EEE 515: ELECTROMECHANICAL DEVICES DESIGN

TOPIC: DESIGN OF TRANSFORMERS

UNIT 1: BASIC DESIGN CONSTRAINTS
LECTURER: ENGR DR OEK ONWUNTA
[email protected]
08103746916

INTRODUCTION
Electromechanical devices play key roles in energy conversion. Consequently, a good
knowledge of their design is very vital to enable us possibly improve the efficiency of
the energy conversion process.
AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
At the end of this study scholars would understand among other things
1. Basic concepts of electrical machines design
2. Key engineering design factors
3. Constraints of electrical machines design

Electromechanical energy conversion refers to the conversion of mechanical energy

into electrical energy (generator) or vice versa (motor) with the aid of rotary motion
(rotary machines) or translatory (linear) motion (linear machines and actuators).
Electrical machines, solenoid actuators and electromagnets are generally called
electromechanical energy conversion devices.

Fig 1. Electromechanical energy conversion

In general, electromechanical devices can be classified as follows:
1) transducers, which are the devices used for measurement and control, such as
torque motors, loudspeakers, and microphones;
2) force-producing devices, such as relays, electromagnets, and solenoid
actuators;

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 3) continuous energy-conversion apparatus, such as generators and motors.

The role of electromagnetic (or electromechanical) machines is to transmit energy or

convert it from one type of energy to another. In general, electric generators and motors
of all kinds can be defined as electromechanical energy converters. However,
transformers and solid-state converters do not belong to the group of
electromechanical energy conversion devices because they only convert one kind of
electrical energy into another kind of electrical energy with different parameters without
any motion. Such parameters include change in voltage, current, frequency, number
of phases, and conversion of DC into AC current.
Principles of Design
An electric machine is an electromechanical device that comprises the stationary and
moving parts combined together to generate, transform or utilize the
mechanical/electrical energy. Electric machines are used in applications like
transportation, aerospace, defence and industrial automation industries. Electric
motor-driven systems that drive pumps, fan, blower systems and air compression have
become common in industries. Good engineering design is the heart of all such
applications. Engineering design is the application of science, technology and
invention to produce machines to perform specified tasks with optimum economy and
efficiency.
All the machines are made up of elements or parts and units. Each element is a
separate part of the machine and it may have to be designed separately and in
assembly. Each element in turn can be a complete part or made up of several small
pieces which are joined together by riveting, welding, etc. Several machine parts are
assembled together to form what we call as complete machine. This physical
realization of a complete machine has to meet the required performance conditions at
optimum economy and efficiency.
Hence, the objective of a design is to obtain the complete dimensions of all the parts
of the machine. It must be carried out to meet the specifications using the available
materials, at optimal cost, size and weight without compromising the performance and
durability.
Factors for Consideration in Designing
The three key factors of design are given below:
1. Economy (Cost)

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 2. Durability
3. Compliance with the specifications and standards
A design process involves lot of engineering calculations done in an iterative manner.
When designing machine, one cannot apply rigid rules to get the best design for the
machine at the lowest possible cost. A designer may have to take decisions under
conflicting requirements. For example, designing a machine to meet out all the three
key factors is highly impossible. For example, a highly durable machine would
obviously make use of high-quality materials and thereby increasing the cost of the
machine. Hence, compromise between durability and economy is required depending
upon the application, besides meeting the specifications. Compromise is also required
between the ideal design and a design which will comply with the manufacturing
conditions, environmental conditions, convenience in production, transport,
maintenance, safety, reliability and customer’s need. One should also understand the
limitations of design. The designer’s primary responsibility is to allot suitable space for
frame, core, airgap, winding, insulating and cooling medium in the machine. The
designer should also make appropriate choice of electric, magnetic, insulating
materials subject to availability, characteristics and cost consistent with the
specifications.
Summarily, a good design is one where the machine has reasonable operating life,
say between 20 to 30 years and has a low initial cost. This is particularly true for motors,
especially induction motors used for general purpose applications. However, large
synchronous machines and transformers which are used in power systems must be
designed with reliability and durability in operation as the major considerations, with
less emphasis on initial cost.

Classification of Design Problem

A typical machine has field and armature winding supported by stator and rotor. It also
has dielectric materials for insulating the live parts, cooling system and mechanical
parts for support. Hence, the basic components of an electric machine design are
shown in Fig. 2 and highlighted as follows:

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 Fig. 2 Basic components of an electric machine design

1. Magnetic design or magnetic circuit design: The design of magnetic circuit

must establish the required flux with minimal ampere turns. It should also
produce less core loss.
2. Electric circuit design: This deals with the design of armature and field
windings with suitable winding arrangement such that the required emf is
produced. The copper loss in these windings should also be less.
3. Dielectric system design: This deals with the design of insulation required to
isolate various parts operating at different potential so that the current is
confined to the required paths.
4. Thermal system design: The design of thermal system includes the design of
cooling system, ventilating ducts, etc., so that the heat generated in the machine
due to losses is dissipated and safe operation of the machine at the specified
temperature is ensured.
5. Mechanical system design: This involves the design of frame, shaft and
bearings. The design should be robust.
Design Constraints
The limitations imposed on the design of electrical machines are listed in Fig. 3. These
constraints are due to the dependability of the performance of machine on various

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factors and do not include limitations in the availability of material and other facilities
required for manufacturing.
Efficiency
 Total efficiency of a machine indirectly influences its capital and running costs.
 When efficiency is high, the power losses are low and hence the running costs
will be less.
 But, to limit the electric and magnetic losses, the specific electric and magnetic
loadings ought to be as low as possible.
 This in turn formulates a need for a machine with an excessively large active
material (such as iron for magnetic parts, copper and aluminium for winding
conductors), which results in an increased initial investment (capital) cost.
 Thus, machines with enhanced efficiency will have substantially low running
cost at the expense of higher capital cost.

Fig 3. Limitations imposed on the design of electrical machines

Temperature rise
 Temperature rise is caused in an electrical machine due to the heat generated
by the flow of electric current in conductors and flux linking the iron parts.
 Elaborate cooling arrangements are to be made if the temperature rise is
excessive. This increases the capital cost of the machine.

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  Also, the type of insulation provided largely affects the machine’s operating life
as each of the insulating materials used has a limiting temperature limit.
 If operated above this limit, the longevity of insulating material reduces
considerably, thereby deteriorating the machine’s lifetime and cost-
effectiveness.
 It is therefore required to provide appropriate cooling and ventilation methods,
to maintain the temperature rise within the permissible limits.
Insulation
The insulating materials used in a machine must endure the following stresses:
 Electrical stress – Inflicted by the continually varying high operating voltage
 Mechanical stress – Due to the flow of short circuit currents in secondary
windings as they induce large radial and axial forces as in the case of
transformers
 Thermal stress – Caused by the heat developed (due to power losses) in the
machine components
 The type of insulation to be fitted is determined principally by the maximum
operating temperature of the machine components to avoid any thermal
breakdown.
 Furthermore, the size of insulation is influenced by the maximum voltage stress
(electrical stress) and the size of conductors used (mechanical stress).
Power factor
 For the same power rating of a machine, a poor factor leads to larger values of
current (as they are inversely proportional).
 Hence, the conductor size (and cost) increases to accommodate this increased
current flow.
 Conversely, for the power factor to be kept high (for reduced current levels and
stress),
o the specific magnetic loading should be less, i.e. the volume of active
material has to be increased
o the air gap should be as small as mechanically possible which in turn
increases the fabrication cost of rotors

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  Eventually, the size and capital cost increase anyhow and power factor is used
rather as a limiting factor influencing the air gap length, winding conductor size
and flux density and saturation in the core.
 The effect of power factor is a key consideration in the design of induction
motors.
Electromagnetic saturation
 Since ferro-magnetic materials are used as stator/rotor cores, their saturation
level determines the maximum allowable flux density.
 A high value of flux density is achieved by reducing the air gap, but it results in
saturation of the core, thereby depleting the power factor and also causes an
increased excitation resulting in higher cost for the field system.
Mechanical components
The physical dimensions and shape of the mechanical components deeply influence
the limits of parameters of electrical machine such as critical speed, power factor, etc.
The three primarily influential mechanical portions are as follows:
 Air gap: It must be kept as low as mechanically possible to have a high power
factor and flux density.
 Central rotor shaft: Longer shaft lengths lead to excessive Unbalanced
Magnetic Pull (UMP) when deflected and disrupt the running mechanism. Thus,
rotor shaft must be short and rigid to downplay any deflection in running
conditions and void the effect of UMP, if any. In large machines, the shaft size
is determined by the critical speed which in turn depends on shaft deflection.
 Bearings and rotating parts: Typically, they are subjected to external loads,
inertial forces, rotor weights caused by unbalanced rotors and forces due to
UMP. Thus, these factors play a vital part in the selection of bearing types in
machines along with the mounting used (vertical/horizontal).
Commutation
 In DC machines where commutation is involved, commutating difficulties
(production of sparks) and drawbacks increase directly with the output power
(Po).
 Thus, commutation acts as a limiting factor and presently the maximum power
output that can be efficiently obtained from a single DC machine is 10 MW.
Specifications

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Some restrictions are imposed on the manufacturer to produce electrical machines
such as
1) Consumer specifications: Different applications such as pumps, cranes, fans,
automobiles have different requirements for electric machines (constant torque/
power or constant speed or constant load) which have to be met by the
manufacturer, along with the economic, maintenance and serviceability
constraints.
2) Standard specifications: These benchmark specifications (duly explained
later), concerning safety measures, voltage ratings and torque requirements are
stipulated by ISO and ought to be fulfilled by the manufacturer before
commercializing their machines.

UNIT 2: CLASSES OF TRANFORMER

Introduction
Transformers are static electromagnetic devices with two or more windings and a
common magnetic circuit. They are one of the primary power apparatus used in the
power system network. The transformers change the AC voltage and the associated
current from one level to another level, maintaining power balance between input and
output side, without change in frequency. Hence, transformers perform AC energy
transformation rather than energy conversion from one or more primary side circuit(s)
to one or more secondary side circuit(s).
The main parts of the transformer are as follows:
 Core: Its function is the creation of closed magnetic circuit for passage of flux
between primary and secondary windings. Windings are made around the core.
 Yoke: It acts as the top and bottom of core, providing support to it.
 Winding: Carries the current and used for transfer of power
When the MVA rating is high, in addition to the above parts, transformer is equipped
with
 Bushing: Prevention of flashover due to connection of high voltage to earthing
point.
 Coolant conservator: Provides storage space for coolant used for circulation in
cooling the transformer.
The different parts of the transformer in general are represented in Fig. 4.

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 Fig 4. Parts of a transformer

Transformers are classified on the basis of the following aspects:

 Construction (shape of magnetic medium)
 Number of phases
 Winding/turns/voltage ratio
 Application (loading condition)

The classification of transformers is represented in Fig. 5. In addition, instrument

transformers such as current transformers and potential transformers are also
available.

Fig 5. Classification of transformers

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The detailed classification based on the aforementioned aspects is given as follows:
Based on Voltage Ratio
1. Step-up transformer: This type of transformer increases the voltage, with
corresponding decrease in current. They have a larger number of turns in secondary
side, i.e., (T2 /T1) > 1, where T1 and T2 are the number of turns in primary and
secondary sides, respectively.
2. Step-down transformer: This type of transformer decreases the voltage, with the
corresponding increase in current. They have a smaller number of turns in secondary
side, i.e., T2/T1 < 1, where T1 and T2 are the number of turns in Primary and
secondary sides respectively.
Based on Construction
1. Core-type transformer: In core-type transformer, windings encircle the core as
shown in Fig. 6(a) and (b). The primary and secondary windings are wound around the
limbs. It therefore creates a single magnetic circuit. The low-voltage winding is wound
inside, near the core and the high-voltage winding is wound outside, encircling the low-
voltage winding, away from the core. The reason for this winding arrangement is that
the quantity of insulation materials required is less. In order to have reduced leakage
reactance, two windings can be coupled together tightly, with each limb carrying one
half of the primary and one half of the secondary

Fig. 6 (a) Single-phase core-type transformer. (b) Three-phase core-type transformer

2. Shell-type transformer: In shell-type transformer, the core encircles the winding as

shown in Fig. 7(a) and (b). The primary and the secondary windings are placed
together alternatively, giving rise to sandwich type of winding with high-voltage
windings sandwiched between low-voltage windings. The central limb carries the total

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mutual flux, while the other limbs carry half the total flux. This creates a double
magnetic circuit.

Fig 7 (a) Single-phase shell-type transformer (b) Three-phase shell-type transformer

Table 1: Comparison between core-type and shell-type transformers

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The comparison between core-type and shell-type transformers is represented in
Table 1 above. It should be noted that each of these types of constructions has its
advantages and disadvantages. Perhaps the ultimate determination between the two
comes down to a question of cost. In distribution transformers, the shell-form design is
very popular because the core can be economically wrapped around the coils. For
moderate to large power transformers, the core-form design is more common, possibly
because short-circuit forces can be better managed with cylindrically shaped windings.

Based on Application
• Distribution transformer: This type of transformer is used for stepping down the
transmission voltage to distribution voltage or stepping down the distribution voltage to
a standard voltage as per the service requirements of an industrial or commercial load.
The rating of this transformer is usually below 250 kVA. The type of connection used
is three-phase four-wire delta-star. The period of operation is 24 hours throughout the
day. Hence, the design should be done in a way that the efficiency is maximum even
at half-load condition, leading to a good all day efficiency. The flux density is usually
less than 1.7 Wb/m2. The ratio of iron loss to copper loss is 1:3. As this type of
transformer is located in the vicinity of the load, the voltage regulation must be good,
which can be satisfied by having a small leakage reactance. Usually, the percentage
impedance is in the range of 4–18%. The voltage regulation is in the range of 4–9%.
The type of cooling used is self-oil cooling.
• Power transformer: This type of transformer is used for either stepping up the
voltage or stepping down the voltage in generating stations and substations at every
end of power transmission line. The rating of this transformer is usually above 250
kVA. The type of connection used is three-phase three-wire-delta-delta or star-delta.
The period of operation is during heavy loading periods and is disconnected during
light loading periods. Hence, the design is in such a way that efficiency is maximum at
full or near full load. The flux density is usually between 1.5 and 1.7 Wb/m2. The ratio
of iron loss to copper loss is 1:1. The voltage regulation is not an important factor as
this transformer is not located in the vicinity of the load. Hence, the leakage reactance
can be made high, used for limiting the short circuit current, leading to less mechanical
forces. Usually, the percentage impedance is in the range of 6–18%. The voltage
regulation is in the range of 6–10%. The type of cooling used is forced air or forced oil
cooling.

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Based on Number of Phases
• Single-phase transformer: This type of transformer has a single-phase primary and
a single-phase secondary placed with either core or shell-type construction. It is used
for low-power applications.
• Three-phase transformer: This type of transformer has three-phase primary and
three-phase secondary placed with either core or shell-type construction. It is used for
high-power applications.

Although transformers are primarily classified according to their function in a power

system and how they are constructed they also have subsidiary classifications
according to:
 Method of cooling.
 Types of insulation.
 Method of mounting.

Cooling Systems
The transformers get heated due to iron and copper losses occurring in them. It is
necessary to dissipate this heat so that the temperature of the windings is kept below
the value at which the insulation begins to deteriorate. The cooling of transformers is
more difficult than that of rotating machines because the rotating machines create a
turbulent air flow which assists in removing the heat generated due to losses. Luckily
the losses in transformers are comparatively small. Nevertheless the elaborate cooling
arrangements have been devised to deal with the whole range of sizes.

The two general classifications would be air or liquid cooled.

Air-cooled transformers are normally small and depend on the circulation of air over or
through their enclosures. They may be either ventilated or non-ventilated. Forced air
provided by fans may be used. The fan(s) may be part of the transformer itself, or
installed in a structure to provide general circulation of air for a larger area which
includes the transformer(s). The transformers may have smooth surfaces or may be
equipped with fins to provide a greater surface area for removing heat from them.

Oil-cooled transformers have the transformer's coils and core submerged in the liquid.
The liquid may be mineral oil, silicone fluid, or a synthetic material that has been
registered by the particular manufacturer. Natural circulation of the oil due to the heat

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is used in some of the transformers. Fins are normally provided to dissipate the heat
to the surrounding air. Fans may be used to facilitate removing heat from the
transformer. At other times, a water jacket with circulating cool water may be inserted
inside the transformer housing to cool the oil. Another method would be to pump the
oil through the fins or radiator and not depend on the natural circulating currents. Any
of these methods or combinations of them may be part of the design of any particular
transformer. Figure 8 illustrates some of these methods.

Figure 8 Cooling methods for power transformers

An effective cooling system can increase transformer capacity 25% to 50%. Under
these circumstances, a 1000-kVA transformer may be operated as high as 1500 kVA
without causing damage to the device.

Any steps taken to lower the operating temperatures of electrical equipment will assure
greater efficiencies and extended operating times without equipment failure. Simple
precautions to assure adequate air flow may be all that is needed.

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ASSIGNMENT
1. Classify transformers according to their insulation types.
2. Classify transformers based on their method of mounting.

FURTHER READING
Del Vecchio, R.M, Poulin, B., Feghali, P.T., Shah, D.M and Ahuja, R., 2018.
Transformer design principles, 3rd ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press
Rajini, V and Nagarajan, V.S., 2018. Electrical machine design. Uttar Pradesh:
Pearson
Rajput, R. K., 2012. Basic electrical and electronics engineering, 2nd ed. New Delhi:
University Science Press
Sawhney, A.K and Chakrabarti, A., 2006. A course in electrical machine design, 6th ed.
Nai Sarak: Dhanpat Rai
Shultz, G. P., 1989. Transformers and motors: a single-source reference for
electricians. Woburn, MA: Elsevier

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