
ings. One of these is the suffix -e / -je, which is not only associated with type 3 verbs but can also
carry the specific idea of becoming: something or someone gradually takes on a certain character-
istic. These verbs are usually derived from the adjective roots denoting the characteristic in ques-
tion. The imperfective partner denotes the process and the perfective one denotes a completed
stage of that process. The perfective is formed by prefixation; in the chart below, the prefixes in
question are given in parentheses before the imperfective form of the verb.
-e / -je root base word derived word
The other suffix which is identified both with a specific verb class and a particular meaning
is -i, which is the marker of type 2 verbs. This suffix is sometimes associated with the general
idea of causation. That is, a verb denoting an action which brings about (or causes) a particular
result is derived from the adjective or the noun denoting that result. Verbs in the first group below
illustrate this meaning. Most verbs of type 2 have a much more general meaning, however. Verbs
of this sort, illustrated in the second group below, do denote results of actions, and are clearly
derived from nouns or adjectives. But they cannot be said to have the same sort of strictly causa-
tive meaning as those in the first group. Yet a third group of verbs within this type also describes
results in a more general manner. What distinguishes this group is the source of derivation: they
appear to contain a series of prefixes. In fact, however, each is formed from a stem composed of a
preposition plus another root, to which a prefix is then added.
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A third instance is the suffix -ova, which defines the class of type 8a verbs. This suffix also
forms verbs from various sorts of non-verbal roots. Although it is helpful to recognize the con-
nection between the noun root and the verb, the suffix -ova does not supply any other particular
meaning in addition to the general idea of verbal action.
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Several very large “nests” of derived verbs are formed from certainly frequently used base
verbs by means of prefixation. Two very common examples were presented in earlier sections.
One concerns verbs derived from the basic transport verbs nositi “carry”, voditi “lead”, and voz-
iti “drive” and their perfective partners (review [107]). Although these derived forms can be used
to speak of more directionally-specific instances of physical transport, they are much more fre-
quently used in their abstract, metaphorical meanings. The other example concerns verbs derived
from the basic body-position pair stati / stajati “stand”. Although the base pair is not an aspect
pair, all verb pairs derived from it by prefixation do constitute aspect pairs (review [101]). These
prefixed derivatives, all of which are intransitive, are among some of the most common and im-
portant verbs in the language. In addition, roughly the same set of prefixes can be added to the
transitive aspect pair staviti / stavljati “put”, deriving another set of common and important
verbs (review the final sections of [147b]).
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category is clearly derived from the word noun, the category itself includes both nouns and adjec-
tives. The relevant feature distinguishing the ideas verbal and nominal is the type of paradigm
and the grammatical distinctions expressed by paradigmatic forms: verbs express person and
number, while both nouns and adjectives express case, number, and gender. The only systemic
grammatical difference between nouns and adjectives, in fact, is that nouns express gender inher-
ently while adjectives express it through endings. In terms of derivation, they follow very similar
processes. In addition, adverbial forms are sometimes created via derivational processes that are
nominal in type.
Verbal derivation is characterized primarily by a very rich use of prefixation versus a rela-
tively sparse use of suffixation. Nominal derivation is the reverse: prefixation is used relatively
little but suffixation is highly productive. In addition, a number of nouns are formed by a process
called compounding, in which two nouns are joined together to form a single one.
Prefixation
prefix base form derived form
ne- [neg.] čist clean, pure nèčist unclean, impure
spretan skilled, clever nèspretan clumsy, awkward
vernik believer nèvernik infidel
miran peaceful nemiran restless, turbulent
pòsredan mediated, indirect nepòsredan immediate, direct
bòrac fighter nèborac non-combatant
prijatelj friend nèprijatelj enemy
sreća fortune, happiness nèsreća misfortune, accident
moć power nemoć weakness, infirmity
E vernik / J vjernik; E nevernik / J nevjernik
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[noun] [verb]
vòda water padati fall vodopad waterfall
rùka hand pìsati write rukopis manuscript, handwriting
nòga leg mètnuti put nogomet soccer
kiša rain bràniti defend kišobran umbrella
brod ship lòmiti break brodolom shipwreck
miš mouse mòriti kill, torture mišomor rat poison
list leaf padati fall listopad October
list leaf padati fall listopadni deciduous
kolo wheel vòziti drive kolovoz August
kolo wheel mazati smear kolomaz wheel grease
kolo wheel seći cut kolosek track, platform
[adj] [verb]
dobar good tvoriti create dobrotvor benefactor
brz fast jàviti announce brzojav telegram
pravi right, true pìsati write pravopis orthography manual
C,B nogomet / S,B fudbal; C listopad / B,S oktobar; C kolovoz / B august / B,S avgust; E seći / J sjeći; E kolosek
/ J kolosijek; C,B brzojav / B,S telegram
[noun] [noun]
drvo tree red row, line drvored row of trees, avenue
žìvot life òpis description životòpis biography
polje field privreda economy poljoprìvreda agriculture
[adj] [noun]
sladak sweet led ice sladoled ice cream
C,B životopis / B,S biografija
Compounds usually consist of two segments joined by a linking vowel. Sometimes, the
compounding process uses a second member which does not exist as a word by itself. The forma-
tion of each these second portions is suggested below by noting a base word and a suffix; for in-
stance the components of the non-existing word *bolja (as seen in glavobolja “headache”) are
found by combining the root seen in the base word (here, the verb boljeti “hurt”) and the suffix
-ja. All such words use the linking vowel o. This linking vowel also frequently appears in com-
pound adjectives. Although the primary derivational process in these words is compounding,
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most compound adjectives also include the suffix -an. Suffixation as a process is not treated per
se until the subsequent section; nevertheless the principle underlying the formation of the follow-
ing examples should be clear.
Compounding
[noun] [verb] [suffix] [noun]
glàva head bòljeti hurt -ja glavòbolja headache
miš mouse lòviti hunt -ka mìšolovka mousetrap
knjiga book vèzati bind -ac knjigovèzac, -sca bookbinder
vatra fire gàsiti extinguish -ac vatrogàsac, -sca firefighter
pìsmo letter nòsiti carry -ja pismònoša letter carrier
gost guest prìmiti receive -stvo gostoprìmstvo hospitality
S,B knjigovezac / C,B knjigoveža
“Grammatical” suffixation
word class suffix example discussed in
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The process of suffixation can be viewed from several different standpoints. The primary
one, of course, concerns the suffixes themselves. Most suffixes are readily recognizable as such:
they do not change form, except for the existence of fleeting -a- in a very few. Furthermore, the
accent of a suffix is usually constant. A number of suffixes cause certain changes in the stem
(primarily softening of the stem-final consonant); once one gets used to the patterns of these
changes, one can usually recognize the stem fairly easily. Meaning is more tricky: some suffixes
allow one to predict the meaning of the derived word with a fair degree of certainty; others have a
wide range of meaning. Furthermore, a number of words contain a series of suffixes: the first
shifts the meaning of the root in a certain direction and creates a new idea, the next takes this new
idea and shifts it in yet a different direction, and so on. With practice, however, one is usually
able to predict the meanings of derived words, even those with more than one suffix.
When naming particular suffixes, it is necessary to consider the relationship between a suf-
fix and an ending. Although it might appear that the “same” suffix can occur with nouns of differ-
ent genders, the meanings are usually completely different. For instance, the suffix -in followed
by the zero ending of a masculine noun usually means “one of” a particular category. But the suf-
fix -in followed by the -a ending of a feminine noun can refer either to a quality, to a type of
meat, or to something large and/or unpleasant. In fact, the strength of the association between
individual suffixes and the gender of the nouns they create is so great that many manuals simply
collapse the sequence “suffix + ending” into one. Thus, since the suffix -stv creates a noun of the
neuter gender, it is usually listed together with the Nsg. neuter ending -o, in the form -stvo. Simi-
larly, since the suffix -ot creates a noun of the feminine gender, it is usually listed as -ota. Most
suffixes belong only to one gender, but a few come in pairs, such as the masculine suffix -nik and
the feminine suffix -nica.
It is also necessary, of course, to consider the base to which a suffix can be added. Techni-
cally, a suffix is added to a root. But the idea of a root is an abstract one, largely remaining within
the realm of grammatical analysis. In actual practice roots do not occur in isolation. For this rea-
son, it is usually easier to associate each root with a base, roughly defined as the word which con-
tains the root in question in its simplest, most neutral form. For instance, the noun mladost
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“youth” is derived from the adjective mlad “young” by adding the suffix -ost, and the adjective
govorljiv “talkative” is derived from the verb govoriti “talk” by adding the suffix -ljiv to the ver-
bal stem govor-. In the first case, the base is an adjective and in the second the base is a verb.
Grammarians take this into account when classifying derivational patterns: they are concerned not
only with the form of the suffix but also with the word class of the base. Words like mladost are
accordingly classed as deadjectival nouns (nouns derived from adjectives) and words like go-
vorljiv are classified as deverbal adjectives (adjectives derived from verbs).
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MASCULINE NOUNS
suffix base word type derived word
342
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343
CHAPTER 18
NEUTER NOUNS
suffix base word type derived word
344
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345
CHAPTER 18
FEMININE NOUNS
suffix base word type derived word
346
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347
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ADJECTIVES
suffix base word type derived word
348
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349
CHAPTER 19
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clause is transformed into a subordinate clause, any clitics in the clause must move to a position
immediately after the subordinating conjunction. Students will have become used to the behavior
of the conjunction da in this regard (review [29a]); they need to develop similar awareness for
other conjunctions such as ako, kad, dok, čim, što, koji (as relative conjunction), and others.
Compound conjunctions follow this rule as well: in this instance, one can view the RC either as
the entire conjunction or as the final portion of it, which is usually itself a conjunction such as da
or što (review [143b]).
Question words are also marked by a clear spoken rhythm (as in many languages). In BCS
this rhythmic rule embraces not only single question words such as gde / gdje, ko / tko, šta / što,
and the like, but also interrogative pronominal forms such as koji, kakav, and čiji. Indeed, the
latter instance demonstrates clearly the need to distinguish between a grammatical constituent and
a rhythmic constituent. In grammar, the concatenation of modifier (or determiner) + noun is re-
garded as one of the most basic of grammatical constituents. But when the determiner is an inter-
rogative pronominal form, it is obliged to act on its own as a rhythmic constituent, and this means
that one must dismantle the grammatical constituent in order to isolate the rhythmic constituent.
In the examples below, each sequence of an RC plus its dependent clitics is underscored. In
these, and nearly all examples of complex BCS sentences, the obligatory binding of the clitic
form to its RC frequently forces the clitic to be separated, often quite radically, from its own
grammatical constituent. For instance, a se-verb (a verb requiring se) cannot fill its function in a
sentence unless the particle se is present. The fact that the se may be placed very far away in the
sentence from the verb to which it belongs is often very disorienting to the learner. Acquiring
these word order patterns takes considerable practice, and the student must not lose heart if mas-
tery does not come immediately.
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The system is admittedly somewhat opaque. But it can easily be rendered more transparent
if one consistently separates out the two factors of length and tone. In order to demystify the sys-
tem for the foreign learner, just such a procedure has been devised for this book. Indeed, the
separation is graphic as well: the fact of length is marked UNDER the vowel and the fact of tone is
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marked OVER the vowel in question. Not every vowel is marked: thus both the presence and the
absence of a mark carry meaning. With respect to length, the marking system is based on the fact
that every vowel must be either long or short: long vowels are marked with an underscore and
short vowels are left unmarked. With respect to tone, the marking system is based on the fact that
distinctive tone can occur only on accented vowels and that accented vowels with falling tones
occur only in initial syllables (for the few exceptions to this rule, see [167]). This means that one
need only mark the presence of rising tone: if there is no mark for tone on a word, then this auto-
matically means that the first syllable of the word is accented, and that it carries a falling tone.
This rising tone is, is marked by the grave accent over the syllable in question.
Thus, a single tone mark ( à ) indicates a short rising accent, while a single length mark ( a )
indicates a long falling accent. The combination of two marks, one above and one below the
vowel ( à ) indicates a long rising accent, and the absence of any marks at all ( a ) indicates a
short falling accent.
This book’s presentation of four-accent system Rising Falling unaccented
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result of a change which took place approximately six centuries ago. At that point in the history
of the language, there were no distinction of tone: effectively, all vowels were “falling” in nature.
This far-reaching change, referred to either as the neo-štokavian retraction or the neo-štokavian
shift, had two components. One was that every accent on a non-initial syllable was shifted one
syllable towards the beginning of the word, and the other was that each of the newly shifted ac-
cents took on the character now known as “rising”. Accents on initial syllables were not affected:
they retained the original place of accent and the original “falling” tone. This change embraced a
large part of the area known as the štokavian dialect (for definition and discussion, see [171a]);
the group of dialects which underwent it are called neo-štokavian.
The historical fact of the shift is best seen by comparing neo-štokavian words with their
counterparts both in areas of BCS where the shift did not take place, and in other Slavic lan-
guages. The chart below gives several examples. Standard BCS words (exhibiting the neo-
štokavian retraction) are given with accents transcribed according to the system of this book. Un-
derneath them are given the same words as found in those related Slavic languages which main-
tain the original place of accent: in these words, the place of accent is marked by the grave ( ` ).
Comparing these forms shows that all rising accents in BCS are due to this historical retraction.
For a practical application of this historical fact to the understanding of modern BCS, see [166].
BCS rising
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zegovina (for more discussion, see [170]). That is, when linguists sat down to compile the dic-
tionaries and the grammars which became the core of BCS prescriptive grammar, they took the
East Herzegovinian neo-štokavian dialect as their model, believing it to be the purest and most
representative speech type. All elements of grammar were codified to follow that dialectal pat-
tern, including the specific accentual characteristics of each individual word. The speech of East-
ern Herzegovina was especially rich in accentual distinctions – as it is still today – and those
speakers of BCS whose native speech is similar to it have no trouble hearing and producing all
four “accents” in all positions, according to the now-canonical system.
Those whose native speech is quite different from Vuk’s, however, must learn the standard
form of the language in school. Learning the endings of words is relatively easy, but learning the
accents is quite another matter. In particular, it is almost impossible to make a consistent distinc-
tion between short rising and short falling accents unless one is accustomed to hearing these ac-
cents since childhood. Most Bosnians make all the standard distinctions naturally, and they are
quite proud of the fully melodic (not to say traditional Vukovian) character of Bosnian. The ma-
jority of Serbs and Croats, however, do not make the full set of distinctions. Some attempt to
learn them, and experience a fair degree of success. Others – even if they are not completely suc-
cessful in learning the accents – believe that this system is part of their heritage and that the lan-
guage should continue to maintain all the codified distinctions, if only as an ideal to strive for.
Yet others, however, believe that the codified forms of Serbian and Croatian should be revised in
order to reflect more accurately the way Serbs and Croats actually speak. They do not feel that
educators should need to work so hard to force students to learn something which is both very
difficult to learn, and (in their view) unnaturally artificial. They believe the current language
should be revised according to the very principle which governed its original codification, and
that the idealized standard should represent actual speech as it is today. The great majority of
Serbs or Croats who cannot distinguish short falling from short rising accents feel there should be
only a single “short” accent; they also feel that the language should codify only those long unac-
cented vowels which are consistently spoken as long (such as the Gpl. endings).
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For some, this is simply another facet of the abstract issue of prescriptive vs. descriptive
grammars. But the presence of non-initial falling accents poses a serious issue for the system of
accentual markings proposed in this book. The very simplicity and clarity of this system depends
upon two factors. One is the ability to separate length from tone – something which is not only
easily done but also highly desirable with regard both to correspondence with reality and ease of
understanding. The other is the ability to identify tone by means of a single mark. This can be
done easily only if one assumes that falling accents occur predictably in initial position (and that
one can consequently designate them by leaving them unmarked). If indeed falling accents are
possible outside of initial position, then the Vukovian system, which provides actual marks in the
meaning “falling”, would seem superior. But this is not a real impediment. It is certainly easy
enough to provide an additional mark (such as a dot over the vowel) for the few words with non-
initial falling accents. This accentuation has not been noted as such on words in language exam-
ples of preceding chapters. But the existence of this accentuation, and the issues of prescriptivism
vs. descriptivism, should continue to be actively debated. Particularly since this revision of the
accentual system finds support from (at least some) linguists from all three sides – Bosnian, Croa-
tian and Serbian – it should clearly be integrated into the descriptive framework in some way.
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does not automatically allow one to predict the accentuation of all forms of that word. Here, too,
however, the system seems much more complex than it really is. If the student has grasped the
basic facts of the neo-štokavian retraction (that all rising accents represent a shift one syllable
away from the original place of accent) and the phonetics of modern BCS (that falling tones are
realized within a single syllable but that rising tones cover both the marked syllable and the one
following it [review 165a]), then s/he is already has grasped the principle which allows easy de-
scription of the accent shifts of modern BCS. In essence, this principle is that the underlying
PLACE of accent is on the originally accented syllable. When the accent is falling, the PLACE of
accent is indeed on the marked syllable. But when the accent is rising, the PLACE of accent is on
the syllable following the one which bears the mark. Accent shifts which seem complex and ob-
scure are much easier to interpret if one views them in this way. That which shifts is the PLACE of
accent; this shift is then translated into the FORM of accent as traditionally marked.
For example, many verbs shift the accent between the infinitive and the present tense: the
accent in the present tense is one syllable closer to the beginning of the word than in the infini-
tive. Below are three different ways of viewing this shift. The first column identifies the underly-
ing PLACE of accent by means of a bold-faced capital letter. The second two columns mark the
FORM of the accent: the middle column uses the traditional Vukovian marks, which combine the
factors of length and tone into a single mark; and the right-hand column uses the system of accen-
tual marking devised for this book, which separates out the factors of tone and length. It is critical
to note that vowel length has no connection with the place of accent. In this example, for instance,
the root syllable kaz- contains a long vowel, but this fact in itself has nothing to do with the place
of accent. The only reason that this fact of length is combined together with the fact of tone in the
“Vukovian” diacritical marks is “tradition”: that is the way Vuk (and Daničić) marked it.
An even more dramatic example is provided by masculine nouns such as junak, which have
a zero ending in Nsg., and endings beginning with a vowel in all other case forms. From the pres-
entations given in dictionaries and grammars, it appears that such nouns have one accent in the
Nsg. form and a different accent in all other case forms. In actuality, such nouns do not shift the
accent at all. What makes it looks like there is a shift is the presence of a zero ending. Namely,
the PLACE of accent in such nouns is always on the first (or only) syllable of the grammatical end-
ing. Because of the nature of accent, which must have a pronounceable syllable in order to be
manifested, the functional place of the accent is on the last actual syllable. But since BCS words
of more than one syllable cannot have a marked accent on the last actual syllable, the FORM of the
accent is rising, on the syllable preceding its functional place. Thus, although according to the
traditional formulation the accent of such nouns alternates between short rising on the first sylla-
ble in Nsg. and long rising on the second syllable in other forms, it is much easier (and equally
correct) to say that the second syllable is always long, and the underlying accent is always on the
last pronounceable syllable.
A similar pattern is found in nouns like đak, which appear to alternate between long falling
in Nsg. and long rising in all other cases. Here too, the accent is in actuality on the last pro-
nounceable syllable, realized according to the rules of BCS which permit a rising accent only if
another syllable follows. Thus the Nsg. form đak, a single syllable stem with a zero ending, can
only have a falling accent, while all the other forms have a rising accent. The two paradigms are
given below: the PLACE of accent is marked in boldface, and the FORM of the accent is marked
both according to the system used in this book and the traditional Vukovian four-accent system.
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A number of BCS words partake in what are known as morphophonemic accentual alterna-
tions: the PLACE of accent changes in accordance with the particular grammatical form of the
word. Whereas the accent shifts outlined above are purely phonological, morphophonemic shifts
combine the two factors: they are phonological because they are part of the sound system but
morphological because they are part of the meaning of specific grammatical morphemes. Many
speakers no longer make several of these shifts, but some of them are still very much a part of
BCS grammar and are quite noticeable in pronunciation. Again, it is much easier to understand
BCS accentuation (and accent shifts) if one remembers that length is a property of individual
vowels, and that it is independent of the place of accent. That is, only the PLACE of accent shifts.
The realization of the underlying PLACE of accent then integrates information as to whether or not
particular vowels are long. As long as the shift does not include an initial syllable, it can simply
be viewed as a shift in the place of a rising accent mark. When initial syllables are included, how-
ever, one must take account of the fact that the place of accent is that initial syllable. In this case,
accent is either marked as falling (as in the traditional system) or left unmarked (as in the current
system). The sections below illustrate this principle in various different grammatical categories.
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marked in two different ways, once according to the traditional Vukovian system and once ac-
cording to the system used in this book; in the following sets, it is marked only the second way.
The accent of the passive participle is usually that of the present tense. In the passive parti-
ciples of type 13-15 verbs the accent is on the ending. This means that there is an apparent shift
between the Nsg. masculine short form and all other forms, as seen in rèčen, rečèna (this is the
same sort of purely phonological shift seen above in junak). In nearly all verbs, the accent of the
L-participle is the same as that of the infinitive, but there is variation in certain verbs (especially
those of types 8a and 16). If the imperative ending is other than zero, the accent of the imperative
is usually that of the infinitive. Sometimes there are particular regional variations in accent. In
Serbian, for instance, a number of common verbs shift the accent to the ending in the 1st and 2nd
plural present. One would hear, for instance, both idemo and idèmo. This accentuation is rarely
heard in Bosnian and never in Croatian.
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Most monosyllabic masculine nouns add -ov or -ev in the plural. The singular forms of
these nouns thus consist of one syllable (Nsg.) or two syllables (other case forms). Their plural
forms, however, consist of at least three syllables (and in DLIpl., four). In many such nouns a
long root syllable is maintained in the singular but shortened in the plural. This is simply a ten-
dency, however, and not a full-fledged rule.
Accentual shifts also occur frequently with the genitive plural. However, these are hard to
predict. The only certainty is that the ending is long, as is the required inserted vowel. Sometimes
the accent may shift to the ending in the Gpl. only (and be realized as a rising accent on the long
inserted vowel): an example is Nsg. prijatelj vs. Gpl. prijatèlja. Sometimes, however, an accent
which is otherwise on a non-initial syllable may shift to the initial syllable in the Gpl. only. This
can happen both in nouns with long root syllables such as pìs mo (Gpl. pisama) and those with
short root syllables, such as jèzik (Gpl. jezika). Such changes must be learned with each noun.
True morphophonemic accentual alternations are relatively rare in nominal declension, and
those which once existed are in the process of disappearing from the language. Some manuals
describe these alternations as still in existence while others do not mention them at all: such alter-
nations should therefore be regarded as part of the heritage of the language, but not as something
which the student need actively acquire. One is found in feminine nouns in -a with rising accent
(that is, with the underlying place of accent on the final syllable) in the Nsg. Nouns which par-
ticipate in this alternation shift the accent to the initial syllable in Asg. and in NApl. (but maintain
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it on the original place in all other forms) This shift is noteworthy because it moves not just one
syllable towards the beginning of the word, but all the way to the beginning of the word.
Another alternation concerns nouns which have a zero ending in Nsg. and which denote
inanimate objects. These nouns, all of which have accent on the stem syllable in most of their
case forms, shift it to the ending in Lsg. Both of these alternations, once an active part of the lan-
guage, are heard today only sporadically and are considered archaic. It is likely that both will
soon disappear from the language altogether.
There is only one significant accentual alternation in adjectives, and it only occurs in a few
adjectives. However, this alternation appears to be more stable in the language than those de-
scribed above for nouns. That is, speakers continue actively to make the distinction for those few
adjectives in which it is relevant. The distinction is between long and short forms (and is roughly
correlated with the meaning opposition definite vs. indefinite, review [17b]). It consists of a shift
in the PLACE of accent of the indefinite form one syllable towards the beginning of the word in
the definite form. Masculine and feminine forms are given for each of the two categories.
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Adjectives which contain a fleeting vowel sometimes seem to shift the accent between the
Nsg. masculine short form and the remaining short forms. The reason for this is that a fleeting
vowel is not an accentable syllable. This can be seen by comparing the accentuation of the adjec-
tive dobar in its short form with the accentuation of the noun junak. As the chart below demon-
strates, both have a zero ending in Nsg., which forces the PLACE of the accent to shift to the first
accentable syllable. In the noun junak this is the final syllable, but in the adjective dobar it is the
prefinal (or first) syllable. Thus, although the -a- in dobar looks like a real syllable, the feminine
form dobra shows that it is not, at least as concerns accentuation. That is, the Nsg.masc. form
dobar is for the purposes of accent a single syllable, and therefore required to have falling accent
(while the Nsg.fem. form dobra contains two syllables and is allowed to have a rising accent). By
contrast, the Gsg. form junaka shows that the -a- in junak is indeed a real, accentable syllable:
this allows the presence of a rising accent in Nsg. junak.
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not predict this accentuation with such certainty in prepositional phrases. Still, retraction of the
accent onto prepositions was frequent in the older language, and retraction sometimes occurred
onto conjunctions as well in frequently spoken phrases.
In the current state of the language, such retractions are largely viewed as archaic. One
hears retraction of this sort in modern Serbian and Croatian only in certain fixed phrases, such as
ì jedno ì drugo. Otherwise it is relatively rare. But in Bosnian, retraction onto prepositions and
conjunctions is much more frequent. Indeed, this phenomenon, which Bosnians call skakanje
(“jumping” [of the accent to the preposition]), is regarded as a particularly characteristic Bosnian
trait. It occurs regularly whenever the object of the preposition is a pronoun, and in a fair number
of common expressions. Even though many Bosnians are also now beginning to view these re-
tracted accents as slightly archaic, such accens are still encountered frequently in Bosnian, and
are still clearly a part of the characteristic melody of spoken Bosnian
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167a. Palatalization
One cannot learn BCS without encountering (and eventually mastering) the system of con-
sonant softenings. These relationships, which have been presented as a series of shifts called Type
A, Type B and Type C consonant softenings (review [112]), are the result of historical processes
known under the general term palatalization. When a consonant occurred adjacent to a vowel
pronounced further to the front of the mouth (such vowels are called by linguists front vowels),
the tongue would tend to come closer to the hard palate while producing that consonant. Gradu-
ally the pronunciation of these consonants came to be significantly different from the pronuncia-
tion of the same consonants when they occurred adjacent to vowels pronounced further back in
the mouth (called by linguists back vowels) – so much so that they were perceived as different
sounds. There thus arose a whole new series of consonants, generally called palatal consonants or
soft consonants.
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Although palatalization took place at all levels of the language (that is, any time the appro-
priate vowels and consonants were spoken adjacent to one another), the most important instances
of palatalization are those which occurred at morpheme boundaries. The three different types
which the student has encountered correspond to three different historical processes. The conso-
nants partaking in what is here called Type B softening are known to historical linguists as the
results of the First Palatalization, and those partaking in what is called here Type A softening are
known to linguists as the results of the Second and Third Palatalizations. These palatalizations
occurred in all Slavic languages. But the consonants partaking in what is here called Type C sof-
tening result from a change particular to the history of what is now BCS. Because they were oc-
casioned not by an adjacent front vowel but by the consonant j (called jod or jot by linguists),
these consonants are referred to not as palatal consonants but as jotated consonants.
The charts below give a brief review of palatalization as it is connected with morpheme
boundaries. Since these processes have been reviewed in detail elsewhere (see [112] and the
relevant grammar sections), only one example is given of each type encountered; furthermore, the
three types are grouped together for the sake of economy. The notation etc. in the translation col-
umn indicates that other forms in the verbal paradigm in question are affected as well. The differ-
ent palatalizations are usually connected with individual morphemes, either inflectional mor-
phemes (grammatical endings) or derivational ones. The student has by now internalized most of
the palatalizations connected with inflectional morphology. S/he has also learned to recognize a
few of the palatalizations of derivational morphology, such as that connected with the suffix
forming imperfective verbs from perfective ones. A number of other suffixes cause palataliza-
tions of various sorts. Because these palatalizations are often combined with other processes (dis-
cussed in subsequent sections), they are sometimes hard to spot.
pres. tense mogu -eš, etc. mog -eš > možeš you can, etc.
pres. tense pisati pis -em > pišem I write, etc.
imperative obuku -i obuk -i > obuci get dressed
aorist [reknu] -e rek -e > reče said
imperfect nositi -ijah, etc. nos -ijah > nošah I wore, etc.
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The other remnant of an old ablaut relationship is much more widespread. According to this
relationship, the root vowel was o in what is now a perfective verb, and a in what is now an im-
perfective verb. This is encountered in a sizeable number of type 2 perfective verbs with type 1
imperfective partners. Stem final consonants undergo softening before the a.
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Croatian has restored the final -l in a number of nouns and adjectives, out of regard for the impor-
tant place occupied by these dialects in Croatian history (for more discussion, see [179]).
Shift from l to o
form with l form with o
noun posla [Gsg.] posao [Nsg.] work
misli [Gsg.] misao [Nsg.] thought
stola [Gsg.] sto [C stol] [Nsg.] table
adjective bela / [Nsg.fem.] beo / bio [Nsg.masc.] white
bijela [C bijel]
okrugla [Nsg.fem.] okrugao [Nsg.masc.] round
L-participle rekla [f.sg.] rekao [m.sg.] said
čitala čitao read
with suffix
-lac čitalac [noun, Nsg.] čitaoca [Gsg.] reader
tužilac [noun, Nsg.] tužioca [Gsg.] plaintiff
-ba seliti [verb] migrate seoba [noun] migration
deliti / [verb] divide deoba / [noun] division
dijeliti dioba
-ski selo [noun] village seoski [adjective] [of] village
E bela / J bijela; E beo / J bio (bijel); E deliti / J dijelit; E deoba / J dioba
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The student is no doubt by now very familiar with voicing assimilation. The chart below
gives the BCS consonants which are paired as to voicing, and the list of examples illustrates both
the extent of the process in BCS and its systematic nature. Because BCS carries this pronuncia-
tion change into the spelling, one must be aware that the written form of a word may not always
represent its underlying form. Thus, if one does not recognize a particular word immediately, it is
always helpful to think of the voiced (or voiceless) form of the sound in question, and this will
usually bring the desired morpheme to mind.
unvoiced p t k s š ć č
voiced b d g z ž đ dž
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The one instance of progressive assimilation concerns the noun mozak “brain”. When the fleeting
vowel is lost, one would expect the z to assimilate to the k, and for the Gsg. to be spelled *mos-
ka. Uncharacteristically, the opposite occurs: the Gsg. of this word is mozga (plural mozgovi).
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Another instance of simplification occurs when the sequence st comes into contact with the
consonants n or l. The first happens regularly upon the disappearance of the fleeting vowel in the
suffix -an, and the second upon the disappearance of the fleeting vowel of the masc.sg. L-
participle. In both instances, the t disappears in pronunciation, and in spelling as well.
Some instances of cluster simplification over morpheme boundaries took place at an earlier
stage in the history of the language. Strictly speaking, these do not fit the definition of cluster
simplification given above, since the sequences which simplified do not contain identical conso-
nants. Knowing that they did take place, however, may help students to see the structure of the
language more easily. One set of simplifications concerns the sequences tl and dl, in which the
first consonant was dropped. This historical change accounts for the present day rule requiring
one to drop the stem-final -t or -d before the L-participle endings, which constitutes the sole fea-
ture differentiating verbs of type 13 from those of types 14-15. The other simplification concerns
the sequence bv, in which the second consonant was lost. The result of this change is seen in
words which contain the prefix ob- and a root beginning with v-.
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boundary between stem and ending, and the slash indicates the break between syllables. It is im-
portant to note that the process schematized in the two columns devoted to the older stage of the
language is exactly the same as that illustrated in the chart above (containing the words pisac,
pisca, prazan and prazna). To see the workings of the present stage of the language, therefore,
one should visualize a sequence of two underlying forms (labeled here U-1 and U-2). These, in
fact, reproduce the presumed sequence of events in the older stage of the language. All that has
happened to reach the final, actualized, stage is that the final l has been transformed into o.
Fleeting vowels almost always occur in suffixes: it is very unusual for them to appear
within the root of a word. Among the very few instances in native words are the masculine nouns
pas “dog” (Gsg. psa) and san “sleep, dream” (Gsg. sna) and the pronominal adjective sav “all”
(Nsg.fem. sva). In foreign words, there is variation: sometimes a fleeting vowel is inserted and
sometimes not. Normally Serbian will insert the vowel while Croatian will not. Thus, one en-
counters both talenat and talent “talent” (Gsg. talenta), both fakat and fakt “fact” (Gsg. fakta),
and the like. But the student’s primary attention should be on suffixes in which the fleeting vowel
is required. These suffixes (which are usually named with the fleeting vowel present) are -ac and
-ak (nouns) and -ak and -an (adjectives). When learning words with these suffixes, however, the
student must take care to note that only those vowels which satisfy the definition given earlier
will disappear. In other words, the vowel will REMAIN if its disappearance will cause an unpro-
nounceable consonant cluster, or if it is long. The latter category includes all passive participles
with the suffix -an, which means that the vowel NEVER disappears in the masc.sg. forms of these
participles.
Non-fleeting vowels
vowel is long breaks up cluster
Nsg. jùnak-Ø nàpisan-Ø mr̀tvac-Ø mùdrac-Ø
Gsg. junàk-a nàpisan-a mrtvàc-a mudràc-a
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Indeed, the only reason one might be tempted to confuse the two is that masculine nouns
with fleeting -a- in Nsg. also have inserted -a- in Gpl. For example, the noun which is vrapca in
Gsg. and vrapci in Npl. has the form vrabac in Nsg. (with a fleeting vowel) and vrabaca in Gpl
(with an inserted vowel). Except for the ending, therefore, the two look exactly the same in writ-
ing, since the second syllable of both is spelled bac. In speech, however, they sound quite differ-
ent due to the fact that the Gpl. forms have two instances of distinctively long a in succession.
Furthermore, the grammar rules require one to insert a whenever the Gpl. ending -a is present,
and this rule affects many more nouns than just those masculine nouns with fleeting -a- (an in-
stance of the vowel a which is present in Nsg. and absent everywhere else but Gpl.). The fact that
the role of this inserted vowel is NOT to break up an otherwise unpronounceable consonant cluster
is seen by its (required) presence in the Gpl. forms of certain masculine nouns which do not insert
it in Nsg., as well as in the Gpl. of nouns of other genders. The historical source of this inserted a
is not completely understood.
In the examples below, hyphens separate stem and ending. The fleeting -a- in Nsg., a short
vowel, is part of the suffix which appears only before the zero ending. The inserted -a- in Gpl., a
long vowel, is an augment to the stem which is required specifically before the Gpl. ending -a.
Students should note that most language manuals refer to both of these as “fleeting -a-”. Note that
most of the words below also have long root vowels; this is unrelated to the presence or absence
of fleeting or inserted vowels.
Nsg. fleeting -a- / Gpl. inserted -a- Npl. no fleeting -a-, Gpl. inserted -a-
The two instances of a discussed so far are restricted to particular case forms; one (called
here “fleeting -a-”) breaks up consonant clusters and the other (called here “inserted -a-”) obeys a
particular grammar rule. A third insertion, which happens in both speech and spelling, occurs af-
ter prepositions and prefixes ending in a consonant. In these cases, the vowel a is inserted to sepa-
rate the final consonant of the preposition or prefix from the initial consonant of the following
root or word. Normally this happens when the following root or word begins with a like-sounding
consonant, but it can also occur other times.
Vowel insertion after prefixes is prefix verb prefixed verb
either part of a word or it is not. It is not iz- slati send izaslati delegate
fully predictable, and usually must be iz- zvati call izazvati provoke
learned with individual words. Some od- brati gather odabrati select
prefixed verbs require the insertion, as od- peti lift odapeti release
seen in the table to the right. A few oth- raz- brati gather razabrati discern
ers allow forms both with and without raz- znati know razaznati differentiate
inserted vowels, as seen below.
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Vowel insertion after prepositions is largely optional, and tends to depend upon speakers. It
is obligatory only in one instance: this is when the pronominal form mnom follows a preposition
ending in a consonant. In the case of the two prepositions which consist of a single consonant,
namely s and k, vowel insertion is geographically conditioned. That is, Serbian will often insert a
regardless of the following sound, while Croatian will insert it only when the two consonants
would otherwise fall completely together; Bosnian falls somewhere in between.
The remaining instances of vowel insertion are stylistic in nature; all are optional. Speakers
choose (or not) to insert vowels according to the style of speech. If the following word is a noun
or pronoun beginning with a like-sounding consonant, the insertion of a vowel gives a slightly
more formal sound to the speech. The inserted vowel is usually short, but if the noun or pronoun
following is a short monosyllable, the inserted vowel can be long. Such stylistically-motivated
insertion happens in the case of prepositions plus accusative pronoun objects. According the rule,
prepositions are followed by full form pronoun objects. However, in somewhat more poetic style,
one can also use clitic form pronoun objects after prepositions requiring the accusative case. In
such instances, prepositions ending in a consonant insert a; it is always accented and always long
(prepositions containing a vowel take the accent and lengthen the vowel).
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proaches defined above has its advantages and disadvantages. A phonological spelling system –
one in which everything is written exactly as it is pronounced – makes it extremely easy to learn
to write, to take down dictation, or to read a text aloud. But a morphophonemic system allows one
to recognize the relationship between different words more easily, which in turn makes it easier to
see, understand, and remember the structure of a language. Neither gives a perfect solution to the
many dilemmas of spelling, and neither system is intrinsically better or worse. They are just two
different ways to approach the issue.
The decisions which affected the initial codification of BCS favored the phonological ap-
proach of Vuk Karadžić, and this is why the spelling of BCS corresponds so closely to its pro-
nunciation, reproducing the speech facts of voicing assimilation and cluster simplification in the
written form. With practice, speakers and learners of the language are able to remember the un-
derlying form of morphemes. For example, they will be able to recognize that some instances of
pot- represent the morpheme pod-, and that some words beginning with is- might represent iz- or
even izs-. Stated differently, they will be able to read past the voicing assimilation in both exam-
ples and the cluster simplification in the second. But if too many of these changes happen all at
once, a strictly phonological spelling makes it too hard to recover the components of the words
from the written form. Recognizing this, the codifiers of BCS relaxed the rules in one instance,
and allowed morphophonemic spelling instead of phonological spelling. This one instance con-
cerns the sequences d + s and d + š at morpheme boundaries, and makes reference to the fact that
the sequences ts and tš (which would result from the devoicing of d) are identical in sound to c
and č, аnd that a phonologically based spelling would require them to be written thus. What this
means in practice is that whenever one of the prefixes od-, pod- or pred- is added to a root be-
ginning with s- or š-, the spelling remains unchanged.
The chart below summarizes the processes of voicing assimilation (review [167c]) and
cluster simplification (review [167d]), both of which characterize all of spoken BCS. The intent
of this chart is to demonstrate how phonological spelling reproduces pronunciation, while mor-
phophonemic spelling reproduces word structure. To illustrate the connections between pronun-
ciation and word structure more clearly, the phonological spelling chart also includes words in
which neither voicing assimilation (VA) and nor cluster simplification (CS) has taken place.
What is interesting is that the words which are spelled morphophonemically are pronounced in
various ways. In rapid speech, assimilation and simplification are carried through fully. In careful
speech, one hears speakers make more of an attempt to pronounce the words as they are spelled.
Phonological spelling
Morphemes processes pronunciation spelling
VA? CS?
vrab- -ac no no vrabac vrabac sparrow (Nsg.)
vrab- -ca yes no vrapca vrapca sparrow (Gsg.)
pis- -ac no no pisac pisac writer (Nsg.)
pis- -ca no no pisca pisca writer (Gsg.)
pod- -držati no yes podržati podržati support
pod- -zemlje no no podzemlje podzemlje underground
pod- -pisati yes no potpisati potpisati sign [name]
od- -držati no yes održati održati maintain
od- -padak yes no otpadak otpadak garbage
od- -baciti no no odbaciti odbaciti throw out
pred- -platiti yes no pretplatiti pretplatiti prepay
iz- -držati no no izdržati izdržati hold
iz- -seliti yes yes iseliti iseliti emigrate
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Morphophonemic spelling
Morphemes processes pronunciation spelling
VA? CS? rapid careful
pred- -staviti yes yes prectaviti pretstaviti predstaviti present
pod- -sjetiti yes yes pocjetiti potsjetiti podsjetiti remind
od- -šetati yes yes očetati otšetati odšetati stroll off
od- -seliti yes no oceliti otseliti odseliti move away
J sjetiti / E setiti; J podsjetiti / E podsetiti
The idea of phonological spelling (which, as noted earlier, is identified with the Vukovian
principles of language codification) continues as the primary principle of BCS spelling. But the
idea of morphophonemic spelling, historically connected with the Illyrian movement, has re-
mained important in the development of Croatian. From the Illyrian days up through the present,
many Croat linguists have continued to argue that the morphophonemic principle should be given
greater prominence; this principle was in fact elevated to law during one period of Croatian his-
tory (for more discussion, see [181]). However, there is no consistent agreement among Croatian
grammarians as to which words should be spelled more “for the ear” than “for the eye”. For ex-
ample, phonological spelling rules require that the plural of words such as predak be spelled
preci – that is, with both voicing assimilation and cluster simplification reflected in the spelling.
According to the morphophonemic principle, however, this plural form could be spelled either
pretci (without simplification) or predci (without either simplification or assimilation). Although
some Croats now use one or the other of the latter two spellings, many continue to follow the
phonological rule.
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SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMMENTARY
CHAPTER 21
168 Introduction
The preceding chapters have presented a description of BCS; this complex in turn may be
defined as the common core underlying Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian. These chapters have also
identified the major grammatical points on which the three separate systems diverge. No consis-
tent attempt has been made to account for vocabulary differences, although individual examples
have been supplied with notations identifying any variant forms which are generally viewed as
characteristic of only one or two of the three systems. The examples themselves, however, were
chosen solely to illustrate general grammatical points; the extent to which they happened to con-
tain variational elements is purely random.
Taken as a whole, the description contained in these chapters demonstrates without a doubt
that the core of BCS functions as a single linguistic system, just as the numerous references to
Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian within these chapters have demonstrated that each of these indi-
vidual systems has its own noteworthy identifying characteristics. The question of whether what
has been described herein is one language or more than one has occasioned a great deal of discus-
sion among professionals and laymen alike. The answer, of course, is that both statements are
true: the language is simultaneously one and more than one. Everyone admits that Serbs, Croats,
Bosnians (both Muslims and Christians), and Montenegrins can understand each other without
difficulty, and that the reason they can do so is because the languages they speak share the same
grammar, and because the vast majority of vocabulary items are the same. That grammar, to-
gether with its common core of vocabulary items, constitutes the single language here called
BCS.
At the same time, it is now a fact that this grammar is a property shared among more than
one language. As of this writing (late 2005), three languages – Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian – have
been officially recognized. Should Montenegro become an independent state, a fourth is very
likely to be recognized. Although each of these languages serves more of a symbolic function
than a communicative one (since “BCS” is what all their speakers use to communicate with each
other), the traits which separate Croatian and Serbian from one another are quite real and clearly
identifiable; and whereas those which separate Bosnian from either Serbian or Croatian are both
less in number and less striking in content, they are also clearly identifiable. Whether or not Mon-
tenegrin should be separated from Serbian linguistically is unclear; what is clear is that there are a
number of differences which carry strong symbolic meaning for Montenegrins (for more discus-
sion, see [189a]).
Most of the differences between Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian have been mentioned in the
preceding chapters, as facts of grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary or usage. The remaining
chapters shift the focus to the social, cultural, political and historical context within which these
differences function. The intent of these chapters is to provide the background which allows one
to see beyond the seeming paradox of a language which is simultaneously one and more than one.
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The second half of the term sociolinguistic reminds one that the topic continues to be language.
The first half, however, refers to the fact that language is now being viewed not so much as a
communicative tool but rather as a symbolic system, the force of whose symbols are comprehen-
sible only when seen in the context of a highly complex social situation. This social situation, in
turn, is the result of historical processes in which the issues of language, politics and ethnic iden-
tity have been intricately intertwined for the entire modern era.
This section of the book – the sociolinguistic commentary – begins with a brief outline of
the history of writing systems in the BCS lands and a summary of the major events connected
with language standardization of the common language. It then surveys the major parameters of
variation over the geographical area covered by BCS, and discusses the role of these differences
in distinguishing the several separate linguistic standards. Following this, issues of language and
identity are treated in three separate chapters, one each devoted to Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian
(plus Montenegrin). The concluding chapter revisits the issue of the relationship between Bos-
nian, Croatian, and Serbian on the one hand, and BCS on the other.
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guage was Slavic, but the language of writing was Greek, and Boris’s scribes chose not to learn
the new and very exotic Glagolitic alphabet. Instead, they adapted their own Greek letters to the
Slavic sounds, and the alphabet derived in this manner was given the name Cyrillic – in honor of
Constantine-Cyril, the founder of Slavic letters.
As the Balkan Slavs gradually embraced Christianity, they also gained the ability to write in
their own language. Both the Glagolitic and the Cyrillic alphabets (called in BCS glagoljica and
ćirilica) spread throughout the Balkans along with books and the missionaries who spread Chris-
tianity. The establishment of the Serbian Orthodox church in the early 13th century was an impor-
tant milestone in Serbian history, and the Cyrillic alphabet has been associated indelibly with the
Serbian Orthodox church from that time onward. Indeed, the clearly marked connection of the
alphabet to the Serbian church and to its medieval roots has always provided a strong conserva-
tive bulwark within Serbian letters. The 19th century drive to modernize the alphabet in Serbia
faced extremely strong opposition from the conservative clergy (for more discussion, see [170a,
185]). There are some today, in fact, who feel that Serbian Cyrillic should undo some of the
modernization and resume a more archaic form (for more discussion, see [187a]). The “canoni-
cal” form of pre-modern Cyrillic, therefore, was that used by the medieval Serbian men of letters.
Further to the west, Christians in Bosnia also wrote in Cyrillic. These letters, based roughly on
cursive Cyrillic, developed such a different form that the resulting alphabet came to be known by
the regionally-based term bosančica, despite the fact that it was still a recognizably Cyrillic writ-
ing system. Muslim Slavs in pre-modern Bosnia gradually developed a version of the Arabic
script in which to write their native Slavic, and this alphabet was called arebica. Others in Bosnia
wrote in various forms of the Roman alphabet, all called latinica.
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vocabulary were issues on which Vuk faced considerable opposition from the higher echelons of
the Serbian clergy. The proposed spelling reforms were particularly disagreeable to these conser-
vative churchmen, who saw the very form of the alphabet then in use as a concrete bond with
their medieval past. They could see no reason to abandon nearly fifteen of these alphabet letters
(despite the fact that many of them referred to sounds indistinguishable from one another in
speech) or to introduce five new ones (despite the fact that these new letters did a much better job
of representing these five sounds than any of the older ones). Indeed, the fact that one of these
new letters was an import from the distrusted and feared Roman Catholic alphabet – the letter j –
caused many to brand Vuk as a traitor and a presumed Habsburg spy.
When it came to grammar and vocabulary, the clergy could not take seriously Vuk’s insis-
tence on the spoken East Herzegovinian dialect as a basis for the new language. Viewed from the
clergy’s base of operations in southern Hungary (now the area around modern Novi Sad), this
dialect was almost a foreign tongue. To the clergy, the language of these songs (and the songs
themselves) sounded backwards and simple. But Vuk never wavered in his conviction that the
language of these epic songs was the natural and appropriate language for the Serbs. His travels
throughout the land, especially to Montenegro and the Dalmatian coastal city of Dubrovnik, as-
sured him that the ijekavian speech of his ancestors was spoken over a very broad area, and that it
was consequently worthy of becoming the official standardized speech of the Serbian people who
were then slowly consolidating their independence from Ottoman Turkish rule. Vuk’s struggle
was long: his first linguistic publication was in 1814, and the Serbian government did not fully
accept his language reforms until 1868, four years after his death. Today, Vuk’s language is the
basis of modern BCS.
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posed Vuk); rather, it was to create a language that would recapitulate in its forms the different
stages of its evolution. Both movements were quintessentially Romantic: Vuk’s in its radical de-
votion to the “language of the people”, and the Illyrians in their adherence to a model which was
not only based on the language of the people but also made reference to evolutionary principles.
The Illyrians were additionally faced with the dilemma of an extremely non-unified speech
area. Whereas Serbia is relatively monolithic linguistically, the area of Croatia encompasses three
very distinct dialects – čakavian, kajkavian, and štokavian (for definition and brief descriptions,
see [171a] and Map 2) – each much more different from the other than today’s standard Serbian
is from today’s standard Croatian. To attain the practical goal of South Slavic unification, there-
fore, the Illyrians realized they must not only choose just one of these dialects as their base, but
must furthermore choose the one that had the most similarity to the language found throughout
Serbia. They chose the štokavian dialect, largely for geographical reasons. Although the revolu-
tions of 1848 spelled the end of the Illyrian movement as an organization devoted to Slavic cul-
tural (and political) autonomy, the fruits of language reform were lasting. In 1850, Croat repre-
sentatives met with Vuk in Vienna, and concluded an agreement whereby Serbian and Croatian
were viewed as one language with the same grammar but written in two alphabets.
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The first Yugoslav state, formed in the collapse of the empires after 1918, bore the name
Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. According to the official ideology, which was that
the three peoples were eventually to become fused into one, the official language was named
srpsko-hrvatsko-slovenački (Serbo-Croato-Slovene). It soon became clear to everyone that Slo-
vene was a completely different language, and the third component of the name was quietly
dropped. Although the language shared by the Serbs and Croats was still considered to be a single
language, it remained without an officially accepted name. A variety of names were used, de-
pending on one’s point of view and one’s location. The most common option was to use some
sort of combination of the two names: one example is the phrase hrvatski ili srpski (Croatian or
Serbian). But because the interwar Yugoslav state was clearly centered around Serbia, the lan-
guage of administration (and of much of the culture) continued to be based upon Serbian.
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four republican capitals where Serbo-Croatian (or Croato-Serbian) was spoken – Belgrade (Ser-
bia), Zagreb (Croatia), Sarajevo (Bosnia-Herzegovina) and Titograd (now Podgorica, Montene-
gro). The distinction between Belgrade and Zagreb (and between east and west) continued to be
the major axis of differentiation. Now, however, what used to be the “eastern variant” was called
simply Serbo-Croatian, while what used to be the “western variant” was called Croatian (the offi-
cial full form of the name was “the Croatian literary language, the standard form of the popular
[i.e. people’s, or folk] language of the Croats and Serbs in Croatia, which is called Croatian or
Serbian”). Montenegro chose the ijekavian variant of Serbo-Croatian as its official administrative
language, while Bosnia-Herzegovina named the single language “Croato-Serbian / Serbo-
Croatian”, in the ijekavian pronunciation, and also mentioned the “Bosno-Herzegovinian standard
linguistic expression” (bosanskohercegovački standarnojezički izraz).
Prior to this point, no one had paid particular attention to the characteristic speech of Bos-
nia-Herzegovina: everyone thought of it simply as a speech style combining traits of east and
west. The pronunciation was consistently ijekavian, but the vocabulary was something of a melt-
ing pot. Often both members of an “east/west” pair were used, more or less as synonyms. Some-
times (particularly if the difference was one of spelling) only one of the two was used, and in this
case it was usually the eastern or Serbian member of the pair. In addition, Bosnians used a num-
ber of their own characteristic words which were derived from Turkish, although this usually oc-
curred more frequently in colloquial, specifically Bosnian contexts, and less in the formal written
language (for more discussion, see [176a]). In fact, the commonality of east and west represented
by the Novi Sad agreement suited Bosnians well, for it allowed them to straddle the Serb/Croat
divide without having to align themselves with one side or the other; at the same time it allowed
them to maintain the communicative code which had served them for centuries – a fluid mix of
Serbian and Croatian features together with a characteristic Bosnian overlay – without needing to
put a name to it. Now, however, the growing decentralization of the 1970s forced them to recog-
nize more explicitly the multivalent nature of Bosnian speech. By using both the terms Serbo-
Croatian and Croato-Serbian to name their officially accepted administrative language, they rec-
ognized the existence within Bosnia-Herzegovina of what used to be called the eastern and west-
ern variants; and by giving a semi-official name to the mix which had gone unnamed since the
late 19th century, they laid the groundwork for an eventual Bosnian language, should it come to a
split between Serbian and Croatian.
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Croatian is the official standard language of Croatia, Serbian is the official standard lan-
guage of Serbia (and, at the present writing, of Montenegro), and all three languages are official
in Bosnia-Herzegovina. But if one wishes to describe how people actually speak over this broad
geographical expanse, one must speak in terms of different local dialects, which shade gradually
into one another as one moves from the far northwest to the far southeast. Speakers of any one
dialect can understand the neighboring dialect easily, but the further away one moves from one’s
native locale, the harder it is to understand the local speech. Furthermore, the differences are not
directly correlated with political boundaries. For instance, villagers living on either side of the
border separating any two states are able to understand each other quite easily even though they
are technically speaking dialects of two different languages. Indeed, they usually understand their
neighbors immediately across the border more easily than they understand their own compatriots
who live near the opposite border of their own state.
There are a great number of dialectal differences within the BCS area, all of which are de-
fined in both linguistic and geographical terms, and only a few of which are part of the conscious
awareness of their speakers. Those divisions of which speakers are aware, however, have strong
associations for them with factors of national identity and/or cultural history.
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389
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rent cultural scene). Only the fact that štokavian was part of their identity as well, both from the
earlier times in the form of the literature of Dubrovnik, and from more recent times in the form of
Catholic literature based in southern Croatia and northwestern Bosnia, made the shift to štokavian
at all palatable to them. To the present day, there remains a great sense of loss at the abandonment
of kajkavian. One of the great artistic achievements of 20th century Croatian literature is Mi-
roslav Krleža’s Balade Petrice Kerempuha (The Ballads of Petrica Kerempuh). This is a book-
length poem written entirely in kajkavian: not the kajkavian of folk speech but a recreated and
artistically expanded kajkavian – what that literary language could have become had it not been
forsaken.
Of course, the great expanse of the štokavian area also was home to considerable cultural
activity. Until Vuk’s proposals began to gain momentum, however, the only broad-based literary
activity in a štokavian that more or less mirrored the spoken language was in Dubrovnik. The
enormous effect of Vuk’s work was to raise the prestige of spoken štokavian (which for him al-
ready had prestige as the language of heroic oral epic poetry) into something that could become
the language of literary expression throughout the land. The heritage of Dubrovnik, and the Ren-
aissance literary activity based there, was of crucial importance to the success of Vuk’s language
reform activity. Before he visited Dubrovnik, Vuk’s program demanded radical adherence to the
principle which he phrased Write as you speak (and which in fact meant Write as I speak, since
he insisted that his own East Herzegovinian dialect be the basis of the new literary language). His
discovery that the speech of Dubrovnik was nearly the same as his own was an epiphany for him:
this meant that his own speech, the speech of epic poetry, had also been the language of high lit-
erary culture during an important historical period.
It was due to this realization that he was able to relax his strict phonetic principles in two
regards. One was to restore the sound h, which had been completely lost in his own speech and in
most of Serbia. Hearing it in Dubrovnik, reading it in the literature of Dubrovnik, and knowing
that it was part of the history of the language, convinced him that it should be admitted into the
spelling of modern Serbian as well, even though many (among them he himself) no longer pro-
nounced it. The other was to restore the sequences tj and dj to their original form. Because these
sounds had been transformed into ć and đ in Vuk’s East Herzegovinian speech, that is how he
wrote them. The word for girl, for instance, was for him not djevojka (as in standard ijekavian of
today), but đevojka. Here again, however, Vuk became convinced that the prestigious speech of
Dubrovnik should supersede his own. This decision paid important dividends in the cause of
eventual Serb – Croat (and Yugoslav) unity, for it allowed the Illyrians to see that Vuk shared,
even if only in a limited way, their views that the form of language should both reflect current
speech and recapitulate the history of the language.
Vuk’s travels, which included a visit to Montenegro, were revelatory in yet another way, for
they allowed him to realize the sheer breadth of the štokavian-speaking area. Schooled by Kopitar
and the brothers Grimm in German Romantic principles, according to which one language =
one people, Vuk saw that since the Serbian language was that of nearly the whole land, this meant
the Serbian people populated nearly the whole land. This realization fueled yet more strongly his
work for the independence of his people (the Serbian people) and their language (the Serbian lan-
guage). Although the phraseology is that of nationalist expansion, Vuk did not see it that way. For
him it was simple arithmetic: whoever spoke the same language was one of the same people, and
this “people” could be of all three faiths. Serb politicians of later generations, however, used
Vuk’s writings consciously to promote the cause of what was known then (and now) as Greater
Serbia. That is, they felt that the territory of Serbia should embrace at least all areas where Serbs
(defined as those of the Serbian Orthodox faith) lived, no matter who else might live there as
well.
The heritage of the 19th century is strongly present today in many ways. With respect to the
history of štokavian, čakavian and kajkavian, it is seen not only in the Serbian belief that a single
štokavian speech should be the basis of a strong, umbrella-like Serbian state (and the great bitter-
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ness of Serbs that this historical right has been denied them), but also in the Croat devotion to
their tri-dialectal heritage, their belief that all three dialects should remain part of their identity
and be re-integrated into it (and their own great bitterness that the choice to relinquish kajkavian
voluntarily did not bring them into the harmonious greater South Slav state that they had envi-
sioned and worked for).
There is no overlap: any one speaker or writer uses one of the three types consistently. One can
make a complete shift from one type to another, however: the famous Yugoslav writer Ivo
Andrić, who is also the only Nobel prize winner during that country’s existence, was born into an
ijekavian speaking family, and wrote his first literary works in ijekavian. After he settled in Bel-
grade for good, however, he made the conscious switch to ekavian, which he then used through-
out the remainder of his life (he used ijekavian in his literary works only when quoting the speech
of a character from an ijekavian-speaking area). It is also not infrequent that an ekavian speaker
will be married to an ijekavian one, and each will choose to keep his (or her) own pronunciation.
These three pronunciations are the result of a complex of historical changes. Each group is
associated with a certain area within štokavian. These areas are defined in rough geographical
terms, which are illustrated in Maps 3-5. The area of ekavian speech, seen in Map 3, covers most
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of Serbia (as well as all of Macedonia and the western part of Bulgaria). The relevant point, how-
ever, is that while ekavian speech covers much of Serbia, including its major cultural capitals, it
does NOT include all of it, nor any part of Montenegro.
The area of ijekavian speech, seen in Map 4, covers the remaining areas of Serbia, all of Monte-
negro, and much of Bosnia and Croatia. Here, however, the relevant point is that ijekavian is NOT
the only speech characteristic of Bosnia and Croatia.
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The area covered by ikavian speech, illustrated in Map 5, covers the rest of Bosnia-
Herzegovina, much of the Croatian coastline, and various pockets elsewhere (including a group
of Croatian speakers who live in the northernmost part of Serbia.
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(or, as the renowned American linguist Edward Sapir said, they “drift”) throughout a landscape of
stable populations.
Many of the differences which are now proposed as marks distinguishing the several re-
cently-evolved standards from one another are due to long-range, gradual, unconscious changes
such as these. Now, however, speakers and language planners are very conscious of these distinc-
tions, and invest a great deal of emotion in the results of changes which in themselves have no
obvious connection with any one socially-defined group. For instance, there is nothing intrinsi-
cally meaningful in the pronunciation of e rather than i or ije in various words. Yet residents of
Belgrade and Novi Sad value ekavian pronunciation very highly, since they associate it so closely
with their own cultural and historic traditions. Residents of Sarajevo and other Bosnian cities
value ijekavian pronunciation very highly, for similar reasons. The strength of the emotional
identification with these two pronunciations became starkly evident during the 1990s when gov-
ernment officials attempted (with clearly nationalistic design) to impose ekavian on an ijekavian-
speaking population (for more details, see [187b]).
The most interesting example, however, concerns an instance of language change which is
still in progress, the loss of the infinitive. This change, according to which the single-word ex-
pression of the infinitive is being replaced by a phrase composed of the conjunction da and a con-
jugated form of the present tense, is slowly moving from east to west. In the eastern half of the
Balkan peninsula, the change is complete, and the infinitive as a language form has disappeared
completely. Everywhere in Bulgaria and Macedonia, and in a large part of southeastern Serbia,
people say only želim da radim (or its local equivalent): the phrase želim raditi (or its local
equivalent) simply does not occur. In most parts of Serbia, the infinitive is still used but is heard
much less frequently than “da + present”. The further west one goes, the less one hears “da +
present” and the more one hears the infinitive. Still, the process is clearly underway: statements
of diminishing frequencies simply mean that it has not yet taken hold as strongly. Only in the far
northwest of the peninsula is there no evidence of this process.
In purely linguistic terms, the change is a natural, unconscious one. It came about when the
infinitive ending -ti ceased being pronounced in a certain class of verbs. When the resulting
shortened form became confused with the third singular present, it became reinterpreted as a sec-
ond clause and the conjunction was added; gradually the pattern spread to other verbs as well.
The fact that this process is still under way is somewhat harder to see, since the adoption of a
standard language requires a decision as to which is the “right” way to speak and write. That is,
when a standard language is formulated on the model of popular speech, it is desirable to be able
to proclaim that the way people speak naturally is also the “right” way to speak. What happens
when a language which is in the course of changing is transformed into such a standard language
is that the trajectory of change gets essentially frozen, and its current point is judged to be that
which is “right”. Thus, in the case of infinitive loss, only the da + present form can be seen to be
“right” in Bulgarian and Macedonian, and only the infinitive form can be seen to be “right” in
Slovenian. In the BCS area, however, both must be allowed to be “right”, since the change is un-
derway everywhere but not completely accomplished anywhere. Because the change has pro-
ceeded much further along its trajectory in Serbia, it feels more natural, and somehow “more
right”, to use da + present in Serbia. Conversely, because the change is only in the initial stages
in Croatia, it feels more natural (and “more right”) to use the infinitive in Croatia. In Bosnia,
which is midway between the two, the change is midway in its trajectory: both ways feel equally
“right”.
For all these reasons, the codifiers of Serbo-Croatian / Croato-Serbian stated that both ways
to express the idea infinitive were acceptable. Later, when the existence of eastern and western
variants was acknowledged, one of the most frequently mentioned differentiating traits was the
way to express the idea infinitive: although both forms were possible in both variants, the western
variant tended to prefer the single-word infinitive and the eastern variant tended to prefer da +
present. The descriptions were always phrased in terms of tendencies, however, since on both
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sides of the east/west divide both expressions continued to be encountered. At the same time,
these tendencies were accompanied by varying degrees of emotion, mostly centered upon the
small word da. In most of its meanings (such as yes, in order to, and the like), the word da is neu-
tral, like the vast majority of words in a language. But when it is used in place of the infinitive, it
takes on a clear “Balkan” marking. Those who feel pride in their Balkan identity (as do most
Serbs) accept it as a natural and preferred way to speak. But those who attach negative connota-
tions to the idea “Balkan” (as do most Croats) tend to avoid it whenever possible.
Just as emotions concerning ekavian and ijekavian have increased in intensity since the
breakup of Yugoslavia, so have emotions about da increased in intensity as Croatian language
planners have sought to distance Croatian as much as possible from Serbian. Formerly Croats
simply preferred the single-word infinitive to the da + present phrase: now most Croats feel it
necessary to avoid da + present whenever possible. Indeed, many Croats have developed negative
associations with the word da in other meanings as well; these speakers avoid the interrogative
phrase da li and tend to substitute the conjunction kako for da whenever possible. Others, al-
though they do avoid the da + present in the meaning “infinitive”, continue to use da freely in
other contexts.
In summary, dialectal differentiation comes about via unconscious mechanisms of language
change that are close to universal, which happen in all languages. When various groups attach
emotional meanings to these differences, these differences can then become tools of the process
called “language engineering”, and eventually of political power.
WEST EAST
The last parameter is given in brackets as a reminder that the reality is more complex, especially
in Serbia (review [171c] and Maps 3-4; and see [187b]). Indeed, where language is concerned,
the reality is almost always more complex. The “east vs. west” model provided an outline and an
organizational schema, and attempted to account for the fact that a single communicative system
was not monolithic but was rather characterized by relatively consistent patterns of variation. So
long as it was taken with a considerable dose of salt (not to say tolerance as well), this model
could give a rough (but nevertheless reasonably accurate) picture of the situation.
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ijekavian and the infinitive with the western variant. The remainder of the lists were usually de-
voted to individual words. Sometimes the difference was in spelling, and sometimes it was in the
choice of a different suffix added to the same root (or different root followed by the same suffix).
Most of the time, however, the words were altogether different. Although it was impossible for
the foreigner to predict with certainty which word belonged to which variant, there were some
guidelines. The most reliable of these was that the eastern word would be borrowed from a Euro-
pean language, while the western word would contain native Slavic roots. Some list-makers iden-
tified the western variant clearly as Croatian and the eastern one as Serbian, while others were
careful to limit themselves to the more neutral geographical terminology.
The following list contains some of the more frequently cited words. Obviously, the western
column corresponds to present-day Croatian and the eastern column to present-day Serbian. In
accordance with current usage, Serbian words are given in both Cyrillic and Latin while Croatian
words are given in Latin only. The left-hand column identifies the parameter of differentiation.
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Only in the final rubric can one articulate a clear principle of differentiation – namely, that
Serbian readily incorporates words from other languages, whereas Croatian prefers words formed
from Slavic roots wherever possible. Both Serbs and Croats have been conscious of this principle
throughout the entire modern period, and each group places high value upon its own adherence to
this principle. Serbs are proud that their language is so rich in vocabulary, and able to express so
many degrees of detail: in many instances Serbian has two words for the same concept (one na-
tive and one foreign-derived), each of which has taken on a slightly different shade of meaning.
For their part, Croats are proud of the degree to which their language is able to express its deeply-
ingrained Slavic roots: the fact that Croatian can transmit all manner of meanings with minimal
recourse to foreign borrowings is proof to them of its inherent value as a communicative system.
In recent years, this two-pronged principle has grown in importance, especially in Croatia (for
more discussion, see [183]).
In all the other rubrics of the above list, the differences are more or less conventional: for
various historical reasons one word happens to have taken root in the east and another in the west.
Sometimes this is a result of regular sound change. For instance, the sound h has largely been lost
in Serbian, which accounts for pairs such as suh (W) / suv (E) (as well as kuhar (W) / kuvar (E)
“cook”, and several others). Other words in the group labeled word form represent similar types
of sound changes. Some differences, such as tko (W) / ko (E) and što (W) / šta (E) are due to
historical chance: the pairs represent random pronunciation variations, one of which happened to
become characteristic of one side and one of the other. The spelling difference between prevest
će (W) / prevešće (E) reflects adherence to the morphophonemic (W) vs. the phonological (E)
spelling principles (review [167j]).
In the case of prefixes and suffixes, the historical background of the several choices is not
always clear, except for the verbal suffixes -irati ([W], borrowed from German) vs, -isati ([E],
borrowed from Greek). It is interesting, however, to note the different expressive paths taken to
the same end. For instance, each of the two words for island contains the same prefix (meaning
around) added to a root with the general idea of current or flow; both words, of course, encapsu-
late the idea that an island is something defined by the fact of water flowing around it. Similarly,
the words for theater each contain a root with the general idea of show or watch, added to the
same suffix denoting a place where something happens.
The above list is illustrative of the differences accepted as characteristic of eastern vs. west-
ern variants in the relatively stable years of Titoist Yugoslavia. The form of the list appears to
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support the binary model, since it indicates that one set of words characterizes the west (that is,
Croatian) and the other the east (that is, Serbian). In most instances this is an oversimplification.
There are several factors at work here. One, of course, concerns Bosnian. Many Bosnians
use both the (E) word and the (W) word as synonyms. In other instances, some Bosnians prefer
the (E) word and others the (W) word. But the major point is not only that Bosnian cannot be
characterized as belonging only to one side or the other, but also that its characteristic mix of (E)
and (W) marks it as a unique system all its own (for more discussion, see [177]). Another obvi-
ous factor concerns the particular speech situation. When two people from the same locale speak
to one another, they tend to use more words and phrases marked as belonging to their own spe-
cific local area. But when they speak with outsiders, they tend to use more general, less specifi-
cally-marked words and phrases. Sometimes they are conscious of these choices, but often they
are not: it is simply another possible way of speaking which they have at their disposal and which
they may (or may not) take advantage of. It is also the case that many speakers simply enjoy the
latitude available to them by the presence of synonyms, and the ability to use one word on some
occasions and another word on other occasions. Sometimes one or the other of these may be
lightly marked as coming “from elsewhere”, and sometimes it may not. Sometimes one is able to
choose a third, more neutral alternative: for instance, one can also use ordinal numbers to express
the names of the months (review [124b]). All these kinds of factors need to be taken into account
when describing any language situation; consequently, they cannot be ignored in this one either.
The above remarks refer to the level of words. But one can also extend the discussion to
phrases. For example, it is frequently the case that language manuals (including this one) will de-
scribe two different means of expression and then comment, “There is no difference in meaning”.
This is illustrated below by four examples, only the first of which exemplifies the word level as
such. The second concerns the expression of the idea infinitive (review [171d]), the third con-
cerns two different possible applications of the grammatical rules of clitic ordering (review
[164]), and the fourth concerns two different forms of the genitive singular adjectival ending (re-
view [42c]). The first two are frequently listed as part of the type of canonical E/W differences
discussed in [172a], while the second two are not usually noted in such lists.
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WEST EAST
siječanj januar
January
I want to work
My sister is a teacher
For many speakers, there indeed exists a polarity of perception in these four instances: the
form of expression on the left is marked as characteristically western (or Croatian), and the form
on the right is marked as characteristically eastern (or Serbian). The point, of course, is that in
none of these examples can one really talk of meaning: in each case, there is no other possible
translation than the one given above. Yet if one were to ask Serbs or Croats which of the two
choices sounded more natural to them, most Serbs would choose the variant on the right and the
vast majority of Croats would choose the variant on the left. Furthermore each of these would
probably identify the other variant as belonging to the other group. That is, despite the fact that
there is no identifiable difference in meaning, there is a consciousness on the part of most speak-
ers that the two variants are clearly not the same. The consciousness is stronger in the case of the
first two examples, but it also exists in the case of the latter two as well.
The source of difference in the first two examples has been mentioned above: the word for
January illustrates the Serbian tendency to incorporate international words as opposed to the
Croatian tendency to prefer indigenous Slavic words (review [172a]), and the infinitive phrase
illustrates what happens when various stages of a change in progress are frozen in place and codi-
fied into different regional standards (review [171d]). But the third and fourth examples can only
be described as variant ways to say things. Each is possible according to the rules of the language,
and it is largely by chance that one has become more frequent in the east and the other more fre-
quent in the west. In both these instances, however, Croatian language planners have taken an
existing situation of frequency and drawn conscious attention to the fact that such a way of speak-
ing is to be preferred because it sounds somehow more Croatian. When pressed to elaborate,
many Croats will say that it sounds more elegant to place the clitic form after the first accented
word, even if it breaks up an adjective + noun phrase; similarly they also believe it sounds more
elegant to use the longer form of the masculine Gsg. adjective. By contrast, if Serbs are asked to
elaborate, they usually say that it sounds more natural and straightforward to keep nouns and ad-
jectives together, and to use the shorter form of the adjective. (It is interesting to note the extent to
which these beliefs are frequently correlated with emotional attitudes about identity – both one’s
own and that of the other.)
The most important point, however, is that it is erroneous to describe such a situation in po-
larized terms. There always exist degrees of gradation, both with respect to the range of examples
one could cite and to the gamut of speakers covered by the umbrella term “BCS”. In terms of
specific examples, for instance, it is safe to say that speakers are much more conscious of the dis-
tinction in the first two examples than they are in the second two. That is, practically all speakers
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of BCS would identify siječanj as Croatian, and želim da radim as Serbian. A growing number
of speakers would also assign the third and fourth examples to one side or the other, but the iden-
tification would probably not be so immediately obvious for them. Indeed, the fourth example
carries stylistic differentiation for many Serbs as well as for most Croats: adding a final -a to the
adjective form is preferred in elevated styles of speech for both groups. In neutral speech, how-
ever, it is the case that Croats use the longer form of the adjective more frequently than do Serbs.
The more significant point concerns the entirety of BCS speakers, and the existence of a
broad range of speech activities which cannot be described in binary terms. That is, most in-
stances of variation in usage cannot simply be assigned to one side or the other. Rather, the atti-
tudes of speakers towards what they speak span an entire gamut. If one again takes the above ex-
amples as indicative, it is possible to identify a continuum of reactions to them. At one end would
stand the speakers for whom these examples are clearly marked as one or the other, and at the
other end would stand the speakers who perceive little or no difference between them. As in any
continuum, there will be many instances of individuals who fall at various points between these
two extremes. It is also relevant to note that not every speaker has the same attitude at any one
point in time or in any one instance of speech. Finally, one must not lose sight of the human fac-
tor, which can be illustrated here by the first line of a poem written by the Bosnian poet Enes
Kišević in 1968-1969. The meaning of the line depends on the dichotomy between the members
of the first example quoted above, siječanj vs. januar.
Bio je sijčanj iliti januar, ne sjećam se. It was either January or January, I can’t recall.
The literal English translation is meaningless. That is, since both words clearly refer to the same
31-day period, there is simply no way to render the distinction in English. But the line of poetry is
not meaningless at all. What Kišević is saying is that he knows very well what month it was; that
is not at issue. What distresses him is that he cannot remember where he was or who he was with.
These human factors are obviously much more important for the speaker – and this is the whole
point of the line of poetry – than either the actual calendar time of year or the necessity to align
himself firmly with either the eastern or the western variant of speech.
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like (different from)? Even the division into ekavian, ijekavian and ikavian (review [171c]) is not
as obvious as it might seem. While most local dialects clearly belong to one or another of these
groups, there are some where the evidence seems to be mixed almost at random: some words act
like ekavian and others like ikavian (or ijekavian). In other words, even in those areas where lin-
guistic science can provide objective parameters of measurement, decisions of perception and
judgment must still be made. Similarly, it is the job of sociolinguists to describe and catalogue the
different variants of speech that correlate with socially-defined markers such as age, ethnicity,
sex, social class, occupation and the like.
To carry out their respective tasks, both groups of linguists must constantly calculate de-
grees of similarity and difference. Dialectologists must determine the exact points (both on the
map and within linguistic structure) at which a particular dialect stops being like that of its neigh-
bors and becomes a separate dialect of its own, and sociolinguists must determine the point at
which the particular social parameter does indeed appear to be identified with the speech trait in
question. It is true that there exist established scientific disciplines which provide them with pa-
rameters according to which such decisions can be made. Nevertheless, most of the decisions
continue to rest upon perceptions – both those of the linguist and those of the speakers them-
selves. Not surprisingly, there are numerous instances of dispute.
Linguists are also concerned with the difference between language and dialect, and with
establishing criteria for deciding precisely what is the point at which a particular linguistic system
stops being a dialect of a language, and becomes so different that it should be considered a sepa-
rate language. The general criterion is mutual intelligibility: if speakers can understand each other
they are said to be speaking the same language, and if they cannot, they are said to be speaking
different languages. But this criterion is also imprecise, and largely dependent not only on percep-
tion but also on emotion (and, to an extent, on the educational level of the speakers). Objective
linguists may determine that two speech systems clearly represent different languages, yet if
speakers of these two systems want badly enough to understand each other they will manage to
do so, and will claim (with varying degrees of emotional exaggeration) that they are speaking the
same language. Conversely, objective linguists may decide that two speech systems clearly repre-
sent the same language; yet if speakers of these two systems are sufficiently convinced by exter-
nal factors that they will not be able to understand each other, then that will usually turn out to be
the case, and the speakers in question will claim they are speaking different languages.
The point is that although objective measurements are both possible and necessary, such
measurements can rarely do the entire job. Other elements will almost always play a significant
role: these include factors of educational level and (especially) perception and emotion – at both
the individual, general socio-cultural, and often also the political level. The current linguistic
situation in the successor states to Yugoslavia is one where several linguistic standards are in op-
eration, with a fair amount of overlap among them. Although a great deal is the same, it is criti-
cally important to aim for a correct and objective statement of what is different among them, and
to discuss these differences dispassionately. It is equally important to realize that while these
goals can never be achieved completely, one must continually do one’s best to approach them.
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With respect to alphabet, the answer is clearly negative. Neither the Latin nor the Cyrillic
alphabet defines any one of them exclusively. It is true that one faction of Serbian linguists has
proposed legislating “Cyrillic only” for Serbian, but they are in the minority. The decision of the
Committee for the Standardization of Serbian was clearly in favor of retaining both alphabets for
Serbian (for more discussion, see [187a]). It is also true that both Croatian (and Bosnian, outside
Republika Srpska) are written exclusively in the Latin alphabet, but this does not define either
one of them specifically with respect to the other two.
As to pronunciation, the answer is also negative, for similar reasons. Ijekavian characterizes
both Bosnian and Croatian, and does not define either one exclusively. It is true that ekavian is
found only within Serbia, but again – contrary to the wishes of certain Serbs who would promote
ekavian only (for more discussion, see [187b]) – the majority decision has been that Serbian will
continue to permit both pronunciations. The decision of Serbs to maintain the diversity of alpha-
bets and pronunciations that once characterized Serbo-Croatian may well make it difficult to ar-
rive at an eventual standardization of Serbian, but it does mean that Serbs are resolutely deter-
mined not to take a path of exclusivity.
Grammatical distinctions such as the single-word infinitive vs. da + present, or spelling dis-
tinctions such as prevest će vs. prevešće, could potentially be cited. The first is a noteworthy dis-
tinction in that speakers are clearly conscious of it; yet as seen above (review [171d]) it can
properly only be defined in terms of greater vs. lesser frequency of usage. The second is a clearly
diagnostic difference between Croatian and Serbian, although Bosnian can use both. But a lan-
guage cannot be defined simply in terms of a spelling rule.
The outside linguist wishing to find objective correlates by which Bosnian, Croatian and
Serbian can be defined with respect to one another is thus left with vocabulary. Many local lin-
guists also consider this to be a major defining feature, and have put considerable effort into the
construction of word lists which purport to define one or more of the systems in question as a
separate language.
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the other is to aid the public in transforming the vocabulary of active everyday use into as pure a
Croatian as possible. Some of the lists are simply that: a column of Serbian words with their
Croatian equivalents. Others function as actual dictionaries, in which individual entries are
marked with notations identifying the degree of their “Croatian-ness” or “Serbian-ness”. The
compilation and publication of these lists has contributed significantly to the enrichment of Croa-
tian vocabulary and to the revival of older, once forgotten words. At the same time, the require-
ment of categorization carries a certain element of danger. This is because such dictionaries are
more than just inventories of words: they also contain judgments. Furthermore, in most cases
these judgments are made not by a commission of scholars but by separate individual Croats,
each working from a standpoint imbued with nationalist zeal and emotion. Finally, it is hard to
know which of the words proposed as “pure Croatian” are fully integrated into active usage and
which represent simply wishful thinking. Such issues can be resolved only by actual frequency
counts, information that is available to a certain extent, but which most laymen will not know
how to (or bother to) access. In addition, a number of words which are claimed to be exclusively
Croatian are also used by Serbs, such that the actual “difference” may not be as great as is
claimed.
Bosnians have also compiled large lists of what they call their “characteristic lexicon”.
These lists also have a twofold goal, similar to that of the Croatian ones. First, these Bosnian lan-
guage activists wish to demonstrate that Bosnian is not just a mix of Serbian and Croatian but that
it has a great number of words which are specifically Bosnian. Second, of course, they want to
encourage the Bosnian public to bring these words – many of them archaisms – into active use,
thereby increasing the separate, differentiated character of Bosnian. The linguists who have com-
piled these word lists are Bosniaks (Bosnian Muslims), and the words are almost all connected
with Bosnia’s Islamic past in one way or another. The extent to which these words have actually
been integrated into active use is highly variable, especially given the more multivalent nature of
Bosnian society.
Both sets of language planners – Croats and Bosniaks – have made it their task to empha-
size that their language is different from Serbo-Croatian (which both perceive as essentially Ser-
bian), and both have done this through a return to their own specific cultural past and a search for
characteristic words which embody that past. Serbs, by contrast, who were always in the domi-
nant position (both politically and linguistically), have not felt a need to distance themselves from
Serbo-Croatian (which they correctly perceive as having an essentially Serbian base). What they
do focus on, however, is the ability of Serbian to absorb words from a variety of different sources
without prejudice, and the consequent richness of their lexicon.
The goal of this detailed discussion has been to demonstrate the lack of purely LINGUISTIC
correlates which can be used to separate Bosnian, Croatian or Serbian clearly from one another.
What defines each group’s language – for it is abundantly clear that each group recognizes, be-
lieves in, and values the existence of its own language – is the symbolic role it plays for its popu-
lation. Each is a repository of the cultural heritage that embodies a people’s identity and helps
them maintain pride in that identity. To understand the nature of each of these languages, there-
fore, one must look less at elements of linguistic structure and more at facts of identity and cul-
tural history. This is the purpose of the following three chapters.
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sense of geographical rootedness is one of the major distinctions between Serbs and Croats on the
one hand and Bosnians on the other. While the former saw their medieval kingdoms shift borders
and then cease to exist altogether during the long Ottoman occupation, the political unit called
Bosnia kept both its name and its territorial integrity over a continuous period of more than 700
years. Medieval Bosnia lasted from roughly 1190 up to the final Ottoman conquest in 1463; near
the end of this time (in 1448), Herzeg (= Duke) Stjepan established his dukedom as the independ-
ent unit which came to be known as Herzegovina. When the Ottomans took the region, they di-
vided their holdings into smaller political units, two of which they named Bosnia and Herzego-
vina. The term for this political unit was a sanjak (the word is spelled sancak in Turkish, and
sandžak in BCS, where it is now better known as the name of an area in southwestern Serbia). As
the core Bosnian lands grew to be the center of what was called “Turkey in Europe”, these two
sanjaks (together with the sanjak of Zvornik to the east) were incorporated into a vilayet (larger
political unit), which also bore the name Bosnia. This unit in turn remained stable until 1878. At
that point, the Congress of Berlin created the Austro-Hungarian protectorate of Bosnia-
Herzegovina, a unit with the current political boundaries. Thus it is that Bosnia has been a place
on the map with recognizable, stable boundaries since the late 12th century. Only between the
years 1929 and 1945 was there no separate place called Bosnia.
The early 19th century historical processes usually referred to as national reawakening (or
national revival) allowed both Serbs and Croats to hone their conception of national identity and
develop plans for the future based on a shared sense of the past. For both Serbs and Croats, these
movements drew much of their momentum from Christian victories over the Muslim Ottoman
state, and from a growing awareness that the foreign invader would soon be driven back to Asia.
Both Serbs and Croats were eager for this process to be completed so that those whom they per-
ceived as the real inhabitants of the Balkan states could start to reclaim their rightful identities.
Both groups – Serbs in the east and Croats in the west – were intent on freeing the inhabitants of
Bosnia from what they viewed as enslavement to the Ottoman yoke. Indeed, it was a tenet of Ser-
bian nationalist belief that the inhabitants of Bosnia (as well as other lands to the north and west
of it) were really Serbs, despite the fact that some of them had accepted the Muslim or the Catho-
lic faiths. Similarly, it was a tenet of Croatian national belief that the inhabitants of Bosnia were
really Croats, despite the fact that some of them had accepted the Muslim or the Greek (that is,
Orthodox) faiths. Both sides were overjoyed at the prospect of welcoming home so many prodi-
gal sons, and both were bitterly disillusioned when Bosnians chose not to return to the putative
Serb or Croat homeland, but rather to retain their Bosnian (and in many cases Muslim) identity.
This sense of loss and resentment on the part of both Serbs and Croats has remained in varying
degrees to the present day, and explains in part why the Bosnian war of the 1990s was so brutal.
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some Muslims. Other Bosnians (some Muslims, most Croats, and practically all Serbs) viewed
the idea of a common Bosnian culture as a ploy to separate and weaken them.
One of the major arenas in which this struggle took place was that of school instruction. The
native language spoken by Bosnian Slavs was called by several different names, but Kalláy’s ad-
ministration ruled that only the name bosanski (Bosnian) could be used in schools throughout
Bosnia. In the face of extremely strong resistance to this proposal among non-Muslims, this par-
ticular ruling was rescinded, but Kalláy refused to abandon his vision. He simply scaled it down,
and proposed that a grammar of the Bosnian language be produced for secondary schools. The
scholar commissioned to write the grammar, Professor Franc Vuletić, requested that the title in-
clude both the names Serbian and Croatian in some form. The two names could be in either order
and could be connected either by a hyphen or by the word or. Thus any of the following variants
would be accepted: srpsko-hrvatski, hrvatsko-srpski, srpski ili hrvatski or hrvatski ili srpski.
When government officials rejected all these proposals, Vuletić then asked that the preface state
clearly that the grammar bore the name Bosnian (bosanski) only at the government’s insistence.
When this request was also rejected, Vuletić withdrew his name altogether. This is why the 1890
Gramatika bosanskoga jezika za srednje škole (Grammar of the Bosnian Language for Middle
Schools) was published simply under government authorship. Measures requiring schools to add
the rubric Bosnian language (bosanski jezik) to their curricula and to their annual reports met
with stiff resistance, especially among Serbs, and the issue became highly politicized. In 1896,
Kalláy convinced the eminent scholar Vatroslav Jagić (1838-1923), then a highly respected pro-
fessor at Vienna University, to address a government delegation on the issue of the legitimacy of
a common Bosnian identity. When Jagić said that the expression used by the local government
did in fact correspond to the name of the country and that it had been in use for some two centu-
ries already, his remarks caused street protests in Vienna as well as an outcry in the South Slavic
lands (in his memoirs, Jagić later claimed he had stressed the unity of the language between Bel-
grade, Sarajevo, and Zagreb, and that his remarks had been taken out of context).
Kalláy eventually gave up his efforts, and in 1901 he announced himself ready to call the
language any name on which the various local groups could agree. In 1907, Parliament changed
the official name of the language from bosanski to srpskohrvatski, while still allowing Muslims
to use the term bosanski within specifically Muslim institutions (they also continued to use the
term zemaljski [“of the land”] when making general reference to the language of the three major
groups). In 1908, Vuletić’s grammar was reissued intact, under the title Gramatika srpsko-
hrvatskog jezika, and the language was henceforth known by that name. This grammar (which
was reprinted in 1994 by Bosnian Muslim activists in Switzerland, under its original title and still
without a stated author) is a very interesting document. Originally published in both alphabets, it
sought to find a balance between Serbian and Croatian elements; in many instances it simply de-
scribed two options and stated that both were acceptable. It demonstrated, in fact, that the lan-
guage of late 19th-century Bosnia was neither strictly Serbian nor strictly Croatian, but was rather
an amalgam of the two with a broad but nevertheless workable range of variation. In 20th-century
Bosnia, this communicative system continued to function in the same manner throughout nearly
the entire lifespan of Yugoslavia. After the dissolution of Yugoslavia, it was transformed into the
current Bosnian language, whose name is still a matter of dispute (for discussion, see [177]).
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organizations and political parties (along with parallel organizations for Serbs and Croats within
Bosnia). Individual Bosnian Muslim intellectuals had identified with Serb or Croat causes at vari-
ous points, even to the point of declaring themselves as Muslim Croats or Muslim Serbs, but by
the time the new state was founded, the identity of Bosnian Muslims as a separate political force
was sufficiently well established that its spokespeople could argue for some degree of autono-
mous Bosnian identity within the new Yugoslav state. Thus it was that Bosnia continued much as
before – a well-defined place with no one religious or cultural majority where the several faiths
and cultures lived together in an atmosphere which surprised outside visitors with its degree of
tolerance and civility.
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system, he accorded each component republic of the federation a national identity with which
minorities in other republics could identify. Thus, each of the five national identities in Yugosla-
via – Serbs, Croats, Slovenes, Montenegrins and Macedonians – had its primary home base, its
charter republic. Bosnia-Herzegovina, however, was a primary republic to no one, because every
group in it was technically a minority. When the time came for individual citizens to declare their
national (that is, ethnic) affiliations on census forms, Bosnians had to choose between the catego-
ries Serb, Croat, Muslim Serb, Muslim Croat, or an alternate category (such as undetermined
Muslim in the 1948 census, or undetermined Yugoslav in the 1953 census). Not surprisingly, over
90% of Bosnian Muslims chose these “undetermined” categories. Eventually, it was recognized
that the term Muslim was not a religious but rather a political (national-ethnic) label, and the word
Musliman (written with a capital letter) was given the technical meaning “member of a national-
ethnic group within Yugoslavia”, to differentiate it from the word musliman (written without the
capital letter), which continued to denote an adherent of Islam regardless of domicile. This dis-
tinction, understood (though not accepted) by everyone in the former Yugoslavia, has caused
considerable difficulty in the West, which comprehends the term Muslim only in the religious
sense; this misunderstanding almost certainly contributed to the widespread perception of the
Yugoslav wars as exclusively religious wars.
It was the 1974 constitution which officially elevated the national-ethnic category Muslim
to the status of a narod, or nation, henceforth to be viewed on an equal level with the other ethnic
groups who had a primary or charter republic. The achievement of this status by Muslims, and the
religious revival initiated in 1970 with the publication of an Islamic treatise by the future political
leader Alija Izetbegović, contributed to the growing ethnic-national polarization within Yugosla-
via. Much of this polarization had been expressed in linguistic terms, since it had first burst to the
surface with the 1967 declaration by Croatian intellectuals of the existence of a separate Croatian
language (for more discussion, see [182a]). In the case of Bosnian Muslims, however, the move
towards separatism was motivated not by linguistic reasons but simply by self-defense. They
knew well that no matter how significant they might become as a separate narod, it would always
be the Serb-Croat coalition that kept the country together. Further, they knew well that Bosnia’s
stability depended on the multi-faith, multicultural coexistence that had worked for centuries, and
that this Bosnian multiculturalism could only work within a larger multicultural state that was
also relatively stable. If the Croatian drive for a separate language succeeded, and Serbs and
Croats both established separate languages and eventually separate states, then the fight to re-
claim the Bosnians which these two groups had always believed were “theirs” at heart, would be
bitter indeed. Thus, the Bosnian Muslims began in earnest to revive the bošnjaštvo of the Austro-
Hungarian period, and to build a separatist political movement around it. The zeal with which
they did so has been viewed by many in fundamentalist terms (religious and otherwise), but it is
clear that had Milošević’s Serbs and Tudjman’s Croats not been so stridently nationalistic,
Izetbegović’s Muslims would not have needed to become so either.
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only to the first, broader understanding. That is, they claim, since all agree that the term Bošnjak
now carries the specific meaning Bosnian Muslim, it follows that the language which consciously
seeks to characterize that specific cultural identity should be called bošnjački jezik. But the codi-
fiers of this language claim the right to call their language by whatever name they choose, and the
name they choose is bosanski. The English translations for the ethnic terms Bosanac and
Bošnjak are Bosnian and Bosniak, respectively. The distinction between these two terms is not
disputed by English speakers, though even those who understand the ramifications of the distinc-
tion will occasional use them interchangeably. But it is harder to agree on a name for the lan-
guage, either in English or in the original. One cannot deny the inhabitants of Bosnia the right to
call their language whatever name they wish; therefore, some say, if they choose to call it bosan-
ski, they should be allowed to do so, and outside usage should respect this choice by using the
term Bosnian (the fact that the Dayton accords of 1995 call the language Bosnian is also often
cited). At the same time, some means should be found to respect the wishes of those inhabitants
of Bosnia who do not wish the language prescribed by Muslim intellectuals to be legislated as
their only official language: one way to do this would be to use the term Bosniak for that lan-
guage. As of the current writing, the situation has not yet been resolved, and both terms are found
in use.
The form and the content of the Bosnian / Bosniak language is gradually being defined,
though it is unclear how many of the changes proposed by the Bosnian Muslim intellectuals who
are at work on language planning will make it into actual everyday usage. One of the proposed
changes is to restore the letter (and sound) h to a number of words which originally had it (and
which, in a number of local dialects, still do have it). These words include both Turkish-derived
words such as kahva “coffee” and sahat “clock, hour”, and native Slavic words such as lahak /
lahka “light, easy”, and mehak / mehka “soft”. Some Bosnians now write h in these words, but
many still use the former spellings kafa, sat, lak / lak and mek / meka. The other major change
is in vocabulary: here, too, it is proposed to expand the number of Turkish-derived words by rein-
troducing words which revive ties with the Islamic cultural heritage. Some writers make a con-
certed effort to use as many such words as possible (usually in writing for periodicals with a
strong national-religious orientation), but general usage has not seen a concerted rise in the fre-
quency of such words. The third noticeable change is not specifically Bosnian in content, but
rather consists in a gradual reorientation from Serbian in the direction of Croatian. Thus, one now
sees the spelling općina instead of opština “municipality”, and encounters on occasion the pro-
posed Croatian spelling ne će instead of neće. But this change is not radical, either: the earlier
balance between Serbian-marked and Croatian-marked words (and the extent to which such pairs
are in common use as synonyms) is still present to a great degree.
In sum, a number of changes have been proposed; certain of these are being implemented to
varying degrees. In essence, however, the Bosnian language of today does not differ radically
from the “Bosno-Herzegovinian standard linguistic expression” of 1974.
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lyrian proposal was the retention of archaic case forms. The merger of the dative, locative, and
instrumental plural cases into a single form, characteristic of Vuk’s native dialect, was not known
in any of the major Croatian-based dialects, and the Illyrians refused to accept these plural case
forms. They insisted on the inherited forms (for instance, Dpl. knjigam, Lpl. knjigah, and Ipl.
knjigama for the feminine noun knjiga), and became known as the ahavians or ahavci (those
who insist on the ending -ah).
Indeed, the Illyrians were caught in the middle. Supporters of Vuk Karadžić’s proposals
(known as Vukovians, or vukovci) praised them for agreeing to adopt the štokavian ijekavian dia-
lect, but criticized them for wishing to retain archaic case forms and for preferring morphopho-
nemic over phonological spelling (review [164g]). Other Croats, while supporting the Illyrians’
insistence on more “traditional” spelling, criticized them for abandoning the ikavian elements of
their cultural heritage (referring, of course, to the many literary works produced in ikavian over
the centuries, not only in Dalmatia but also in Slavonia). But the Illyrians could point to one ma-
jor literary success: they were able to revive the great works of the Dalmatian Renaissance of the
16th and 17th centuries, a period which was of immense importance for Croatian national pride.
One particularly notable achievement concerned Ivan Gundulić’s epic poem Osman. This was an
epic poem written in 1632, comprising twenty cantos. Over the centuries, two of these cantos –
occupying a dramatically critical point in the epic tale – had somehow disappeared. The Illyrian
poet Ivan Mažuranić (1814-1890) was able to revive Gundulić’s Renaissance language so well
that he composed the two missing cantos as if the original poet himself had written them.
But it was the Vienna agreement of 1850, and the victory of the Vukovian principles of lan-
guage standardization, which set the course for the future. The Croatian Vukovians held sway in
Zagreb, and worked in concert with Vuk’s assistant Đuro Daničić to codify the language (review
[170c]), aided by supporters of the Yugoslav ideal such as Bishop Strossmayer. But although
these voices reigned, they were not the only ones. A number of Croatian intellectuals protested
what they saw as a linguistic “sell-out”. They continued to argue for different forms of the plural
cases and for the greater appropriateness of ikavian spelling over ijekavian for Croatian. Indeed, it
is highly ironic that by the time ijekavian became established as the norm in Zagreb, the Serbs –
the original Vukovians – had switched to ekavian usage (for more discussion, see [185]). But the
primary complaint of the Croatians who had not joined with the Vukovians concerned lexicogra-
phy. In this area, they protested the principles underlying not only the shorter dictionary of Ivan
Broz and Franjo Iveković (published in 1901) but also the massive JAZU dictionary project. This
undertaking, to which Daničić and others after him devoted their lives, eventually produced 23
large volumes under the title Rječnik hrvatskoga ili srpskoga jezika (Dictionary of the Croatian
or Serbian Language), spanning the period 1880 -1975. Both dictionaries included only štokavian
words, and indeed both seemed primarily focused on those words from the folklore sources which
had provided the basis for Vuk’s own dictionary of Serbian. This perceived imbalance, and the
need to mine the riches of their full, multi-dialectal linguistic heritage (in the words of one Croa-
tian linguist, zakopano blago jezika “the buried treasure of language”) has been a hallmark of
Croatian language planning ever since.
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figures from Dalmatia, including the dramatist Ivo Vojnović (1857-1926) and the sculptor Ivan
Meštrović (1883-1962), also created powerful works of art based upon the Kosovo myth.
The new South Slavic state which came into being at the conclusion of World War I was
based on the idea of a unified “Yugoslav” cultural identity (and language). This idealized unity
was epitomized in the language name srpsko-hrvatsko-slovenački (Serbo-Croato-Slovenian),
and in Skerlić’s proposal (according to which Serbs would relinquish Cyrillic if Croats would
take on ekavian spelling and Vukovian vocabulary). Hope in these ideals died quickly. Croats
realized with dismay that the Yugoslav state for which they had worked, and in which most of
them had fully believed, was to be run from Belgrade, with Belgrade-based attitudes as the rule of
the day in nearly all spheres. The initial euphoria was replaced by bitterness, and tensions be-
tween Serbs and Croats quickly worsened. These tensions led to bitter arguments on the floor of
Parliament, one of which (in June of 1928) resulted in gunfire aimed at several Croat deputies.
Among the wounded were the Croat leader Stjepan Radić, who subsequently died of his wounds.
On January 6, 1929, King Alexander suspended the constitution, officially renamed the country
Yugoslavia, and imposed a unitary, Serb-based political system. At that point, the right-wing
Croat Ante Pavelić moved to Italy and began organizing (with Mussolini’s help, and according to
fascist principles which were quite popular at the time) the Ustashe movement, whose goal was
Croatian independence.
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government. Hitler reacted in fury, ordering his forces to attack Belgrade with particular sav-
agery. This attack came on April 6, 1941: four days later (and a full week before the capitulation
of Yugoslavia), Pavelić re-entered Croatia and founded the openly fascist Independent State of
Croatia. The Croatian name of this state, which had complete German and Italian support, was
Nezavisna država Hrvatska; it was commonly referred to by its initials, NDH. Within days, the
Cyrillic alphabet was banned, and before the month was out, the new state established the
Hrvatski državni ured za jezik. This, the Croatian State Office for Language, was charged with
four major tasks: monitoring all aspects of Croatian language use, preparing school textbook and
language reference materials, enforcing language laws, and carrying out linguistic propaganda.
That is, the Ustashe government officially took on the task of “cleansing” the Croatian language,
with the aim of eradicating all Serbian-based “impurities”, and continued to pursue this goal as-
siduously throughout its entire time in office.
Throughout the existence of NDH (1941-1945), the state (through its Office for Language)
paid great attention to propaganda. For instance, it organized weekly radio broadcasts (beginning
in May, 1941), the goal of which was both to define and defend the notion of a separate Croatian
language, and to issue instructions as to the permissible words and expressions in this language. It
also required newspapers to print (at their own expense) similar pronouncements. Its most explicit
regulations, however, concerned spelling. In August, 1941, a law was passed requiring morpho-
phonemic rather than phonetic spelling of Croatian. According to the exact wording of the law,
one “was to use root-oriented orthography rather than phonetic orthography” (na hrvatskom se
jeziku ima pisati po korienskom, a ne po zvučnom pravopisu). By this act, the work of the
Vukovians was overthrown and the Illyrian principle of “writing for the eye and not the ear” was
signed into law. In addition, the ijekavian sequence -ije- was proclaimed to be a single-syllable
diphthong, and was now to be written without the -j-. Thus the word for root, formerly written
korijen, was now to be written korien (as were similar syllables in all other affected words). Be-
cause confusion reigned over the precise implementation of this law, a manual entitled Koriensko
pisanje (roughly, “Root-Oriented Writing”) was written. This manual appeared in early Septem-
ber, 1942, and a four-month grace period was allowed for adaptation. After this, one could be
arrested for misspelling – presumably on suspicion of anti-Ustashe sympathies. Although the
Ustashe regime was defeated along with other Axis forces in 1945, many of the puristic language
sentiments remained alive. As their final statement published just weeks before the capitulation,
the State Office for Language reminded Croats of their holy duty to continue efforts to keep the
Croatian language pure, as a matter of pride and honor.
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In the case of language, this trend led to the Novi Sad agreement of 1954, which proclaimed
the existence of a single language with two equal instantiations, Serbo-Croatian and Croato-
Serbian (review [170d]). A language commission was set up and charged with producing two
orthographic manuals and two sets of dictionaries. The actual work was assigned to the cultural-
publishing organizations known as Matica srpska (based in Novi Sad) and Matica hrvatska
(based in Zagreb). Each of these organizations would produce the reference tools in question us-
ing its own alphabet and own pronunciation, and would list the other pronunciation as well. The
orthographic manuals were produced on schedule in 1960, and work on the dictionaries was un-
derway. Already it was clear, however, that the differences between east and west went beyond
those of alphabet and pronunciation, and that it was necessary to find some way to describe these
differences more successfully. The concept of eastern and western variants was introduced (and
the technical linguistic term varijanta was adopted in 1965). But there remained considerable
unrest among Croat linguists, who did not agree with the suggested “models” according to which
these variants should be defined.
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ual was then published in London (from a manuscript copy which had been taken out of the coun-
try prior to this point) and circulated widely among Croats in diaspora. Three years later, in 1974,
the new constitution allowed all republics (Croatia included) to determine the local idiom of in-
ternal use. Croatia immediately chose the Croatian standard language as its local idiom.
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population had paid heavily by fighting three wars in less than a decade. Through these wars they
had gained territory both in the north (portions of southern Hungary) and in the south (Kosovo,
southern Serbia and Macedonia).
But there were still many Serbs living outside the borders of Serbia proper – in Montenegro,
in Bosnia, in western Slavonia and in the Krajina. Some, such as the Montenegrins, lived in what
they regarded as their original homeland, but many of the others had participated in one of the
several migrations of Serbian history. Serbs, who were (and are) acutely conscious of where their
co-nationals live, even have two different words meaning Serb. The more general word Srbin
refers to a Serb regardless of domicile, while the derived form Srbijanac refers to a Serb living
within Serbia proper. There is also the term prečanin (derived from the adverb preko “across”),
which denotes a Serb who, due to migrations, now lives on the other side of some boundary line
(usually a river). Indeed, the most famous Serbian novel of all times, published in 1929 by Miloš
Crnjanski (1893-1977), bears the simple title Seobe (Migrations). Set in the 1740s, it was in-
tended to be the first in a six-volume series which would conclude in the 1870s, bringing the mi-
gratory family back home to Serbia (ironically, political events which caused Crnjanski’s own
migration prevented him from finishing this project).
The Serbian desire to unify their people whom migration had spread far and wide was (and
remains) acute, and the fact that nearly everyone in the new state – the “first Yugoslavia” – spoke
the same basic language as they did was for them yet further indication that the union should be a
Serb-based one. But the “second Yugoslavia” – Titoist Yugoslavia – was constructed so as to
make this impossible. Tito did this by splitting into separate pieces the region that was previously
all Serbia. The southern portion became the separate republic of Macedonia (with its own lan-
guage); the southwestern portion, with a majority population of Albanians, became the autono-
mous province of Kosovo-Metohija (later simply Kosovo); and the northern portion, with a plu-
rality of Hungarians, became the autonomous province of Vojvodina. In subsequent years, this
perceived “territorial emasculation” led to a resurgence of nationalism under Slobodan Milošević,
but in the first decades of Tito’s rule, Serbs cooperated willingly in the sense of brotherhood and
unity. Indeed, most sincerely thought they were now working together with other republics in
harmony, and many could not understand why Croats were continually so resentful. Each side
had made compromises, they felt, and things should now go forward smoothly. In the case of lan-
guage, most Serbs rejected (and still reject) Croatian claims that Serbo-Croatian was always an
artificial creation. To them, Serbo-Croatian was a real and living language, with different local
variations: it was the language which many Serbs called (and which many of them still believe to
be) their native tongue. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, as the republics of Croatia, Bosnia-
Herzegovina and Montenegro were moving to create their own separate norms and their own ac-
cepted modes of standard linguistic expression (corresponding to educated usage in Zagreb, Sara-
jevo, and Titograd, respectively), Serbs considered whether they too should establish a separate
Serbian norm. They eventually decided, in 1982, not to do so. As separatist movements gained
power elsewhere in the land, this simple choice led to the unfortunate situation whereby anyone
who insisted that Serbo-Croatian was still a functioning language was branded as a Serbophile.
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sanctions, and the totalitarian rule of Slobodan Milošević. The question of the Bosnian language
was also problematic. In the view of Serbs, Bosnian was essentially the same as ijekavian Ser-
bian, and they saw no justification for a separation. But when the Dayton accords sanctioned the
existence of a Bosnian language in addition to Serbian and Croatian, this issue also had to be
faced by Serb linguists.
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scinded. Since that time, both pronunciations have been officially permitted (and the population
continues to speak its native ijekavian).
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land – constitutes the core of the emotional bond between Serbs and Montenegrins, a bond sym-
bolized by the traditional Montenegrin logo. This design, which is embroidered on the cap of the
Montenegrin men’s folk costume (and seen in many other places), takes the form of a cross with
the Cyrillic letter С in each corner. These four letters stand for the sentence
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for Vuk’s language program, especially as the same year had also seen the publication of Vuk’s
translation of the New Testament into the popular language. Furthermore, the preceding year had
seen the publication of another major literary epic whose central concern was the struggle of
Montenegrin heroes against the Turks, and which was also based upon real characters and events.
This was Ivan Mažuranić’s Smrt Smail-Age Čengića (The Death of Smail-Aga Čengić), consid-
ered by Illyrians to be the literary masterpiece of their movement. Although the two landmark
epic poems belonged at the time to different literary and cultural circles, it is significant that both
were written not only in the same language, but also in the same poetic meter as the traditional
oral epic poetry. It is likely that these facts, plus the obvious literary merit of both poems, played
a role in the success of the Vienna agreement and in the choice of ijekavian as the standard writ-
ten form of the language of Serbs and Croats. Montenegrins viewing these events in retrospect
take great pride in them.
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published a manual called Piši kao što zboriš (Write As You Speak), whose title is a direct quote
of Vuk’s slogan, but substituting the characteristically Montenegrin word for speak. Three years
later, Nikčević published the book-length Crnogorski pravopis (Montenegrin Orthography). His
basic claim – which has been soundly rejected by Slavic linguistic scholarship – is that Montene-
grins are the only original speakers of ijekavian, and that ijekavian then spread (via migrations
and the expansion of Vuk’s language) among the ekavian Serbs and the ikavian Bosnians and
Croats. It follows from this, says Nikčević, that the future of the “Montenegrin language” requires
restoring ijekavian to its full, undiluted extent. This should be done, he says, in two ways. One is
to restore the archaic negated forms of biti (nijesam, etc.) as well as the original endings of cer-
tain pronominal and adjectival case forms, such as Gpl. tijeh starijeh ljudi (in place of tih starih
ljudi or DLIpl. tijem starijem ljudima (in place of tim starim ljudima). The other is to repro-
duce in the spelling certain consonant softenings which he claims to be Montenegrin (but which
in fact are dialectal East Herzegovinian pronunciation): this would involve introducing three new
letters into the alphabet (ś, ź and з), and increasing the frequency of ć and đ. He thus proposes
spelling the ijekavian words osjećati, zjenica, tjerati and djevojka as ośećati, źenica, ćerati,
and đevojka (the letter з represents the sound dz, which occurs rarely). Other proposals wold
introduce certain dialectal pronunciations into the written language, such as śutra for sutra.
Because so many of the markers of the proposed “Montenegrin language” are connected
with ijekavian, these proposals create a particularly difficult situation for Serbs. At the present
writing, Serbia and Montenegro still are joined in a single political unit. Although there have been
signs of impending Montenegrin separation for several years, the joint political unit currently en-
joys a certain semblance of stability. It is abundantly clear, however, that the maintenance of the
union between Serbia and Montenegro depends (at least in part) upon the assurance that the lan-
guage of this political unit continues to allow both ekavian and ijekavian expression, with con-
vincing guarantee of equal prestige for both.
423
CHAPTER 26
424
CHAPTER 26
another example, or in the ordering of clitic forms (moja je sestra učiteljica vs. moja sestra je
ućiteljica), has not been noted in the footnoted commentary to examples.
In sum, the grammar section of this book (comprising chapters 1-20) has described BCS as
a single language with a certain amount of internal differentiation. The sociolinguistic commen-
tary, by contrast, has focused on that which defines Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian as separate
entities. The initial portion of this commentary (chapter 21) summarized the history of standardi-
zation prior to the wars which split Yugoslavia asunder. The following portion (chapter 22) dis-
cussed parameters of differentiation over the broader BCS area and asked whether or not one can
delineate the distinctions among the three (Bosnian, Croatian, Serbian) on a purely linguistic
level. The overall answer was negative: although internal differentiation does exist, its distribu-
tion cannot be correlated in any systematic way with the boundaries of the states now associated
with the three newly-defined separate languages. The purpose of the subsequent discussion (chap-
ters 23-25) was to demonstrate that the three systems are indeed clearly differentiated from one
another, and that each of these three systems plays a very important role in transmitting and af-
firming the historical and cultural identity of the people in question. In other words, the differ-
ences which separate Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian are not so much linguistic but symbolic, and
function not on the level of everyday communication but rather on the level of political and na-
tional representation. If one calls the language of cultural and national representation an “S-
language” (where S means symbol) and the language of everyday interaction a “C-language”
(where C means communication), one can say that each of the three new S-languages is the me-
dium of communication of a distinct people, each with its own history, culture, and sense of self.
At the same time, speakers of these three S-languages communicate with one another using the
same grammar and (largely) the same vocabulary – in other words, they speak one and the same
C-language.
Natives have traditionally referred to this situation by describing their language as jedan ali
ne jedinstven “one but not uniform”. Using technical linguistic terminology, one could call it a
pluricentric language, or a language which serves different populations in different states, taking
on different guises as necessary. Such a situation is not at all uncommon in the world today: all
four of the major Western languages (English, French, German, and Spanish) are pluricentric lan-
guages. In fact, some linguists have argued that since Serbo-Croatian was also a pluricentric lan-
guage (uncharacteristically functioning within a single state rather than within different states),
BCS should be regarded not only as the successor to Serbo-Croatian but in fact identical with it.
The only difference, these linguists claim, is that the breakup of Yugoslavia has transformed the
language into a more characteristic (more “normal”) pluricentric language, in that it now func-
tions within a number of different states rather than within a single state. Others feel that the lin-
guistic situation has changed just as radically as has the political one has, and that the names –
both of the several S-languages or the single C-language – must reflect this change.
No one can deny that change has occurred (and not just in the names of languages). Lan-
guage engineering has taken place on a number of different levels, and an entire generation is
now nearing the completion of its schooling in the newly separate states. The most extensive
work dedicated to language transformation has been that undertaken in Croatia, where a large
number of devoted language specialists have worked with great enthusiasm and national fervor to
implement a Croatian language which would be clearly distinct from Serbo-Croatian. In like
manner, a devoted and diligent group of Bosniak intellectuals undertook the more or less parallel
task of establishing a language that would also be distinct from Serbo-Croatian – a language
which they call Bosnian but which many outside Bosnia believe should bear the name Bosniak.
No parallel efforts were made by Serbs to develop a separate Serbian language. Rather, Serbs at-
tempted to find ways to maintain a pluralistic status quo, since most of them considered that Ser-
bian and Serbo-Croatian were (and continued to be) largely the same.
The decade of the 1990s was thus one of intense activity and rapid change. Although it is
perhaps too soon to tell whether a state of rest has actually been reached, by 2005 it was clear that
425
CHAPTER 26
the rate of change had slowed dramatically. In addition, it appeared by that point safe to say that
the changes themselves were nearly all in terms of focus rather than substance. That is, nearly
every element which now functions to differentiate Croatian from Serbian (or Bosnian from ei-
ther of them) was already present as a variant means of expression. What has changed is the de-
gree of emphasis that is placed on these particular elements as representative of national groups,
and the conscious attention paid to these elements by speakers and (especially) by politicians and
language planners.
The current state is best described as three distinct systems of symbolic cultural representa-
tion (three S-languages) which share a common core of communicative expression (one C-
language) which in each instance bears an overlay of its own distinct representation. The three
separate systems are Bosnian, Croatian, and Serbian, of course, and their common core is BCS.
The names Croatian (hrvatski) and Serbian (srpski) are unproblematic: each refers to a clearly
defined national and cultural group. Furthermore, since each term has in the past also referred to
that group’s language, it is natural for it to do so now. The name Bosnian (bosanski) is somewhat
more problematic. The intense language planning efforts which have elevated Bosnian to its cur-
rent status have been undertaken by Bosnian Muslim (Bosniak) intellectuals; consequently, much
of what differentiates Bosnian from Serbian or Croatian is identifiable with the Bosniak Islamic
heritage. Non-Muslim Bosnians (as well as other BCS speakers) accordingly claim that since the
language bears so many Bosniak national traits, it should also bear the name Bosniak (bošnjački).
The Bosniak language planners, however, claim the right to call their language by whatever name
they choose, and are resolute in their insistence that the name of the language should be not Bos-
niak but Bosnian (bosanski). At the present writing (and for the foreseeable future), this issue
remains unresolved.
Naming the common core, here called BCS, is more difficult. For outsiders, the idea of an
abbreviation is a welcome solution. In English, for instance, BCS is more than adequate: it is not
only easily pronounceable (“bee-see-ess”) and compact to write, but also communicates all the
necessary information. The alphabetical order of the components allows one to avoid any sort of
value-ranking, and the use of the initial B rather than a full name even allows one to refrain from
taking a position on the Bosnian / Bosniak dispute. Native speakers of what is here called BCS,
however, would rarely find a reason to use such a term. In fact, the vast majority of these speak-
ers continue a practice which has served them well for many decades. Namely, when the situation
requires them to identify what they are speaking, they use either the more localized term which
identifies their own particular area, or they use the all-embracing phrase naš jezik “our language”
(or its abbreviated form, the adjective naški). That is, they allow the situation to determine
whether they will use the specific or the general mode of identifying their speech. Obviously, the
generalized adjective our has the great advantage of specifying the commonality of the code
while not placing any specific national or geographic limits on the group using the code. Thus,
the phrase “our language” can refer to a language community as small a single village or as large
as a supranational far-flung global complex of speakers (the word may also take on political over-
tones: when the name Croatian was taboo during the early 1970s, many Croats used the term naš
jezik with a sort of ironic satisfaction to denote “their” language). Of course, this lack of specifi-
cation within the word itself places considerable burden on the particular context within which it
is used. In addition, the explicit personal involvement conveyed by the fact of the first person
pronoun our renders the term too emotional and personal to be used in any scientific context –
and there is also the obvious fact that the term is not available to an outsider, even the most sym-
pathetic one.
In the end, however, names are perhaps not everything. It continues to be true, after all, that
a rose by any other name will smell as sweet. Accordingly, one might also say that Yugoslavs by
any other name still have their speech, just as Bosnians / Bosniaks, Croats and Serbs have their
individual speech. This book is for all these speakers, as well as for all others – whoever and
wherever they may be – who wish to talk to, with, or about any of these speakers.
426
INDEX to Grammar
427
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
428
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
429
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
430
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
431
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
432
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
433
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
434
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
435
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
436
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
vowel shifts (due to ablaut) 367-368 days of the week 26, 206
Spanish 78 duration 207, 326
Spelling genitive minus preposition 79-80, 206, 314
of č and ć 3 instrumental of repeated action 115-116,
of proper names 3 207, 326
phonological vs. morphophonemic 376-378 months of the year 91, 203-204, 206, 323
Stem 16, 149, 330-332 of intention 154, 207, 308
see also Word formation point in time 80, 308-309, 317, 326
Subject of sentence time of the clock 81
expressed by nominative 302 times of the day 208-209
number phrase as 76-77, 82, 202 years 203-204, 206
što phrase as 253-255 Titles 191-193
Subjectless sentences 60-61, 82, 237-240 see also Names, Professions
and the accusative 163-164 Transitivity
and the dative 101-102, 163-164, 239-240 and active vs. passive 187-188, 233-235
future tense 147 and desideratives 117
and the genitive 82, 240 and intransitivity 46, 102
impersonal 237-238 and reflexives 151-152
logical subjects in 82, 163, 211, 239-240 requires direct object 46, 117
past tense 162 and -stati vs. -staviti derivatives 276-277
Subordinate clauses Transport, verbs of 120, 166-167
see also Conjunctions see also Motion
after da 30
and word order 32-33 Variation
object clauses with što 153-154 in accentuation 357
Suffixes 16, 149, 330-332, 339-341 Verbal adverbs 213, 230-232
and aspect derivation 65-66, 149-150, 273- past 231-232
275, 278-281 present 230-231
in formation of comparatives 176-178 Verbal nouns 167-168, 183-184, 282
in formation of verbs 332-334 Verbs
in formation of nouns 39-40, 332-334, 339- compound verb tenses 283-284
348 derivation from nouns and adjectives 332-334
and endings 340 derivation from other verbs 334-335
“grammatical suffixes” 339-340 full verb paradigms 290-300
in formation of adjectives 348-349 biti 301
Superlatives 176-181 brati 296-297
see Comparatives davati 296
svoj 95-96 doći 300
see also Pronominal possessives držati 293
što gledati 292
interrogative vs. conjunction 153 hteti 300
in object clauses 153-154 htjeti 300-301
jesti 298
Tag questions 72-73 kazivati 295-296
see also Questions krenuti 294-295
Tense kupovati 295
see also names of individual tenses nositi 292
compound tenses 283-284 pisati 294
scope of present vs. past 94 piti 294
simplex tenses 284-286 stići 299
usage in narration 286-290 teći 299
vs. mood 220 tresti 298
Theme vowel 17, 156-157, 331-332 umeti 297
Time expressions 206-209 umjeti 297-298
accusative of duration 94-95, 207, 308 uzeti 297
adverbs 80, 208-209 videti 293
437
INDEX TO GRAMMAR
438
INDEX to Sociolinguistic commentary
439
INDEX TO SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMMENTARY
440
INDEX TO SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMMENTARY
441
INDEX TO SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMMENTARY
Novi Sad agreement 385, 414 pre-Novi Sad language policies 413
Serbo-Croato-Slovene 385, 412 redrawing of Serbian boundaries 418
Skerlić, Jovan 384, 412 stable years of reign 397
Slaveno-serbski 416-417 Torlak 388
Slovak 387 see also Dialects
Slovenian 385, 387, 394, 413 Tudjman, Franjo 408, 415
Sociolinguistics 380, 401, 415, 425 Turkish 386, 387, 402, 404-405, 407, 409
language and dialect 401
language and identity 425 Variants, eastern and western
language as communicative tool 425 basic accepted differences 385, 395-398
language as symbol 425 evolution into republican idioms 386
language planning 425 introduction of term 385, 414
pluricentric languages 425 Vienna agreement 384-385, 411, 417, 422
Sound-letter correspondence Vocabulary
Illyrian views on 383 as marker of eastern vs. western 396-397
Vuk’s views on 382, 390 as distinguishing characteristic 402-403
Spanish 425 and differential dictionaries 402-403, 412
Spelling in Bosnia 403, 407, 409
as east / west marker 397, 402 in Croatia 402-403, 411, 415
Montenegrin proposals for 423 variation in usage 398, 412, 424
morphophonemic principles 382-383 Vojnović, Ivo 412
of jat’ 383, 419 Vuk Karadžić
phonological principles 382, 384 conflict with clergy 382-383, 417
Standard language Croatian followers (“vukovites”) 384, 411,
codification of correct way to express “infini- 417, 419
tive” 394-395 New Testament translation 422
definition 393 and Njegoš 421-422
Novi Sad agreement 385 role in language reform 382-384, 390, 417
pre-Illyrian grammars 410 spelling principles 382-383, 390
role of Illyrians 382-384, 389-390 and štokavian 390
role of Vuk Karadžič 382-383, 390 Vuletić, Franc 406
“variant” as official term 385
Vienna agreement 384 western variant 385, 395-397
Strossmayer, Bishop Josip Juraj 384, 411 “write as you speak” 382, 384, 390
“write for the eye and not the ear”
Štokavian 388, 390-391 as proposed by Gaj 383-384, 410
and Illyrians 384, 389-391 as interpreted by NDH 413
442
INDEX of words (BCS)
443
INDEX OF WORDS
brijati 151 cveće 175, 182 čime 112, 139 -ći (verbal adverb)
brijati se 151 cvet 175, 182 čin 337 213, 231-232, 340
brisati 150, 272 cvijeće 175, 182 činiti 103, 272, 324 -ćki 88
brod 338 cvijet 175, 182 činiti se 102, 103, ću 144, 300-301
brodolom 338 239-240 ćuprija 407
ča 388
broj 38 činovnica 193 ćuteti 231
čamac 37
broji 107 činovnik 193 ćutjeti 239
čas 81, 89, 306, 317,
brojati 107 čist 336, 347
321-324 da 29-31, 62, 67, 108,
brojiti 270 čistiti 175, 184
čast 334 122-123, 144, 146,
brz 42, 177, 338, 347 čistoća 347
čavao 90 218-220, 225, 236-
brzina 347 čišćenje 175, 184
-če 344, 372 237, 243, 245, 247-
brzo 42 čitaće 145
čeg 139 253, 263, 351, 385,
brzojav 338 čitaj 107
čega 53, 86, 112, 139 394-395, 402, 424
brži 177, 340 čitajući 213
Čeh 39, 347 da bi 223
budan 348 čitala 369
Čehinja 347 da li 10, 14, 29-30,
budem 64, 106-107, čitalac 59-60, 342,
čekati 66, 269 32-33, 63, 145, 159,
214, 259-260, 301 369
čelist 194 217
budi 107, 301 čitalo 369
čelista 194 dade 285
buditi 150, 152, 270, čitanje 42
čelo 344 dadem 292
272, 348 čitaoca 369
čem 139 dadnem 292
buditi se 152 čitatelj 60, 342
čemu 86, 112, 139 dadoh 285, 292
budući 213, 230, 232, čitati 16-17, 107, 145,
čep 338 dahnuti 173, 274
301 270, 272, 342, 349,
čerečenje 420 -dak 37
budući da 231, 246 369
čest 42, 177 dalek 178
Bugarin 40, 344, 347 čitljiv 349
čest- (verbal root) 282 dalji 178, 347
Bugarka 347 -čki 88
često 42 daljina 347
Bugarska 89, 344 član 38
češalj 39 dan 39, 115, 129,
Bugarski (name) 132 članak 37
češći 177 204, 207-208
buregdžija 370 čovečji 349
češljati 150, 151 danas 209
burek 370 čovek 45, 337, 349
češljati se 151 danju 116
čovječji 349
car 127 čestitka 319 dati 93, 150, 195,
čovjek 45, 337, 349
-ce 344 četiri 59, 75, 168, 269, 270, 273, 274,
čudak 343
cela 20, 347 197-198 278, 279, 284, 292,
čudan 343
celina 347 četiriju 197 296, 297
čuj 107
ceniti 270, 356 četirima 197 dativ 22
čuti 18, 107, 119, 294
ceo 20, 148, 259, 347 četiristo 197 davaše 285
čuvam 360
cesta 99, 147, 163, četrdeset 76, 197 davati 34, 150, 157,
čuvar 343
247, 322, 324 četrdesetak 201 274, 279, 285, 296
čuvati 343, 360
cijel 20, 148, 259, četrnaest 76, 197, 199 debeo, debela 20, 59,
čuven 294
347 četrnaesti 199 177
čvrst 177
cijeniti 270, 356 četvero 200 deblji 177
čvršći 177
cilindar 336 četvorica 200 deca 133, 161-162,
cio 20 četvoro 200 će 144, 300-301 183, 205
cjelina 347 četvrt 200 -će 282, 294, 339 decembar 91, 203,
crkva 312 četvrtak 26 ćebe 307 207, 397
crn 19-21, 75, 342, četvrti 168, 198 ćef 407 ded 337
362 četvrtina 200 ćemo 144, 300-301 deka 307
Crna Gora 420 -čić 343 ćerati ( = tjerati) 423 dela 60
crnac 342 čiji 42-43, 47, 71, ćerka 131, 310, 319, delfin 247
crni 20-21 135, 228-229, 351 321 deliti 369
Crnogorac 7 -čiji 370 ćeš 144, 300-301 deo 60
Crnogorka 7 čim (pronoun) 112, ćete 144, 300-301 deoba 369
crven 20, 333 139 -ći (infinitive) 30, 48, deset 76, 197-198,
crveneti se 333 čim (conjunction) 142, 156 343, 347
crvenjeti se 333 243, 259-260, 351 desetak 201, 339, 343
444
INDEX OF WORDS
desetero 200 124, 134-135, 338, dopisnica 346 dućan 213, 323
deseti 198 347, 363, 368 dopisnik 344 dug 36, 75, 177, 334
desetka 347 dobijati 213 doručak 334 dugačak 19
desetorica 200 dobijen 294 doručkovati 334 dugosilazni 353
desetoro 200 dobivati 213 doslovan 348 dugouzlazni 353
desiti se 162, 203- dobra 363 dosta 77 dugovati 334
204, 207, 226, 274 dobro 42, 179 dostići 269 duh 127, 174, 348-
dešavati se 103, 207, dobrog 368 dostignuće 282, 339 349
274 dobrom 368 dostignuti 282 duhovan 348
dete 130, 132-133, dobrota 347 došavši 231 duhovit 349
391 dobrotvor 338 doušnik 344 dulji 177
devedeset 76, 197 doček 342 dovde 210 dupin 247
devet 76, 197-198 dočekati 66, 269, 342 dovesti (dovedem) duša 127, 339, 348
devetero 200 doći 64, 68. 107, 142, 166 duše 127, 174
deveti 198 157, 159, 269, 300 dovesti (dovezem) duševan 348
devetorica 200 doći do 318 166 duž 315-316
devetoro 200 dodaj 107 dovoditi 166 dužan 344
devetnaest 76, 197, dodati 107, 269, 279 dovoziti 165 duži 177
199 dodavati 279 dovršavati 279 dužnik 344
devetnaesti 199 dođe 289 dovršiti 279 dva 48, 75, 168, 197-
devetsto 197 dođi 107 doživeti 279 198
devojka 74, 127, 131, događati se 207, 274- doživjeti 279 dvadeset 76, 197, 199
312, 390 275 doživljaj 343 dvadesetak 201
dići 274, 285, 295, dogodi se 289 doživljavati 279, 343 dvadeseti 199
299 dogoditi se 162, 203- drag 177 dvaju 197
dignuti 173, 274, 285, 204, 207, 226, 274- Dragica 127, 132 dvama 197
299 275 drago 102 dvanaest 76, 197, 199
digoh 285 dojam 228, 313 drati 296 dvanaesti 199
dijela 60 dok 94, 243-244, 351 draži 177 dve 59, 75, 168, 197
dijeliti 369 dok ne 94 dremati (+ se) 117, dveju 197
dijete 130, 132-133, dokazati 280, 360 164, 239 dvema 197
391 dokazivati 280 drijemati (+ se) 117, dvesta 197
dio 60 dokažem 360, 363 164, 239 dvesto 197
dioba 369 dokle 210 drug 26, 38, 57, 92, dvije 59, 75, 168, 197
direktor 313 doktor 127, 228, 308, 94, 101, 127, 345, dviju 197
disati 173, 274 309, 325 364 dvjema 197
dite 391 dolaziti 68 drugi 37, 168, 198, dvjesta 197
dizalo 217 dolijevati 280 328 dvjesto 197
dizati 173, 274, 295 doliti 280 drukčiji 370 dvoje 200, 334
diže 285 dolivati 280 drum 247 dvojica 200
dižem 295 dom 361 društvo 345
-džija 370
djeca 133, 161-162, doma 219, 244, 257, družiti se 270
183, 205 319, 396 drva 184 đak 36, 39, 124, 358-
djed 337 domaćica 193 drveće 182, 366 359
djevojka 74, 127, 131, domovina 347 drveta 182, 366 đevojka ( = djevojka)
312, 390, 423 doneti 106, 157, 158- drvlje 182 390, 423
dlan 169 159, 166, 298 drvo 182, 338 Đorđe 6, 50, 132
dnevni 208 donijeti 106, 157, drvored 338 Đorđev 50
do 54, 81, 121, 140- 158-159, 166, 298 drvorezac 370
141, 315-316, 318, donde 210 držanje 184 -e / -je 334
344, 348 donle 210 držao 266 ekser 90
do- 166, 269, 273, donositi 166 držati 64, 157, 184, električar 193
356 dopadati se 99-100, 185, 279, 293, 377 -en (participle) 185-
dobar 19-20, 24, 34- 276 držeći 230 186, 294, 340, 366
36, 40, 42, 86, 111, dopasti se 276 dublji 178 -en (adjective) 341,
dopisivati se 344, 346 dubok 178, 333 348
445
INDEX OF WORDS
-en- (neuter plural) 40 gde 69-70, 71, 120, gospodar 127 gubiti 272, 276, 343
-ence 344 210, 243, 351 gospodin 127, 132- guru 127
Engleska 88 gde god 222 133 gust 175, 177
engleski 21, 52, 86, gdje 69-70, 71, 120, gospođa 132 gušći 175, 177
88, 90, 349, 372 210, 243, 351 gost 39, 339 gušiti 272
Engleskinja 7, 347 gdje god 222 gostoprimstvo 339
hajde 108, 250
Englez 7, 347, 349, genitiv 22 govedar 343
hajdemo 108
372 gibak 19, 176 govedo 175, 343
helikopter 415
eno 57 ginuti 142 goveđi 175
hemičar 193
-ent 356 gipka 19 govor 337
hemičarka 193
-enje 183-184, 366 glačalo 311 govoriće 145
hiljada 198-199
-ero 339 glačanje 311 govoriti 16-17, 42,
hiljaditi 199
-est 111 glad 175, 334 145, 271, 280, 341,
hiljadu 198
-et- 130, 133 gladak 177 344, 355
hitar 176
eto 57, 101 gladan 333 govorljiv 341
hladan 347
euro 281 gladovati 334 govornik 344
hladnoća 347
Europa 344 glađi 177 grad 24, 38, 40, 89,
hleb 77-78, 184, 244,
Europljanin 344 glađu 175 129, 333, 343, 344,
262
-ev (plural) 38-39, glagoljica 381 345, 349, 361-362,
hljeb 77-78, 184, 244,
128 glasovir 324 368
262
-ev- (possessive) 49- glava 334, 339, 345, grada 362
hoće 64-65, 144, 301
50, 340, 366 353-355, 362 gradić 343
hoćemo 64-65, 144,
-ev- (verbal) 295 glavobolja 338-339 graditi 269, 272, 333,
301
-evina 347 glavu 362 335, 347, 367
hoćeš 64-65, 144, 301
evo 57-58, 313-314 glazba 25, 30, 98, 232 gradom 368
hoćete 64-65, 144,
evo me 58 glazbenica 193 gradovi 368
301
evro 281 glazbenik 193-194 gradski 337, 349
hoću 64-65, 144, 146,
Evropa 344 gledala 289 građanin 39, 344
301
Evropljanin 344 gledalac 342 građevina 347, 367
hodajući 230
gledao 290 grana 182
fabrika 202, 313 hodati 119-120
gledatelj 342 graničiti 272
fakat 374 hoteći 230
gledati 196, 270, 292, granje 182
fakt 374 hotel 343
335, 342 grba 348
fakultet 38, 89 hotelčić 343
glodati 175 grbav 348
februar 91, 204, 397 hotevši 300
glođem 175 greh 344
financijski 42 hotijah 300
gluh 177 grepsti 143, 186, 298
finansijski 42 hotjevši 300
glumac 192 grešnik 344
fizičar 193 hrabar 334, 348
glumica 192 grijeh 344
fizičarka 193, 319 hrabrost 348
glup 178 gristi 143, 157, 158,
fotelj 322 hrana 346
gluplji 178 298, 335, 372
Francuska 88 hraniti 272, 346
gluši 178 grizla 372
francuski 88, 349 Hrist 344
gluv 178 grizu 372
Francuz 349 hrišćanin 40, 344
gluvlji 178 Grk 39
fudbal 308, 313, 323, Hrvat 7, 346
gljiva 182 grlo 6, 346
338 Hrvatica 7, 346
gnati 376 grm 175, 182
Hrvatska 89
ga 27, 83, 138, 309- gnezdo 74, 130 grmlje 175, 182
hrvatski 21, 385, 426
310 gnijezdo 74, 130 grob 182-183
hrvatski ili srpski
gajdaš 343 god 222-223, 257 groblje 182-183
385, 406
gajde 343 godina 204 grozd 182
hrvatski vukovci 384
gajica 381 godišnjica 96 groznica 349
hrvatskosrpski 385,
gasiti 272, 339 godište 205-206 grozničav 348
406
gazda 24, 34, 36, 51, golub 39 grožđe 183, 339
Hrvoje 132
86, 124 gore 179 grub 175, 177
hteći 300
gazdarica 127 gori 179 grublji 175, 177
htednem 300
gaziti 335 gospoda 133, 161, grudi 169
htedoh 300
183 gubitak 343
446
INDEX OF WORDS
447
INDEX OF WORDS
jedan ali ne jedinstven jutros 209 280, 338, 345, 358, koga 25, 53, 86, 112,
425 360 139
k, ka 98-99, 121, 140-
jedan drugi 125, 328- kazivati 48, 119, 157, kojeg 139
141, 321, 376
329 295-296 kojem 139
-ka 39, 347
jedanaest 76, 197, kaže se 46 kojemu 139
kad 217-218, 220,
199 kažem 358, 363 koji (interrogative)
225, 243, 259-260,
jedanaesti 199 kaži 107 42-43, 47, 135-136,
263-264, 351
jedi 107 kažiprst 338 139, 212, 243, 351
kad ... tad 256
jedini 228 kćerka 131, 310, 319, koji (relative) 212-
kada 71, 210, 243,
jedinstven 348 321 213, 225-228, 243,
351
jedinstvo 348 kći 131, 310, 319, 321 260-261, 351
kafa 113, 118, 163,
jedno 328 kemičar 193 kojim putem 121
222, 245, 308, 317,
jednodušan 339 kemičarka 193 kola 103-104
396, 409
jednoga dana 265 kila 200, 314 kolega 127
kafana 396
jednokrevetna 339 kilo 200, 314 koliki 135
kahva 113, 118, 163,
jedu 372 kim 112, 139 koliko 61, 77, 351
222, 245, 308, 317,
jela 372 kime 112, 139 koliko ... toliko 256
409
jelo 337 kino 68, 89, 118 kolo 338
kaj 388
-jen 186, 294 -kinja 347, 370 kolodvor 69-70, 81,
kakav 42-43, 47, 61,
jesam 9, 92 kipar 193 89, 396
71, 136-137, 228-
jesen 35 kiparica 193 kolomaz 338
229, 351
jesenas 209-210 kiša 338, 349 kolosek 338
kako 9, 71, 223, 243,
jesenašnji 210 kišobran 338 kolosijek 338
247-248, 351
jesenji 35 kišovit 349 kolovoz 91, 203, 326,
kako ... tako 256
jesi 9, 92 klavir 324 338, 397
kako se kaže 9
jesmo 9, 92 kleče 285 kom 139
kamen 182, 343
jest 9, 92, 301 klekao 288 komad 38, 51
kamenčić 343
jeste 9, 92, 301 kleknuti 285 komandir 127
kamenit 349
jesti 48, 66, 103, 107, klekoh 285 kome 86, 112, 139
kamenje 182
143, 145, 150, 157, kleti 297 komisija 234-235
kamo 69-70, 121, 210
158, 271, 272, 276, klonuti 187 kompjuter 114, 180,
Kanada 344
298, 372 ključ 38 228, 250
Kanađanin 344
jesu 9, 92 knjiga 35-36, 86, 89, kompjutor 114, 180,
kancelarijia 89
ješće 145 124, 131, 173, 339, 228, 250
kao 62, 302-303
Jevrejin 40 346, 348 kompozitor 194
kao da 62, 245, 253
jezik 36, 74, 337, 355, knjigah 411 kompozitorka 194
kao što 62, 153, 245,
361 knjigam 411 komu 86, 112, 139
253
joj 87, 138 knjigama 411 koncert 89
kapati 175
još 180 knjigovezac 339 konobar 193
kapljem 175
Jovan 6, 50 knjizi 173 konobarica 193
kasa 317
Jovanov 50, 340 književni 348 kontrolirati 396
kasapin 193
ju 27, 53, 83, 138, knjižica 346, 397 kontrolisati 396
kasniti 272
160, 170-172 knjižnica 394 konj 39, 127, 129
-kast 348
juče 209-210, 396 ko 9, 25, 53, 71, 86, kopati 269, 370
kat 89, 168, 217, 336,
jučer 209-210, 396 112, 139, 161-162, kora 353-354
396
jučerašnji 210 228, 351, 396-397 korien 413
Katin 340
juli 91, 397 kod (noun) 3 koriensko pisanje 413
katkad 223
junak 25, 36, 38, 36, kod (preposition) 55, korijen 413
kava 113, 118, 163,
129, 345, 347, 358- 121, 140-141, 315- kost 112, 175
222, 245, 308, 317,
361, 363, 374 316, 318 košarka 343
396
junaka 359, 363 kod kuće 55, 219, košarkaš 343
kavana 396
junakinja 347 244, 259, 334, 396 košću 112, 175
kazalište 89, 153,
junaštvo 345 kod njega 55 kovati 295, 335
345, 396
juni 81, 397 kofer 180 kovčeg 37
kazati 17, 46, 48, 65,
jutarnji 208 kog 139 kraći 178
84, 97-98, 107, 119,
jutro 208
448
INDEX OF WORDS
kraj (noun) 90, 200, kružiti 333 lepši 177 ludnica 346
342, 370 krv 35, 112, 175, 282, leteti 270 luđak 343
kraj (preposition) 348 letjeti 270 luđi 178
315-316 krvav 348 leto 334 lutka 319
kralj 38 krvlju 112, 175 letos 209
ljekar 193
krasan 333 krvoproliće 282 letovati 334
ljekarka 193
krasiti 333 kucati 332 levak 343
ljepota 347
krasti 272 kucnuti 332 levi 343
ljepši 177
kratak 19, 36, 75, kuća 6, 101, 346 lezi 107
ljeto 334
178, 339 kućica 346 ležaj 343
ljetos 209
kratkoročan 339 kud ... tud 256 ležati 190, 343
ljetovati 334
kratkosilazni 353 kuda 69-70, 120-121, li 9-10, 14, 63, 73,
ljevak 343
kratkouzlazni 353 210 82-83, 144-145,
-ljiv 341, 349
kratkovidan 339 kudikamo 180 159-160, 217, 223-
ljubav 6, 35, 75, 127,
krava 175 kufer 180 224
131
kravlji 175 kuhar 193, 397 lice 45
ljubičast 348
krećem 175 kuharica 193 ličiti 310, 321
ljubičica 348
krenem 360 kuhati 272 lično 101
ljubiti 175
krenuh 295 Kuna (name) 132 lift 217
ljubiti se 271
krenuti 142, 150, 157, kunem 297 liječiti 272
ljubljah 175
270, 274, 294-295, kupati 272 liječnica 193
ljući 178
360 kupiti 31-32, 175, liječnik 193, 228,
ljudi 45, 75, 347, 423
krenuvši 231 186, 274 248, 308, 309, 325
ljudina 347
kretati 65, 84, 150, kupljen 175 lijegati 191
ljudski 337
175, 274, 295 kupovati 18, 31-32, lijep 5, 19, 177, 347
ljut 178
kretoh 295 157, 185, 274, 295 lijepo 391
ljutiti 152, 272
krevet 339 kurs 196, 228, 236, lijevi 343
ljutiti se 152
kričati 174 306, 318 lik 339, 342
kriknuti 174 kut 337 lingvist 194 ma 245, 257
krilat 348 kuvar 193, 397 lingvista 194 maca 127
krilo 348 kuvarica 193 lipanj 91, 397 mače 344, 372
Krist 344 kuvati 272 lipo 391 mačka 6, 344, 372
kriti 269, 270, 370 list 175, 182, 338 magla 346
-lac 73, 128, 194,
kriv 178 listopad 91, 338, 397 mahati 65, 84
341-342
krivica 310 listopadni 338 mahom 328
lahak 409
krivlji 178 lišće 175, 182 maj 91, 397
lahka 409
krivnja 310 litar 310 majčica 346
lak 177, 409
križ 333 liti 270, 271, 280 majčin 50, 174, 340,
lakši 177, 340
križati se 333 litra 310 366
Lalić 132
krojač 192 -lo 345 majka 6, 50, 75, 174,
latinica 381
krojačica 192 lokativ 22 312, 319, 346, 366
laziti 68
krojiti 292 lomiti 338 maknuti 173, 274
laž 111-112
krompir 314 lopta 312 malen 21, 52
lažju 112
kroz 41, 140-141, lošeg 368 mali 21, 40, 52
lečiti 272
306, 310, 376 lošem 368 malo 77, 179
leći 107, 190
kroza 376 lovac 342, 361 mama 12
led 338, 348
krst 333, 343 lovismo 287 mamin 137-138
leden 348
krstaš 343 loviti 272, 339, 342 manastir 396
leđa 169
krstiti se 333 loš 19, 24, 36, 40, 51, manje 179
legati 191
kršćanin 40, 344 86, 111, 124, 134- manje-više 181
lekar 193, 228, 248,
krući 175, 178 135, 368 manji 179
308, 309, 325
krug 33 lud 178, 343, 345 Mara 6, 50, 127
lekarka 193
kruh 77-78, 184, 244, ludak 343 Marin 50
lep 19, 177, 347
262 ludeti 346 mart 54, 91, 324, 397
lepo 391
krumpir 314 ludilo 345 mašina 180, 396
lepota 347
krut 175, 178 luditi 346 mati 131
449
INDEX OF WORDS
450
INDEX OF WORDS
namignuti 332 nazdraviti 281 nema 57-58, 60, 78, nisam 9, 92, 301
namotaj 343 nazdravljati 281 147, 163, 240, 313- nisi 9, 92, 301
namotati 343 nazivati 280, 294 314 niska 19
napad 342 nazvati 280 nema da 248 nismo 9, 92, 301
napadati 276, 342 ne 28-30, 70-72, 94, nema me 58 niste 9, 92, 301
napasti 276, 335 110, 144, 215, 229, nema problema 57 nisu 9, 92, 301
napisan 340, 372 262-263, 265, 348, Nemačka 88 ništa 71, 81, 139, 141
napisati 150, 185, 363 nemački 88 niti 72
271, 272, 278 ne- (prefix) 70-71, 81, nemati 28, 70-71, 78, niti ... niti 72
napiti se 271 141, 144, 334, 336 93, 257-258, 292 nitko 71, 81, 141
napolju 73, 119 -ne- (verb) 142-143, nemiran 336 niz 306
napredak 51 294, 299, 332 nemoć 336 nizak 19, 178
naprotiv 315 ne bi li 224 nemoj 109 niže 315-316
napuniti 205-206, 272 ne će 65, 144, 409 neovisan 96, 396 niži 178
narav 35 ne da se 117-118, 239 neposredan 336 no ( = nego) 244
naredba 121 nebo 89 neprijatan 239, 321 noć 35, 112, 115,
naređenje 121 neborac 336 neprijatelj 336 131, 208, 345
narod 408 nečist 336 nespretan 336 noćas 209-210
narodni 337 neće 64-65, 144, 300- nesreća 336 noćašnji 210
naručiti 334 301, 409 nestajati 154 noćište 345
nas (clitic) 27, 139 nećemo 64-65, 144, nestanak 343 noćiti 335
nas (full) 27-28, 139 300-301 nestati 154, 343 noćni 208
nasilje 345 nećeš 64-65, 144, nešto 228 noću 112, 116
nasip 342 300-301 netko 81, 139 noga 169, 338, 345,
nasipati 342 nećete 64-65, 144, neugodan 239, 321 362
naslanjati 368 300-301 nevernik 336 nogomet 308, 313,
nasloniti 368 neću 64-65, 144, 144, nevjernik 336 323, 338
naslonjač 322 300-301 nezaposlenost 348 nogu 362
naslov 342 nedelja “Sunday” 26 nezavisan 96, 396 nokat 169
naspavati se 335 nedelja “week” 68, ni (conjunction) 72 norma 312
nasred 315 80, 154, 207, 232, ni- (prefix) 70-71, 81, nosač 342
nastajati 154 236, 306, 309, 396 141 nosijaše 286
nastati 154, 287 nedjelja “Sunday” 26 ni ... ni 72, 256 nositi 120, 166-167,
nastava 346 nedjelja “week” 68, -nica 340, 346 186, 270, 286, 292,
nastaviti 262, 277, 80, 154, 207, 232, ničeg 139 335, 339, 342, 347,
335, 346 236, 306, 309 ničega 139 366
nastavljati 262, 277 nedostajati 154 ničiji 71 nošah 366
nastavnica 6, 193 nego 179-180, 244- ničim 139 nošaše 286
nastavnik 6, 193, 368 246, 302 ničime 139 nošnja 347
nastavnikov 368 nego i 180 nigde 71 nov 75, 86, 176
nasuprot 99, 140-141, nego li 245 nigdje 71 novac 77
321 nego što 179, 245- nije 9, 92, 301 novembar 91, 207,
naš 12, 137, 426 246 nijesam 301, 423 397
naš jezik 426 neka 108-109 nijesi 301 novohrvatski 415
naški 426 neki 44, 135-136 nijesmo 301 Novosađanin 40
naterati 272 nekim 139 nijeste 301 -nu 332
natjerati 272 nekime 139 nijesu 301 -nuti 142, 282, 285
natkriti 269 neko 81, 139 nijedan 71
nj 309-310, 376
natprirodan 337 nekog 139 -nik 194, 340, 344
-nja 347, 352
naučiti 272, 288 nekoga 81, 139 nikada 71
nje 53, 138, 282
naučnik 193 nekoliko 77 nikakav 71, 78
-nje 167, 339
navečer 208 nekom 139 nikako 71
njega 28, 138
navrh 315 nekome 139 niko 71, 81, 141
njegov 12, 34-35, 49,
navratim 360 nekomu 139 nikoga 71, 81
52, 86, 96, 137-138
navratiti 360 Nikola 16, 32, 50
Njemačka 88
navršiti 205-206 Nikolin 50
451
INDEX OF WORDS
452
INDEX OF WORDS
osećanje 184 otputovati 272, 276 pasti 143, 157, 270, piliti 347
osećati se 184 otvarač 338, 342 274, 287, 299, 335 piljevina 347
osetiti 349 otvarati 275, 281, 342 patka 319, 344, 372 pisac 37, 192, 342,
osetljiv 349 otvoriti 187, 275, patnja 312 373, 375, 377
osim 219, 246, 315, 281, 371 Pavić 132 pisanje 168, 339
317-318 -ov- (plural) 38-39, paziti 347 pisar 193
osim toga što 246 128, pažnja 41, 320, 347 pisarica 193
osjećaj 337 -ov- (possessive) 49- pecijah 173 pisaše 285
osjećanje 184 50, 137, 174, 340 pecivo 345 pisati 16-17, 42, 65,
osjećao 266 -ov-, -ova- 18, 48, pečenje 184 84, 97-98, 107, 150,
osjećati se 184, 423 156-157, 295, 334 pečurka 182 157, 168, 270, 271-
osjetiti 349 ovaj 12-13, 21, 43, peći 184, 186, 276, 272, 278, 285, 294,
osjetljiv 349 136, 209, 353-354 345, 372 335, 338, 342, 366,
oslobađati 368 ovakav 43, 61, 136 pedeset 76, 197, 371 370, 377
osloboditi 187, 368 ovamo 210 pedesetak 201 pisca 37, 373
osmero 200 -ovan 348 pegla 311 pisma 391
osmi 198 ovca 343 peglanje 311 pismen 336, 348
osmina 200 ovčar 343 pekao 374 pismence 344
osmorica 200 ovdašnji 210 pekar 193 pismo 6, 36, 40, 42,
osmoro 200 ovde 210, 391 pekarica 193 74-75, 130, 339,
osoba 45, 182 ovdje 210, 391 pekla 372, 374 344, 348, 361, 375
osoblje 182 ovdi 391 peku 173, 372 pismonoša 339
osobno 101 ovisiti 255 pepeljast 348 pišem 366
-ost 111, 324, 341, -ovit 349 pepeo 348 piši 107
348 ovo 10, 13, 57 Pero (name) 127 piši kao što govoriš
ostajati 154, 277 ovoliko 61 pesma 391 382
ostanak 343 ovuda 210 pesnik 36, 193 piši kao što zboriš
ostatak 343 ozlijeđen 188 pesnikinja 193 423
ostareti 187, 333 ožujak 54, 91, 324, pešice 62, 80 piši za oko a ne za uho
ostarjeti 187, 333 397 peške 62, 80 383
ostati 142, 154, 187, pet 76, 197-198, 371 pišući 230
pa 243-244
277 petak 26 pitanje 6, 42, 111,
pače 344, 372
ostaviti 277 Petar 50, 127, 131- 167
padati 274, 338
ostavljati 277 132 pitati 42, 167, 270,
pak 243-244
ostrvo 88-89, 396 petero 200, 339 370
palac 59
ośećati ( = osjećati) peti (number) 198, piti 18, 66, 150, 157,
pameću 112
423 340 271, 276, 282, 294
pamet 112, 355
-ota 340, 347 peti (verb) 375-376 pivo 6, 355
pamćenje 175, 184,
otac 6, 37-39, 50, petnaest 76, 197, 199 pjesma 391
351, 366-367
127, 184, 347, 366 petnaestak 201 pjesnik 36, 193
pamtiti 175, 184, 338,
otadžbina 347 petnaesti 199 pjesnikinja 193
366-367
oteti 275 petorica 200, 339 pješice 62, 80
pamtivek 338
othranio 266 petoro 200, 339 pješke 62, 80
pamtivijek 338
otići 64, 68, 106-107, Petre 127 pjevati 271, 335
papagaj 92
269 Petrov 50 plaća 317
papar 108, 265
otidi 197 petsto 197 plaćen 175
papiga 92
otiđi 107 pevati 271, 335 plakanje 318
papir 6, 51, 89
otimati 275 piće 282 plakati 271
Pariz 344, 367
otkriće 282 pijaca 69, 262 planina 90, 362
Parižanin 344, 367
otkriti 270, 282, 370 pijan 345 planinu 362
parkiranje 168, 184
otok 88-89, 396 pijanica 127 plata 317
parkirati 168, 184
otpadak 377 pijanstvo 345 platiti 175, 270, 273,
pas 6, 24-25, 40, 51,
otpadati 276 pilad 346 370, 377
74, 86, 111
otpasti 276 pile 344, 346, 347 plav 19
pasoš 237
otploviti 272 pilence 344 plela 372
otprilike 205 piletina 347 pleme 349, 421
453
INDEX OF WORDS
454
INDEX OF WORDS
pravo 25 prelijevati 280 pri 92, 141, 321, 323- pristup 342
pravopis 338 preliti 280 324, 345 pristupiti 270, 342
prazan 347, 373 prelivati 280 pri- 269-270, 272 privreda 338
prazna 373 prema 99, 121, 141, približiti se 272 prizivati 280
praznina 347 321, 323-324 priča 346 prizvati 280
pre 80, 140-141, 207, preneti 167 pričati 271, 346 pro- 268-272
245, 268, 308, 315, prenijeti 167 prići 269 probiti 270
317 prenoćiti 335 pridružih se 287 problem 38, 57
pre- 170, 268-271, prenositi 167 pridružiti se 270 probuditi 150, 272
273, 335 prepiliti 223 prigušiti 272 pročitati 270, 272
pre nego što 245 prepirati se 347 prihvaćati 275 proći 269
preboleti 170 prepirka 347 prihvatati 275 prodan 292
preboljeti 170 prepisati 278, 335 prihvatiti 275 prodat 292
prečanin 418 prepisivati 278 prijatan 348 prodati 186, 279
preči 177 prepodne 208 prijatelj 26, 57, 74, prodavaonica 213
preći 269 prepodnevni 208 92, 94, 101, 127, prodavati 279
pred 113-114, 141, prepoznati 279 336, 344, 345, 346, prodavnica 213, 323
306-310, 327-328, prepoznavati 279 361 profesor 6
376 presaditi 270 prijateljica 346 profesorica 6, 313,
pred- 269-270, 337, preskočiti 335 prijateljstvo 345 321
378 prespavati 335 prijati 344, 348 profesorka 6, 313,
preda 113, 376 prestajati 154, 262 prijaviti 281 321
predak 37-38, 74, 370 prestanak 238 prijavljivati 281 proganjati 368
predati 270, 279 prestati 154, 262 prije 80, 119, 141, progoniti 368
predavanje 89, 167 presuda 346 207, 245, 268, 308, progovarati 280
predavati 167, 279 presuditi 346 315, 317 progovoriti 280
predgovor 337 presvući se 335 prije nego li 245 prokleti 186
predgrađe 345 preterati 335 prije nego što 245 proletos 209-210
predjelo 337 pretjerati 335 prijeći 269 proletošnji 210
predomisliti 273 pretplata 346 prijek 177 proliti 282
predosećaj 337 pretplatiti 270, 346, prijevod 367 proljetos 209-210
predosjećaj 337 370, 377 prikazati 280 proljetošnji 210
predstava 346 pretpostaviti 277 prikazivati 280 pronaći 187
predstaviti 270, 277, pretpostavljati 277 prilika 205 propisati 278
346, 378 pretraga 232, 308 primati 274, 339 propisivati 278
predstavljati 277 pretvarati 149, 275, primedba 346, 370 propustiti 270
predstojati 270 281 primer 41 prorezati 276
predsednik 193 pretvoriti 149, 275, primetiti 346 prosinac 91, 203,
predsjednik 193 281, 335 primijetiti 346 207, 397
predstaviti 363 prevesti (prevedem) primiti 274 prošetati 272
preduzeće 282, 303 145, 167, 186, 367 primjedba 346 proširiti 272
preduzeti 247, 276, prevest će 396-397, primjer 41 protiv 315, 317
282 402 primorje 345 prozor 6, 89, 342, 343
preduzimati 276 prevesti (prevezem) prinesem 367 prozorčić 343
predvideti 269 167, 367 prinos 367 prozreti 342
predvidjeti 269 prevešće 145, 396- pripadati 98, 276 prsi 169
pregledati 270, 335 397, 402 pripasti 276 prst 39, 169
prek 177 prevod 367 pripovetka 319 pružati 274
prekid 238 prevoditelj 194 pripovijetka 319 pružiti 274
prekidač 342 prevoditeljica 194 pripremati 275 prvi 168, 198, 339
prekidati 342 prevoditi 167 pripremiti 275 prvoklasan 43
prekinuti 186 prevoz 367 priroda 348 prvorazredan 43, 339
prekjučer 209 prevoziti 167 prirodan 348 pseći 175
preko 208, 271, 315- preživeti 279, 335 pristajati 154, 270 pseto 175
318, 418 preživjeti 279, 335 pristanište 345 ptica 127
prekosutra 209 preživljavati 279 pristati 154, 345 ptičiji 67
455
INDEX OF WORDS
ptičji 67 rat 334 riječ 35, 75, 112, 344, samleti 186, 276
puniti 272 ratovati 334 349, 391 samljeti 186, 276
puno 77, 180 ravnatelj 313 riječju 112 samo 96
pustiti 175, 270, 274 raz- 169, 268-270, rijedak 36, 178 samo sloga Srbina
puštati 274 272, 273, 365, 370- rijeka 346 spasava 421
pušten 175 371, 375-376 rijetkost 35 samo- 337
put 99, 116, 129, 147, razabrati 375 rika 332 samoposluga 262
163, 322, 334 razapeti 376 riknuti 332 samostan 337, 396
putem 116 razaznati 375 Rim 344 samosvestan 337
putnik 337 razbistriti 333 Rimljanin 344 samosvjestan 337
putom 116 razboleti 170 rječica 346 samoubistvo 337
putovanje 184 razboljeti 170 rječnik 36, 344 samoubojstvo 337
putovati 107, 184, razići se 269 rječit 349 samouk 337
272, 276, 334 razljutiti 272 rjeđi 178 samousluga 262
putovnica 237 razmisliti 280 rob 334, 370 sandžak 405
putuj 107 razmišljati 280 robovati 334 saputnik 337
razred 89, 339 roditelj 344 saradnik 337
rad 33
razumeti 106, 119, roditi 175, 183-184, saradnja 337
radi 107, 246, 315,
278, 297, 349 274, 344 sastajati se 154
318
razumevati 119, 278 rodom 328 sastati se 154, 277
radi toga što 246
razumijevati 119, 278 rođen 175 sastav 342
radi se o 103
razumjeti 106, 119, rođenje 183-184 sastaviti 277, 342
radije 180-181, 222
278, 297, 349 rok 339 sastavljati 277
radila 340
razumljiv 349 ropstvo 370 sastojati se 103, 277
raditi 42, 103, 107,
razveseliti 272 ruci 173, 366 sašiti 186, 272
279, 333, 335, 347,
razviti 187 ručak 89, 343, 360, sat 74-75, 81, 89,
394
rđavo 179 375 317, 321-324, 409
radnica 193
reci 107 ručati 119, 343 saučešće 282
radnik 193, 337
reč 35, 75, 112, 344, rujan 91, 397 saučestvovati 282
radnja 312, 332, 337,
349, 391 ruka 131, 169, 173, sav 43, 136-137
347
reče 174, 366 334, 338, 366 savest 35
rado 180, 222
rečen 174, 360 rukopis 338 savet 77-78
radost 35, 112, 131,
rečica 345 Rus 39, 347 savijač 320
334
rečit 349 Ruskinja 347 savjest 35
radošću 112
rečju 112 savjet 77-78
radovati 152, 272 s, sa 54, 68-69, 113,
rečnik 36, 344 sazivati 280
radovati se 152, 334 141, 315, 317, 319,
reći 107, 186, 195, saznati 279
rađanje 183-184 326-328, 376
red 338 saznavati 279
rađati 183-184, 274 s- 269-272
redak 36, 178 sazvati 280
rame 130, 169 sa- 271, 337
rediti 273 sazvežđe 345
ranije 119 sabrati 185, 271
redovito 103, 396 sazviježđe 345
Ranko 132 sačuvam 360
redovno 103, 396 se (as clitic) 8, 9,14,
rasla 372 sačuvati 185, 360
ređi 178 82-83, 104-105,
raspad 342 sada 210
rek- (verbal root) 365 138, 160, 170-172,
raspadati se 342 sadanji 210
reka 346 309-310, 376
raspasti se 270 sadašnji 210
rekao 369 se (with verb) 8, 46,
raspem 297 saditi 270
rekavši 213 61, 102-103, 117-
raspeti 275, 376 sadržati 279
rekla 369 118, 124-126, 150-
raspinjati 275 sadržavati 279
reknu 174, 366 153, 233-237, 239-
raspitati se 270, 370 sagraditi 272
rep 347 240, 305, 314, 351
rasprodati 273 sahat 409
repina 347 sebe 96, 138, 151-
rastao 372 sahraniti 272
retkost 35 152, 348
rastaviti 270, 371 sakriti 186
rezati 276 sebi 96, 138, 151
rasti 143, 271, 276, Salih 127
riba 349 sećanje 184
298 sam (verb) 9, 92, 96
riblji 349 sećati se 79, 125-126,
rasuti 186, 297 sam (pronoun) 96
rič 391 184, 274
456
INDEX OF WORDS
457
INDEX OF WORDS
staklen 348 stremljenje 175 suv 178, 396-397 svoj 95-96, 137, 302-
staklo 348 stric 38, 50, 174 suvlasnik 337 303
stan 337 stričev 50, 174 suvlji 178 svojem 139
stanem 295 strići 186 suza 318 svom 139
stanica 69-70, 81, strignu 173 sva- 81 svratiti 195
396 strizijah 173 svadba 312, 346, 370 svrgnuće 282
star 176, 333, 337, striže 174 svađati se 328, 346 svrgnuti 282
339, 342 strižen 174 svagdje 47 svrha 86, 173
starac 342, 361 strog 178 svaki 135 svrsi 173
stareti 333 stroj 180, 396 svakodnevica 308 svršiti 264
starijeh (= starih) 423 stroži 178 svakodnevnica 308 svući 150, 372
starijem ( = starim) stručnjak 343 svanuće 282 svući se 151, 335
423 Struga 319 svanuti 282 svuda 47, 257
stariji 340 struka 343 svašta 81 svugdje 257
starjeti 333 studeni 91, 207, 397 svat 346 śutra ( = sutra /
staromodan 339 student 6, 74, 375 sve 43, 181, 228 sjutra) 423
starost 35, 127 studentica 6, 77, 396 svećenik 193
-š- 176-177, 340
stati 142, 154, 157, studentkinja 6, 77, svedok 38
šalica 26, 187, 242
190, 273, 276, 284, 396 svejedno 102
šaljem 84, 142, 296
295, 335 stupiti 270 svemir 89
šaka 169
stati do 318 -stv- 340-341 sveska 74, 375
šapatom 328
stav 221, 356 -stven 348 svesna 372
šaptom 328
stavi 107 stvar 6, 35-36, 40, 51, svest 35, 112
šaputaše 288
staviti 94, 107, 150, 75, 86, 111-112, svestan 337, 372
šaren 345
157, 215, 270, 273, 124, 131, 346, 362 svešću 112
šarenilo 345
274, 276-277, 335, stvaranje 183-184 sveštenik 193
šećer 127
378 stvarati 183-184, 275, svet (noun) 348
šesnaest 76, 197, 199
stavljati 94, 150, 274, 281, 346 svet (adjective) 342
šesnaesti 199
276-277, 292, 335 stvari 362 svetac 342
šest 76, 197-198
ste 9, 92 stvarju 112 svetovni 348
šestero 200
-sti (infinitive) 142 -stvo 340, 345, 370 sveučilište 51, 88-89,
šesti 198
stići 142, 145, 157, stvorenje 183-184 396
šestorica 200
159, 275, 299 stvoritelj 344 svezaka 74, 375
šestoro 200
stid 164 stvoriti 183-184, 275, svi 43
šeststo 197
stignuti 157, 299 281, 344 svibanj 91, 203, 226,
šetati 347, 378
stizati 274 su 9, 92 397
šetnja 347
sto (number) 76, 197, su- 337 svideti se 126, 276
šezdeset 76, 197
199 sud 99 svidjeti se 126, 276
šibica 127
sto (noun) 59, 89, sudac 192, 396 sviđati se 99-100,
širi 178
224, 237, 307, 369 sudbina 347 103-105, 125-126,
širiti 272, 333
stol 59, 89, 224, 237, sudija 192, 396 189
širok 178, 333
307, 369 sudionik 46, 203, 396 svijest 35, 112
šiti 272
stola 369 suditi 347 sviješću 112
-ški 88
stoljeće 116 sudjelovati 282 svijet 348
škola 89, 334
stoti 199 suh 37, 178, 396-397 svila 348
školovati se 334
stoti dio / deo 200 sunce 50, 174, 366 svilen 348
šolja 26, 187, 242
stotina 198 sunčan 174 svinja 347
Španija 88, 308
stotinu 198 sunčev 50, 366 svinjetina 347
španski 88, 311, 322
stotinjak 201 suputnik 337 svirati 271
Španjolska 88, 308
strah 164, 174, 334, suradnik 337 svjedok 38
španjolski 88, 311,
349 suradnja 337 svjesna 372
322
strahovati 334 sustav 396 svjestan 337, 372
šporet 242, 311
strahovit 349 suši 178 svjetovni 348
šta 9, 25, 53, 71, 86,
stranac 37 sutkinja 192 svlačiti 151, 372
112, 139, 153, 161-
strašan 174 sutra 209-210, 423 svlačiti se 151
162, 351, 396-397
stremiti 175 sutrašnji 210
458
INDEX OF WORDS
štampati 204, 311, teći 34, 142, 157, to što 154, 245, 254- tuga 174, 334, 367
396 159, 286, 299, 335 255 tugovati 334
štednjak 242, 311 tek 246 tobom 112, 138 turcizmi 407
što (interrogative) 9, tek što 246 točan 396 Turčin 129, 174, 367
25, 53, 71, 86, 112, teka 74 točka 319 Turke 174, 367
139, 153, 161-162, teku 174, 288 točno 208, 244, 307, tužan 19, 174, 367
351, 388, 396-397 tekući 232 323 tužilac 342, 369
što (conjunction) 62, telad 346 tok 324 tužioca 369
153-154, 181, 225, tele 346, 347 toliko 61 tužitelj 342
228-229, 243, 245, telegram 338 tonuti 272, 276, 295 tužiti 272, 342
252-255, 351 teletina 347 tonjenje 295 tvoj 12, 52, 95, 137
što ... to 181, 256 -telj 194, 344 topao 20, 101, 374 tvoriti 281, 335, 338
štrudla 320 terati 272, 335 topla 20, 101, 374 tvornica 202, 313
šutjeti 231 tesan 178 tovar 333 tvrd 175, 178
teška 19, 134 tovariti 333 tvrđi 175, 178
-t 185-186, 294, 340
teškoća 347 tračak 343
tabla 54, 115 u 26, 68-69, 81, 88-
tešnji 178 trag 333
tačan 396 92, 116, 141, 206,
tetka 127, 131, 312, trajati 84
tačka 319 208, 306-311, 315,
319 trajni 277
tačno 208, 244, 307, 318, 321-324
težak 19, 35, 134, trak 343
323 u- 269-270, 272, 273
178, 347, 370 trava 355
taći 274 ubistvo 337
teži 178 travanj 91, 397
tada 210 ubiti 186
ti (subject) 7, 14, 18, tražiti 272, 333
tadašnji 210 ubojstvo 337
107, 138, 139 trčati 276, 346
taj 12-13, 43, 59, 135 ubrojiti 270
ti (object) 87, 138, treba 211, 221, 238,
tajnica 193 učenica 6
139 242
tajnik 193 učenik 6, 344
ti (adjective) 139 trebati 189-190, 210-
-tak 37, 343 učenje 168, 339
-ti 17, 30, 156-158, 211, 221-222, 241-
takav 43, 61, 135 učesnik 46, 203, 396
185, 195, 282 242
taknuti 274 učestali 277
ticati 65, 274 treći 168, 198
tako 246 učestvovati 282
ticati se 79, 125-126 trećina 339
tako da 246 učešće 282
tih (adjective) 178 trenutak 89
talenat 374 učiniti 149, 166, 219,
tijeh ( = tih) 423 trenutni 277
talent 374 272
tijek 324 tresem 360
taman 333 učitelj 50, 194, 344,
tijem ( = tim) 423 tresla 372
tamneti 333 346
tijesan 178 tresti 143, 298, 360,
tamnjeti 333 učiteljev 50, 368
tim (noun) 3 372
tamo 210 učiteljica 131, 194,
tiskati 204, 311, 396 tresu 372
tamošnji 210 346
tisuća 198-199 trešnja 312
tanak 178 učiti 168, 272, 337,
tisući 199 trgnuti 285
tanji 178 344
tisućiti 199 trgoh 285
tata 6, 12 ući 68, 195, 269
tisuću 198 trgovati 116
tatica 127 udala se 290
tiši 178 tri 59, 75, 168, 197-
te (object) 27, 138, udubiti 333
tjedan 68, 80, 154, 198
139, 160, 171, 309- udžbenik 36, 370
207, 232, 236, 306, trideset 76, 197
310, 376 uganuće 282
309, 317, 396 trinaest 76, 197, 199
te (adjective) 139 uganuti 282
tjerati 272, 335, 423 trinaesti 199
te (conjunction) 244 ugao 60, 337
tješnji 178 trista 197
tebe 28, 138 ugasiti 272
tkati 376 tristo 197
tebi 87, 138 uglasta glagoljica
tko 9, 25, 53, 71, 112, trka 346
tecijaše 286 381
139, 161-162, 228, troje 200
tečaj 196, 228, 236, uglata glagoljica 381
351, 396-397 trojica 200
306, 318 ugovarati 280
to 10, 13, 57, 60, 181, tronožac 370
tečaše 286 ugovoriti 280
255 trže 285
tečeš 174 ugroziti 186
to je 60 tržnica 69, 262
tuda 210
459
INDEX OF WORDS
uho 130, 168-169, upravnica 193 uzmi 107 videti 18, 48, 119,
174, 244, 344 upravnik 193 uzrast 342 157, 158, 168, 175,
-uj- 18, 48, 156-157, uprkos 321 uzrasti 342 184, 186, 269, 277-
278, 295-296 upute 253, 313 uži 178 278, 292
Ujedinjene nacije 226 uputstva 253, 313 vidjeti 18, 48, 119,
-va- 274, 278
Ujedinjeni narodi 226 uraditi 149, 166, 219, 157, 158, 168, 175,
vadičep 338
ujutro 208 279 184, 186, 269, 277-
vaditi 272, 338
uključiti 66 ured 54, 57, 89 278, 292
valja 212, 238, 241
uključivati 66 urediti 186 viđati 119, 277-278
valjati 210-212, 241
ukoliko 217 uska 19, 178 viđenje 168, 175, 184
vam 87, 139
ukrasti 272 uskrsnuće 282 viječnica 101
vama 87, 112, 139
ulaziti 68, 69 uskrsnuti 282 vijek 116, 338, 348
van 315, 319
ulica 89 uslov 328 -vina 347
vani 73, 119
uloviti 272 uspeti 239-240 vira 391
varijanta 385, 414
um 334 uspjeti 239-240 visina 347
variti 345
uman 343 usporediti 273 visok 36-37, 178, 347
varivo 345
umesto 315 uspostaviti 277 visokog, visokoga 424
varoš 344
umeti 241, 297-298 uspostavljati 277 više 179, 180, 315
varošanin 344
umetni 182 uspraviti 270, 370 više ne 180
vas (clitic) 27, 139
umetnica 193 usred 315 više voleti 180
vas (full) 27-28, 139
umetnik 193 usta 169 više voljeti 180
vasiona 89, 317
umetnuti 270 ustajati 154 više- 337
vaš 12, 137
umirati 275 ustati 154 višeboj 337
vatra 339
umiti 151 ususret 321 višekatnica 337
vatrogasac 339
umiti se 151 ušavši 213 višekutnik 337
vazduh 264
umivati 151 uši 174 višespratnica 337
večan 348
umivati se 151 uteha 319 višeugaonik 337
veče 35, 208
umjesto 315 utisak 228, 313 višeznačan 337
večer 35, 208
umjeti 241, 297-298 utjeha 319 viši 178
večeras 209-210
umjetni 182 utorak 26 vječan 348
večerašnji 210
umjetnica 193 -uva- 295-296 vjera 334, 391
večerati 119
umjetnik 193 uveče 208 vjernik 336
večernji 208
umnjak 343 uvenuti 187 vjerovati 334
već 115, 180, 244
umreti 157, 158-159, uvesti (uvedem) 167 vještački 182
veći 179
231, 275, 297 uvesti (uvezem) 167, vjetar 39
većinom 328
umrevši 231 186 vlačiti 274, 372
vek 116, 338, 348
umrijeti 157, 158- uvjet 328 vladar 343
velik 19, 36, 339, 355
159, 231, 275, 297 uvo 130, 168-169, vladati 343
Velika seoba 416
umrijevši 231 174, 224 vladika 421
velikodušan 339
unatoč 321 uvoditi 167 vlak 81, 115, 247,
veljača 91, 204, 397
univerzitet 51, 88-89, uvoziti 167 316, 396
-ven 186, 294
396 uz 41, 141, 306-307, vlasnik 337, 344
vera 334, 391
unuk 337 309-310, 376 vlast 344, 372
vernik 336
unutar 315, 317 uz- 269-270, 273, 370 vlastit 261, 311
verovati 334
uoči 315, 317 uza 376 voće 183
veseliti 272
uopće 57, 68, 396 uzak 19, 178, 370 voda 338, 353-354
veseljak 343
uopšte 57, 68, 396 uzbuditi 270 vodeći 232
veseo 343
upisati se 270 uzdignuće 282 voditi 120, 166-167,
Vesna (name) 127,
upitati 195 uzdignuti 282 175, 335, 342
132
upoznati 273, 279 uzduž 315 vodopad 338
veštački 182
upoznavati 279 uzeti 65, 84, 107, 120, vođa 6, 111, 342
vetar 39
uprava 346 157, 186, 275, 297 vođah 175
vezati 185, 339
upravitelj 193-194 uzići 269 vojevati 295
vi 7, 18, 45, 107, 139
upraviteljica 193-194 uzimati 275 vojnici 173, 366
vid 339
upravljač 114 uzleteti 270 vojnicima 173, 366
videla 289
upravljati 346 uzletjeti 270 vojnik 173, 193, 366
460
INDEX OF WORDS
461
INDEX of words (English)
a 20, 44, 71 April 91, 397 201, 244, 256 done 164
a couple of 201 aren’t you 73 boy 3 don’t they 73
a few 201 arm 169 bread 77 door 104
about 41, 92, 140, around 92, 140, bring 166 down along 306
321-322 269, 315, 397 bunch of grapes down from 54,
about twenty 201 arrive 164 183 141, 271, 315
above 140, 269, as 62, 247, 256 but 11, 243-244 drink up 66
306, 315, 327 as concerns 82 but also 180 drive 120, 166
accommodate 154 as possible 181 but rather 244 due to 315
according to 92, as you can 181 by 54-55, 92, 140- during 207, 323,
140-141, 321 at 55, 88-89, 92, 141, 315, 321, 314, 321
across 269, 315 113, 140-141, 325
across from 99, 321 by oneself 96 each 79, 140
140, 321 at night 115 each other 124-
advice 77 August 91, 397 can 31, 240, 249 125, 328
after 80, 140, 243, away from 69, 269, car 21 earlier 80
245, 271, 315, 315 carrot 183 eat 164
321, 327 carry 120, 166 eat up 66
afterwards 80 bad 179 carry away 166 either 11, 72, 256
against 306-307, badly 179 certain 44 Englishman 6
315 be 8, 13, 25, 28, cheap 3 Englishwoman 6
all 43 144, 187-188, choose 3 enter 68
all sorts of 81 259 clock 74 entire 43
alone 96 be ailing 170 close to 140 -er 176
along 41, 140-141, be occupied with co- 337 -est 176
306, 309, 315 116 code 3 even 11
alongside 42, 54, because 243, 245 come 68 -ever 257
141, 306, 309, because of 245, come down 68 everyone 43, 81
315 315 come out of 69 everything 43, 81
already 244 become 333 concerning 92, except for 315
also 11 before 54, 80, 113, 140, 321-322 excuse me 18
although 243 140-141, 243, consider 117
amid 315 245, 269, 306, contact 98 fall ill 170
among 55, 140, 315, 327 convey 166 far 210
306, 315, 327 behind 140-141, could 216 February 91, 397
an 44 271, 306, 315, current 397 feel 101
and 11, 72, 243- 327 few 77
244, 256 believe 98 day 208 fifteen or so 201
and not 245 belong to 98 deal in 116 find 68, 247
and so 243 below 306, 315, December 91, 397 finger 169
and then 243 327 depart 164 fingernail 169
another 44 beside 140, 315 despite 321 first 168, 197
answer 66, 98 better not 110 did 164 flow 397
any 58, 78, 212, between 114, 140, do 8, 148, 161, flowers 182
313 306, 315, 327 164-165, 189, foliage 182
any at all 81 big 179 242, 268 foot 169
anyone 81 bigger 179 do poorly 170 for 26, 97-98, 101,
anything 81 billion 198 does 8 141, 207, 306,
apiece 79 bin 369 doing 148, 164, 309, 327
apple 183 both 11, 72, 161, 261 for example 41
462
INDEX OF ENGLISH WORDS
for the sake of 315 I think 102 like (preposition) notice 247
France 87 I’ll 143 62, 315 notwithstanding
French 87 if 62-63, 216-220 like (verb) 99, 222 321
Friday 26 if ... then 216, 218- loaf 77 November 91, 397
from 53-54, 61, 69, 220, 243 lots 77 now 209
140-141, 315 im- 336 love 99 nowhere 57, 71
fruit 183 in 88-89, 92, 140, lying 190
207, 306, 321 O.K. 61
German 87 in front of 140- man 45 o’clock 81
Germany 87 141, 306, 315, many 77 October 91, 397
get 268 327 March 91, 397 of 41, 54-56, 78,
get ahead 268 in no way 71 may (verb) 249, 248, 312-313
get away 268 in order to 223 259 off 141
get back 268 in place of 315 May 91, 397 on 88-89, 140-141,
get down 268 in spite of 321 me 97 306, 321
get over 268 in- 336 might 216, 240, on foot 119
get sick 169-170 indifferent 102 249, 257 on the eve of 315
get together 268 individual 45 million 198 one (number) 44,
get well 170 information 77 millionth 200 168, 197
go 68, 143 -ing 167, 247 mine 12, 49 one (pronoun) 60,
go away 68 inside 315 Monday 26 71, 236
go by vehicle 120 instance 116 money 77 one by one 79
go in 68 inter- 337 more 176, 179 one’s own 95, 303
go into 69 into 41, 68-69, 88- most 176 oneself 151-152
go out 68 89, 141, 306 mother 131 onto 41, 68, 140,
good 179 ir- 336 multi- 337 88-89, 306
good evening 35 is 101 must 31, 240, 249 opposite 99, 140,
grape 182 island 397 my 12, 49, 95 321
great- 337 isn’t it 73 myrtle 3 or 11, 72, 243-244,
it (object) 7, 83 256
half 200 it is 31, 60, 81, 238 near 80, 92, 140- ought 210-211,
half- 336 it seems 102 141, 210, 269, 222, 240
hand 169 its 12, 49 315, 321 our 12, 49
have 78, 161 nearby 80 ours 12, 49
he 7 January 91, 397, need 189, 210-211 out from 269
hear 247 400 neither 72, 244, out from behind
help 98 jeep 4 256 316
her (adjective) 12, juice 4 never 71 out from under 316
49 July 91, 397 next to 54, 140, out of 53, 69, 140,
her (object) 28, 83, July 4th 204 315, 325 315
97 June 91, 397 night 208 outdo 268
here 209-210 June 6th 203 night and day 115 outside 315
hers 12, 49 no 10, 63 over 140, 306, 316
him 28, 97 later 80 no matter 257 overdo 268
hinder 98 laugh at 98 no one 71
his 12 lead 166 no one’s 71 people 44-45
hope 249 lead out 166 none 313 per 79, 140
hour 74 least 179 nor 72, 244, 256 person 45
how 9, 61, 71, 247 leave 68 not 71-72 piece 77
how long 206 leaves 182 not a single 71, 78 pilot (verb) 120
how many 61 leg 169 not any 58, 71, 78, pin 3, 4, 369
how much 61 less 179 313 pleased 102
hundred 198 let 249 not even 72 potato 183
hundredth 200 let’s 108 not have 78 pre- 337
hurt 169, 304 lie 190 not only 180 preceding 140
lie down 190 nothing 71 prefer 222
463
INDEX OF ENGLISH WORDS
464