a NaS one NearsPublisher’s details Publication: ‘CompEx EXO! -06 Ex B2 CompEx ID - September 2015, Number of pages: 236 Publisher: ‘Quercus Technical Services B.V. Baileystraat 3, 8013 RV Zwolle Tel: +31 (0)38 452 9991, Fax: +31 (0)38 452 5690 Le wwwate.nl, E [email protected] Copyright: © 2017 Quercus Technical Services 8.V., Zwolle ‘Subjece to exceptions stipulated by law, no part ofthis publication may be reproduced, stored in a computer database ‘or made public in any form or by any means whatsoever, ether electronically, mechanically, by phorocopy, recording, for by any other means, without prior writen permission frei the copyright holder(). This also applies to ull or partial editing. (Compex EXO1-061 2 3. 10. 11. 22. 13, 14, 16. Table of contents. Explosion hazard introduction ‘Areas with a risk of explosive atmospheres Marking of equipment Laws and regulations | Increased safety of Ex e equipment Pressure-resistant enclosure for Ex d equipment Intrinsic safety of Exi circuits Protection by means of positive pressure: Ex p Protection method Ex n_ Other protection methods: 0, q, m, t and op ‘Combined protection methods: Hybrids General information on cable glands, including industrial use Installation of explosion-proof system Earthing and equalisation part | Maintenance and inspection ‘Working in areas with an explosion hazard 43 61 B 95 108 134 146 152 160 167 185 200 222Basic principle of the training The CompEx (Competence Explosive) training falls under the auspices of JTL. This eraining includes six CompEx modules: Ex aimed at che assembly of Ex d, ¢, n and p equipment and components. Ex 02 aimed ar the inspection and maintenance of Ex d, ¢ and n instal: ‘+ Ex 03 aimed ar the assembly of Ex i equipment and components. «Ex 04 aimed ar the inspection and maintenance of stallations. Ex 05 aimed ar the assembly of equipment and components in explosive dust environments. Ex 06 aimed ar the inspection and maintenance of explosive dust installations. To support these six modules, the associated subject matter is covered. Modules can be followed separately and in any random combination. Would you like to know more about CompEx? Visit the JTL website: waw.compex.org.tik ‘The following final terms apply to these persons: Competencies must apply to each of the techniques regarding the explosion protection with which the person is involved. Persons performing the work must have the following, in so far as itis necessary to perform their rasks properly: ‘© insight into the general principles of explosion protection; insight into the general principles of protection methods and markings; insight into the aspects of equipment design thar affect the safety concep insight into the contents of certificates and relevant parts of the IEC 60079-14 standard; a general understanding of and insight into the inspection and maintenance requirements of TEC 6079.17; ‘being familiar with the special techniques that must be applied when selecting and installing equipment referred to in this standard + insight into the additional importance of procedures, where work is only performed after obraining permission (‘Permit to Work’ system) and in safe isolation for explosion protection purposes. © knowledge of the specific techniques that are applied for the inspection and maintenance of the equipment referred to in the [EC 60079-17 standai ‘© general insight into the repair and revision of IEC 60079-19. © the use and availability of documentation; ‘the practical skills required for the maintenance and inspection of relevant safety concepts; Compe EXO - 06,} J } ! J Explosion hazard introduction Explosive atmospheres are understood fo mean: a mixture with air, under atmospheric condi- tions, of flammable substances in the form of gases, vapours, mists or dusts in which combus- rion spreads to the encire unburned mixture after ignition has occurred. For this reason, measures should be taken to prevent explosions. The need for the simultaneous presence of an explosive atmosphere and an effective ignition source, and the consequences of an explosion give rise to the three basic principles for prevent- ing and protecting against explosions. The three basic principles for preventing and protecting against explosions are: * Prevention: preventing the creation of an explosive atmosphere, If this is not possible, then: + Repression: preventing the ignition of an explosive atmosphere, thus the avoidance of effective ignition sources. If this is not possible, then: # Management: limiting the consequences of an explosion to an acceptable level with structural protective measures, There is a risk of explosion wherever flammable gases and flammable (liquid) substances are processed. Almost every solid substance can serve as fuel for an explosion. The starting point for explosion protection as defined in the standards and in ATEX is: “The likelihood of an explosive mixture under atmospheric conditions. Atmospheric conditions are: © remperarure:-20°C ro +60°C pressure: 80 kPa (0.8 bar) to 110 kPa (1.1 bar) and air with a normal oxygen content, usually: 21% w/v. The following applies in regard to equipment: Markings for the ambient temperature are not required for electrical and other equipment thar is designed for use at a normal ambient temperature between 20°C and +40°C. However, elec: trical and other equipment thar is designed for use other than in these normal ambient temper atures is considered to be special equipment.11 How gas explosions occur ‘A mixture that can be ignited is formed when a flammable gas or vapour from a flammable lie uid is mixed with air ata specific ratio. If this happens, a lame front develops whieh, in a stx tionary mixture, will move at high speed radially from the ignition source leaving the burnt mix- ture behind it. As a result of the mixture heating up and the combustion products that are cre- ated there is, in most cases, a Local, rapid increase in volume, which is initially observed as a local pressure increase which precedes the flame front as a pressure wave. Even after the flam- mabe mixture has been consumed by fire this pressure wave continues to move through the air for some time gradually decreasing in power. When the aforementioned process develops very quickly itis known as an explosion. Iris not always possible to avoid the use of flammable (explosive) gases and liquiids. Consider, for instance, petrochemical installations and gas extraction installations. Tf we want to prevent explosions we must first understand how an explosion occurs, There are various types of explosions, which can be distinguished physically and chemically. ‘A physical explosion is, for instance, a steam vessel which bursts as a result of the pressure being too high. This training course does not deal with this type of explosion in further detail. In a chemical explosion there is a reaction. In general you could say that in an explosion there is an ‘accumulation of pressure followed by a release. An explosion will usually occur in a confined space. An explosion or fire occurs when a substance combines with oxygen while giving off heat. Fire does nor just occur. For a fire to ignite, three criteria must be met simultaneously, namely the presence of: + a combustible material in the form of gas, vapour or dust and ‘© ambient air cxygen) and; © an ignition source at a sufficiently high temperature. Ina drawing we can represent this as a triangle. Fig. 2. Fire pentagon we ensure that one of these three factors is not present, Only flammable rly in this way. A liquid must first eransition to vapour or gas before it Compl EX01 06can bum. Ifa flammable gas together with oxygen is ignited in a confined space, a sudden i ‘crease in pressure occurs and a shock wave is created. We call this an explosion. In open air this can result in a sea of fire which spreads in all directions. A fire or explosion ean ‘only occur if the amount of flammable gas in the oxygen is not too low or too high. The gas/oxygen ratio must be berween the ‘Lower Explosive Limi (LEL) and the 'Upper Explo- sive Limit’ (UEL) ro allow a fire or explosion to occur. If we analyse the triangle we can conclude thar the mix ratio and catalyst also play a role. In al, there are five factors that we can bring together in a pentagon. The fire triangle is not comple. For the sake of completeness we should actually take account of the fire pentagon. In practice, the fire triangle suffices. 100% mixing of fmable gas atmos Excessive concentration of flammable substance Upper Flammable Limit LUpper Explosion Limit Insufficient concentration of flammable substance Kinng of famesble gas-atmosghere Fig. 3. Explosive Timits Fire isa chemical prow speeds up this chemi a role. The caralyst can be a substance thar ive catalyst thar slows down the proces. ere all five factors play reaction (positive) or a neg The fire will go out ifone ofthe basic conditions for the fire is removed. Extinguishing is based on this principle. ‘Gases and liquids are not automatically explosive. We have to know more about the properties ‘of gases and liquids to be able to estimate the risk of an explosion. ‘We will nor discuss all parameters for gases and liquids, only those that are of significance to us. The behaviour of gases and liquids is very complex and is field of expertise in itself. Iris nor surprising, therefore, thar the risks associated with gases or gas mixtures have been analysed for us. Estimating explosion risks isa role for process engineers,id Gas parameters LEL, UEL and ignition energy If flammable liquids and gases are present there is a need to keep the risk of an explosion as low as possible, An explosion can only occu with the simultaneous presence of all factors, as dis- ‘assed previously. There is, however, only an explosion hazard ifthe gas is mixed with oxygen in 2 specific ratio (concentration), Too much or too little gas in the mixture will not produce an explosive mixture. LeL The following applies in regard to LEL: che minimum gas concentration that is just sufficient to burn when ignited. UEL The following applies in regard to UEL: when the gas concentration is so high that ignition does not result in combustion or explosion, the gas concentration is above the UEL value. We call this a mixture that is too rich. That does not, however, mean thar it is safe. The correct mix ratio could well occur at the edges of a gas cloud, or if the mixture that is too rich is diluted an explo- sive mixture will occur at a specific point in time. ‘Ammonia 15 28 Natural gas 5 165 Methane 5 18 Propane 2a 95 Ethylene 27 34 Hydrogen 4 75 Butane 1s as acetylene 23 99.9 ‘Natural gas condensate 1 8 Methanol 67 36 Euro 95 06 8 Diese | _ os 5 a a TE Toa) ‘Table 1. LEL and UEL explosive limits and minimum ignition energy The table above shows the minimum (ILEL) and maximum (UEL) volume percentages of flam- able gas that must be present for various gases to allow an explosion to occur. We could say thar, the greater the bandwidth berween LiL and UEL, the greater the risk of exploston. Compl EMD - 08Ignition energy A specific amount of energy is also required ro ignite a mixture of gas and oxygen; this depends ‘on the type of gas. This energy is expressed in mj (millijoules). If we only consider the required ignition energy, hydrogen and acetylene are the most dangerous gases, because they require the least amount of energy, The minimum ignition energy is usually shown on transport emergency cards, Just to give you an idea of the amount of energy released: * when using low-spark rools less than 0.06 m) ignition energy is released # perceptible static electricity 1 mJ ‘static electricity caused by clothing > 5 mJ. This is why antistatic clothing and antistatic footwear must be worn in areas with a risk of ex- Relative vapour density 'S’ Relative density S' in relation to air shows whether the gas is heavier or lighter than the ‘ambient air. A light gas, such as hydrogen, tends to rise quickly. Ina confined space the _ [Ammonia 06 gas will accumulate under the ceiling ansioe wal A heavy gas tends to spread across the floor, [Methane I 06 Aheavy gas can therefore still be an explo [propane 15 sive hazard ata distance of 30 metres from an installation. It is difficult to remove a evens) 2 heavy gas from a pipe rench using ventila- [Hydrogen 0.07 tion, In general, it can be said that heavy Bains ay gises are more dangerous than light gases becuse of their spread behaviour, Acetylene 09 Natural gas condensate 22 Normally, stmospheric conditions are con- ered ic belt Methanol 1d Euro 95 364 Diesel 24 125 153 ‘Table 2. Relative vapour density 'S" Fig. 4. Spread behaviour of heavy gas Flashpoint Explosions and fires cannot normally occur in liquids, however every liquid ean release vapour ‘or gas which is explosive in the right concentration. When the liquid is a a specific temperatureture is known as the flashpoint. In other wor The flashpoint of a liquid under atmospheric conditions. 1 sufficient vapour or gas is relensed that a flammable mixture is created in the air. This tempers 1 ds: | the lowest remperatuire at which the liquid releases sufficient va- pour to catch fire and continue burning when it comes into contact with an ignition source The flashpoint ofa liquid can be derermined using she equipment below. ] Fig. 5. Test method for determining flashpoint An igniter produces spi ture, sufficient vapour reached the flashpoint. ‘Ammonia Natural gas enc Methane ce Propane eae Ethylene sac Hydrogen <0 Butane ecg Acetylene a Natural gas condensate pauic Methanol ag Euro 95 ez Diesel sg 2s Table 3. Overview of substance flash- points 10 is heated and stirred. Ara specific tempers- I be released by the liquid for it to start ro bum, The liquid has then A liquid above the flashpoint leaking from an stallation results in an explosive atmosphere. Bear in mind, therefore, that the lower the flashpoint the more hazardous the liquid, ‘Although the flashpoint class was removed from the Ex standard for zoning (NEN-ENEC 6079-10), you can still find it on, for instance, a tank of liq uid. Nowadays we spenk in terms of extremely flamma- bile, highly flammable and flammable liquids. Compe EX01 - 061 1 } Titel ig LE Autoignition temperature AIT Tempera | | Sasa ‘ture la 1 > 450°C. Ammonia | 630°C 1 2 > 300 - 450°C 300°C Natural gas 670°C ay 7 [>20-s300¢ | __ 200 Methane sore | T passmoc | ase Pronane woe | a 7s__[pt00-s1a5% | _s00¢ Ethylene ase | 16 > 85-5 100°C 85°C Hydrogen ‘560°C 1 Thole Temperature css [ate wesc | 2 Acetylene 305°C 2 ‘Natural gas condensate > 200°C 13 26 Ex de’ eee Methanol ase | | 12D Ex tbe T80°c fr09 soc | 7 Fig. 6. Temperature class indicator piss zee 8 as wee | Tobie A oases An explosive gas/air mixture can come into contact with a heated surface as a result of which the mixture can explode. The minimum ignition temperature of a flammable gas is the lowest temperature of heated surface that just ignites a flammable gas. ‘The auroignition temperature can be derermined using the test equipment below’ Fig. 7. Test method for determining AIT The autoignition temperatures of gases are subdivided into six temperature classes in accordance with the table above, Equipment in an explosive environment should not have a surface rem perature that is too high in normal use and expected fault conditions. If che ignition temperature of a gas is between 135°C and 200°C the temperature class of this gas is T4. The maximum surface temperature of equipment that is allowed to be used in an environment with this gas is 135°C; this equates to: T4, TS and T6. aa2 1.1.2 Gas group / explosion group / reference gas There are many different types of gases and gas mixtures, each with a different explosion risk. ‘You have to be a specialist to be able to determine that risk, This is why four reference gases (sometimes also known as gas group or explosion group) have been introduced. Every ens mix- ture ean be related to one of these reference gases Ieis up toa process engineer to judge which gas group a gos or gas mixture belongs to, The subdivision of gases and vapours is determined based on the maximum experimental safe gap (MESG) and the minimum ignition current (MIC). Gas groups ‘There are four gas groups, designated I, 1A, ITB and IC. (Roman numerals | and Il where the numeral II is followed by a letter). ‘The groups are categorised as follows: Group I; installations for mining with firedamp. Group Il-installations in locarions with a risk of explosive atmospheres, other than mining. The gas groups are the result of the MESG or MIC ratio, except where no value is stared for ‘MESG or MIC ratio; then the gas group is determined based on chemical similarity. Maximum Experimental Safe Gap: MESG For pressure resistant enclosures of (electrical) equipment gases and vapours are subdivided based on their maximum experimental safe gap (MESG), which is determined experimentally Using a pressure vessel, The standard method for determining the MESG is described in NEN-EN-IEC 60079-20-1 ‘The thresholds for Group II are defined as follows: Subcategory A: MESG 2 0.9 mm. Subcategory B: 0.5mm < MESG<0.9 mm. Subcategory C: MESG $0.5 mm. Fig. 8. Test method for determining MESG CompEx EX01 - 06Minimum ignition Current: MIC For intrinsically safe equipment, gases and vapours are subdivided based on the relationship between their minimum ignition current (MIC) and thar of methane of laboratory quality Inside the enclosure an explosive mixture of laboratory methane is put into the vessel The vessel contains a rotating contact wire thar comes into contact with a disc. This causes a sake and break spark. There is a voltage of 24 VDC across the contacts and an air core coil of 95 mH. The current in this circuit is now gradually increased from 0 mA to approximately 100 mA. Ara cermin moment (¢ 85 mA) the mixture ignites. This is called MIC Ratio 1. Using this ‘menstirement as a reference, other gases are rested to indicate when they ignite in relation to methane; shown as the MIC Ratio. The standard method for determining this relationship is described in NEN-ENJEC 60079-1]: “Intrinsic safety’ The thresholds for Equipment Group Il are defined as follows: ‘Subcategory A: MIC Ratio > 0. Subcategory B: 0.45 MIC Ratio s 0. Subcategory C: MIC Ratio s 0.45. Fig. 9. Test method for determining MIC Relationship between MESG and MIC For most gases and vapours itis sufficient to perform only one of these determinations (MESG or MIC) to place the gas oF vapour into the correct subcategory. In the following cases, only one test need be carried our, when: Gas group IA: MESG >09 mm or MIC >09, Gas group IIB: 0.55 mm s MESG $0.9 mm or 0.58 MIC $0.8. Gas group IC: MESG <0.55 mm or MIC <05, In the following cases both the MESG and the MIC must be determined, if: Gas group lA: 0.8 = $ MIC $0.9 MESG req. also. Gas group IB: 045° $ MIC_ $05 MESG req. also. Gas group IC: 0.5mm $ MESG <0.55mm MIC req. also. B4 Ifa gas or vapour belongs to a homologous range of compounds, the correct subcategory for the as oF vapour ean be derived on a provisional basis from the results of the determinations of ‘other compounds in chis range with a lower molecular weight. However, it is berter to carry out the rest if possible. The coloured areas determine the gas group. In addition, it is important ro know the tempera ture at which the gas ignites (AIT), the flashpoint and whether the gas is heavier or lighter than. ‘outdoor air, ‘ammonia 35 | 28 | 68s | 38 | 680 06 630 | a Natural gas s [aes] a | 122 | 028 06 670 | wa | 1 [Methane s [as [1 | 12 | 026 06 s95 | 1 a 15 470 18 1 425 ue 0.07 560 jeutane 1s | as | os | 098 | 025 24 365 | ua ‘Acetylene 23 | 999 | 03 | 037 [cow 09 305 | uc |saturel eas conden: a | 8 £02 22 > 200] A Methanol 67 | 36 | 08 | os | o14 a 455 | Wa Euro 95 os | 8 024 374 350 | a Diesel os | 5 a2 24 [>250] wa ines 43 | 455 0.83 | 0.068 153 270 | 118 ‘Table 6. Gas groups based on MIC, MESG or basec on chemical similarity The ERD (Explosion Reference Document), which is enclosed as an Appendix, includes a com- prehensive list of test results as described in NEN-ENIEC 60079.20-1. Compex €X01 08 Ct ve Ss12 How dust explosions occur If, when transporting or processing combustible solid substances, these substances may be pre sent in finely dispersed form, with a particle size smaller than 0.5 ram, there is dust explosion hazard. To prevent a fire or explosion combustible dust must be prevented from being simultaneously present with an effective ignition source in a location open to the ankient ar. Frets about explosions: 4 Inmany industries pouder and dust formation occurs during the production process. # A good 80% of all dusts occurring in industry are combustible ‘In theory borh gas and dust satisfy the fire triangle. In he case of gas we can say that practice and theory are Ito 1. ‘© With dust however practice is more difficult ro predict! © Ifa combustible solid substance is made up of fine particles and swirls up in the air to form a dust cloud, there is a risk of a dust explosion under certain ‘What do we actually mean by dust! In Durch Code of Practice 7910-2, among others, the term dust is defined as follow: A dust cloud with combustible dust particles < 0.5mm is explosive. Larger dust particles ate combustible, If dust swirls up itis usually only a small portion of the toral amount of dust that will be within the explosive limits, The dust chat is not directly involved in the explosion will generally catch fire. Therefore, a dust explosion almost always causes a fire. In addition, the pressure wave from the explosion will, in many eases, switl up the dust particles Iying on the ground and structural components and mix them with air. That can lead to a sub ‘sequent, ‘secondary’ dust explosion, which often involves larger amounts of dust than the inal ‘primary’ explosion. This explains why the secondary explosion is often far more powerful than the primary explosion. This can then cause damage that involves even larger amounts of dust being swirled up and so on, The end result could be that the roral stock of powdery products on hand in a company is burnt in a long series of explosions and the business is completely de- stroyed. Fig. 10. Grain silos before and after the explosion in Blaye (France) as16 1.2.1 Dust parameters The following details are, toa greater or lesser degree, important for the zone classification: explosive limits minimum ignition energy ignition temperature electrical conductivity pressure build-up. LEL - UEL Explosive limits EL ‘The Upper Explosive Limit (VEL) for dusts lies approximately between 2 and 6 kg/m’. As op- posed to gas, «fixed upper limit for dust cannot be defined precisely. Because dust particles are not evenly distributed in a dust cloud, there will be areas where the concentration does lie with- in the explosive limirs. So even dust clouds with a very high concentration can explode. A ho- ‘mogeneous dust cloud that is too rich in dust will hardly ever form in practice, which is why we cannot apply the theory of LEL - UEL in practice. At best it is a guideline for evaluating the area. ‘Wingo Roa etnce—stmaepere ‘Theoretically excessive concentration of flamm: “ substance ae BE a {ower Eaploson uit [Theoretically insufficient concentration of flammable substance Oh ming of annie sane smephere Fig. 11. LEL- UEL explosive limits for dust LL “When the amount of dust is below a certain level a dust cloud cannot be ignited. This limit is known as the Lower Explosive Limit (LEL). Dust clouds with a value between 50g/m* and 100g/m’ can initiate an explosion. If no data is available for the dust, a lower limit of 20g/m? must be assumed, This theory works ifimplemented in a controlled menner. There are, howev- er, eatremely hazardous dusts thar form an explosive mixture ata value as low as 15s/m’. Dust swirling up, e.g. from a draught, could suddenly achieve those concentrations! Therefore the LEL valuc is actually only a subjective term. ‘Compéx EX01 -05} OU u o a] dd Minimum ignition energy (MIE) Fig. 12. Hartmann tube The minimum ignition energy that is needed to ignite a dust/air mixture can be determined using a socalled Hartmann tube, A quantity of dust is placed in the bortom of the rube. A burst of compressed air changes this into a dust cloud after which the high voltage coll is actuated. A spark between the electrodes ignites the dust mixture. ambient 90 mi 50°C 50m! 90°C 20m) Am ES <1 180°C 125m) [Sulphur | 10 5 Gilson and Rogrs 1980, Tabe 5.9 Table7. Table 8. The results of these tests shaw unpredictable behaviour (see table 1.7). Table 1.8 further con- firms the unpredictability. The ambient temperature also plays a very important role in the ign tion energy required. MIE = Minimum Ignition Energy. (Durch: MOE = Minimum Ontstekings Energie). Irean be stated that more energy is required ro ignite a dust/air mixture than to ignite a gas/air mixture. Since it is dificult ro test equipment using a dust cloud, equipment is often tested Using the reference gas from gas group IIA instead of a dust cloud. Ifthe equipment passes this test then iris satisfactory for an environment with a dust explosion hazard. v718 Smoulder temperature Ignition can occur directly or indirectly. Direct ignition can only occur ifan explosive dust/air mixture is present. In indirect ignition heating, also known as smouldering, causes a fire. Tae fire will case a thermal draught which swirls up the dust. Then he dust cloud is ignited by the temperature inerease from the fire, after which fire will result in explosion and vice versa. Combustible dust can be deposited as a thin layer on n hot surface. The hear can cauise the dust ro smoulder. The temperature to start a combustible dust smouldering can be considerably low- er than the minimum ignition temperature The lowest temperature of a horizontal surface at which a deposited layer of dust with a thick ness of 5 mm starts to smoulder is known as the smoulder temperature, A smouldering surface can act as the ignition source for the explosion of a dust/air mixture. ‘Note: smouldering is also krnown as limmen’ in Durch (lim is German for smoulder). This exe plains the use of the term 'gmtemperatuur rather than the ‘smeultemperauuy’ (smoulder tempera- ure). “The smoulder temperature describes the ignition behaviour of thin dust layers. With increased layer thicknesses or when an ignition source is fully covered, the heat insulation of the dust layer increases which leads to totally different and under some conditions clearly lower temperatures that could trigger an exothermic reaction. Tests have demonstrated that the smoulder rempera- ture decreases almost in ditect proportion to the increase of the layer thickness. In part, the smouilder remperature also lies well below the ignition emperature of a mixture of the same dust in ar, Fig. 13. Test method for determining the smoulder temperature The maximum permissible surfice temperature of each electrical device can be scaled higher depending on the heat conductivity of the dust. Undetected smouldering nests may be present in thicker dust layers for prolonged periods and could forman effective ignition source when lust swirls up. There are also dusts that melt when heated and do nor smoulder. ‘Compe €X03 - 06© OebleO 4 } 5) qo Autoignition temperature - AIT (dust) Ifa dust cloud comes into contact with a hor surface this can ignite the cleud. The minimum ignition temperature of a combustible dust cloud is the lowest temperature of a heated vertical surface that just ignires a mixture of the dust and air in an optimal concentration that comes it. This temperature is determined under standardised test conditions. Fig, 14, Test method for determining ignition temperature Determining explosion characteristics To determine the degree to which a dust could lead to an explosion there is a need to research the characteristics of thar dust in a Inborarory equipped for this. ‘The testing should be conducted on samples that accurately march the poweler as it actually appears in the process; and this should be under unfavourable conditions too. This could mean, for instance, that the finest, lightest particles in a totally dry state, such a6 particles which after escaping from the equipment are carried some distance through the air and deposited, are taken for testing. Generally a sample will first be rested in the form in which iris supplied, while after processing (such as drying and sieving out coarser components) the dust is checked for its capacity to give rise to further dangers under certain circumstances. (2). Fig, 15. Test method for determining build-up of pss Pressure progression during an explosion as20 “Whether or not the dust is explosive ts determined using the aforementioned test equipment. A sample with air is swirled up vigorously and a powerful ignition source ignites the dust cloud. The explosion shows a rapid and strong increase in pressure which progresses through time as shown in the figure. The highest value p shat the pressure achieves is known as the maximum explosion pressure; the highest value of the speed at which the pressure increases is the presure rise speed (dlp/d®ya. In the aforementioned figure this variable is shown as the slope angle of the steepest part of the curve. Explosion pressure and pressure rise speed in particular determine the severity of the explosion. Kst value ‘The pressure rise speed occurring in an explosion is inversely proportional ro the dimensions of the space in which the explosion takes place; the bigger the space the slower the pressure rises. The volume within which the test is conducted must therefore also be considered to arrive at the characteristic value for the dust concemed. To this end the measured value for the pressure rise speed is mulriplied by the cube root of the volume of the equipment in which the test is conducted. This produces the 'Kst value'. In other words, the maxi mum pressure rise speed in a volume of 1 m’, This isa fundamental property of the dust in the form in which itis tested. This property determines the severity of the explo- sion thar this dust can cause, 2 Vlg So ‘A German standard (VDI 2263, Page 1) shows how dusts hs car be categorised into dust explosion classes based on the Kst value determined experimentally Fig. 46, Safety valve Kst $300 sto Not explosive | cement, chalk, snd, ch, sats, 3 Tour, corn starches, sugar dust, eypes of OE Ex Sea wood dust, sulphur dust, PVC dust, ... ‘beechood dst, epoxy resin ds, pie - eh ae a e _nents, Mlayouring powders, >300 st3 Very high | alu ium dust, magnesia dust, Table 9. Relationship between Kst value and dust explosion class The maximum explosion pressure is, in principle, dependent on the dimensions of the test equipment used and can be regarded as a dust constant corresponding to the sample tested. For most dusts the maximum explosion pressure is between 5 bar and 9 bar. Higher pya values are associated with more powerful explosions. Any equipment or building where a dist explosion occurs ean therefore be subjected t0 a pressure of 5 10 9 bar. bear in mind thar the maximum explosion pressure is created by an explosion in ‘a confined space that is completely filled with a dust cloud that is mixed with air in the correct ratio. Ifa dust cloud char has formed in open air is ignited, then - depending on the nature of the dust and the shape and sizeof the particles - combustion is quicker or slower. The pressure arising depends on the size of the cloud and decreases quickly asthe distance to that loud in- creases, In any event, the pressures remain much lower than the maximum explosion pressure. Here we mu Compe EXO: -05Maximum permissible surface temperature Hot surfaces are understood to mean surfaces with a temperature higher than the ignition tem- perature of the dust, as well as surfaces upon which the dust has been deposited and which are ata temperature higher chan the smoulder remperarure of the dust. A hor surface can cause director indirect ignition. A surface whose temperature exceeds the minimum ignition temperature can ignite a dust cloud directly. A surface covered in a dust de- posit whose temperature exceeds the smoulder temperature can cause indirect ignition because the duse deposit srarts to smoulder and then catches fire With due regard for the necessary safety margins, the maximum surface temperature must not exceed the lowest of the following values: ‘© 2/3 of the value for the Autoignition Temperature (AIT) ‘© the smoulder temperature minus 75°C with dust deposited in a layer thickness up to and incl. 5 mm. A larger reduction in relation to the smoulder temperature should be applied for dust deposits with a layer thickness from 5 mm to 50 mm. The maximum surface temperature of such dust layers can be read from the following figure: Example: Ifa dust has a smoulder temperature of 320°C, then a safety margin of 75°C should be applied to it, For dust layers up to 5 mm thick the surface temperarare must not be higher than 320-75 = 245°C. The graph also shows that if the thickness of the dust layer can reach 50 mm, the sur- face temperature must not be higher than 100°C. e $ i- tt J ae : i i» & 200 Ignition temperature serumeee Lo r—_| 400°C 5 Te mm a See as = ore : SS Se Fig. 17. Relationship between surface temperature / dust thickness 211.22 Dust groups ‘We recognise dust groups for dusts in the same way that we recognise gas groups for gases. Dusts are categorised into the following dust groups in accordance with IEC 60079-0 and IEC. 60079-20-2: IA — Combustible flyings IIB Noneonduetive dust MIC Conductive dust [Synthetic silk, hemp, sisal, Solid particles including fibres, nominally cotton, unravelled rope, 2 500 um. kapok waste, cocoa, fibres, [Can hang in the air and could settle from jute Combustible FYi°85 | the atmosphere under their own weight.|"® [Can potentially form an explosive mix- ture with air. (Cocoa, coffee, skimmed Fine solid particles of $500 um. milk, custard powder, " Electrical resistance 2 10° m maize, milk, polyethylene, | Now-conductive 2u5t| can burn or glow in i me, malt, cellulose acetate, [Can form an explosive mixture with air. nylon, sugar, epoxy Aluminium, magnesium, Fine solid particies of s 500 um. chromium, cadmium, coal | co ductivedust |€lestrial resistance s10°0m, (ce dust, zinc, tin, bronze, tita- [can burn of glow in zi. ium [Can form an explosive mixture with air. Table 10. Dust group definitions These dust groups only apply to aboveground installations. MIA dusts are, in principle, combustible and not explosive, but if coarse dust is present fine dust is usually present also. IIB dusts are noneconductive dusts, such as grain dust and sugar. If these dusts are hygroscopic they will arraer moisture, resulting in sticky dust layer thar can no longer be swirled up. In an environment with conductive dust IC, such as metal powder, high requirements are set ‘on the rightness of enclosures, because this dust could eventually lead to a shorecincuit. Explosions of metal powders are the most powerful, Comps X01 - 062.668 -B 7 1.23 Hybrid mixtures A mixture that contains both finely dispersed dust and gaseous combustible dust is known as a hybrid misture. Hybrid mixtures are associated with special dangers. Not only are they explosive at very low concentrations of dust and gas, they are also particularly easily ignited and moreover they react more powerfully. Such mixtures are assoctared with spectal dangers. ‘Well-known examples are coal and lignite, which release methane, or soya bean extraction which releases hexane, Nece that ifa combustible dust and gas are present simultaneously this isa hybrid misture and that this falls outside the scope of both Dutch Code of Practice 7910-1 and Durch Code of Prae- tice 7910-2 so thar suitable measures fall under the responsibility ofthe wer. ‘The minimum ignition energy of a hybrid mixture can, for instance, be significantly lower than that of the dust on its own. A hybrid mixture can already explode at concentration levels of both the dust and the gas that are significantly lower than their respective LELs. For example, dust can still contain combustible organic solvents as a result of production or processing. This dust then releases flammable gases oF vapours. ‘When combined with finely dispersed dust in the air this ean lead to the creation of an exple- sive hybrid mixture. This falls outside of the scope of the directive but it should be taken into account when selecting suitable equipment. 2324 1.3 Ignition sources An explosion or fire is only possible if the explosive mixture ‘Thirteen ignition sources have been defined in accordance w ited. the standards: 1. Hor surfaces. 2, Flames (naked flame), hot gases. 3. Mechanical sparks and welding sparks. 4. Electrical installations and equipment. 5. Stray currents and cathodic protection. 6. Static electricity. 7. Lightning. 8. _Electromngnetic radiation in the visible spectrum (3 x 10"" Hz to 3 x 10'° Hi). 9. Exothermic chemical reactions. 10. Electromagner LL. Tonising radiat 12. Ultrasonic sound. 13, Adiabatic compression, shock waves and flowing gases. Ninety percent of ignitions are caused by 1 through 7. Ignition sources 1 through 9 apply for both gases and dusts, Ignition sources 10 through 13 are specific to gases. . Hor surfaces can be created by, among others: equipment overloading chemical and thermal processes stim and other radiation influences welding brakes and clutches. The temperature of fire isso high hae ir can ignite ll gases. Sparks can be created by, among others: cutting off or short-circuiting electricity static discharges, including lighting ‘machines starting welding stones or other hard objects in a process grinding, CompFx FX01 08. radiation in the radio frequency spectrum (10* Hz to 3 x 10"* Hz).1.3.1 Hot surfaces Hot surfaces mean surfaces with a temperature higher than the ignition temperature of the haz- ardous substances concerned, which can therefore ignite an explosive gas/air mixture. The possibility of ignition is partly dependent on the following conditions: © ype of flammable gas; # concentration of flammable gas in the air; size, remperarure, nature and shape of the hot surfaces the length of rime that the ignirable atmosphere is on the hor surface. Ignition can occur if an explosive atmosphere comes into contact with a heared surface. It is nor only the hot surface itself char can act as an ignition source. A layer of dust or combustible solid substance that has come into contact with a hot surface and consequently heen ignited/started to smoulder can also act as an ignition source for an explosive atmosphere. In order to cause ignition the temperature of the heated surface must be higher than the igni tion temperature of the flammable gas. If the conditions under which the flammable gas comes into contact with the hot surface are different, other temperatures could apply for ignition. For ‘example, small surfaces that the gas comes into contact with for a short period only are usually not capable of causing ignition. An example of this is incandescent lamps in Ex eb firings, ch are known to frequently reach surface temperatures that are considerably higher than the ure of the ely 35°C above the ignition temperature of hydrocarbons rarely cause these Note however that under certain conditions, particulary in large areas is, the ignition temperature can be lower too. Examples of hor surfaces are hot parts of furnaces, boilers, incinerators, heating boilers, ete heaters and heating elements; flue gas ducts hot steam and production pipes; hear exchangers, bearings and shaft passages that have run hot slipping fan beles; brakes and clurches. Note thar there is also a risk of ignition above an average, determined UEL since a dust/air mixture does nor spread homogeneously like gases do. In practice, it has tured our shat steam pipes with temperatures 2526 13.2 Flames (naked flame), hot gases Flames is understood to mean: exothermic (chemical reactions which release heat) chemical reactions that occur very quickly at temperatures above 1000°C and are often accompanied by light phenomena. Hor gases are formed as products of the reaction and glowing solid particles are additionally formed in the case of flames from lust misrures or soot-forming flames. Flemes, n products or gas heated to high temperatures by other means can ignite an explo- sive atmosphere. Even very small flames are ranked among the most effective ignition sources. If an explosive atmosphere is present both inside and outside of a device, protective system or component or in adjoining parts of an installation, and ignition occurs in one of those places, the flame can spread to other places through openings such as ventilation ducts. Special prorec- tion measures are required to prevent flames spreading. Flames and hot gases can be found with, among others: matches smokes burners in furnaces, boilers, incinerators, flares electric are flashes welding air precheaters flue gas ducts drying rowers heating appliances heaters. Neked flames with a gas mixture berween the LEL and UEL resul in ignition; this is a 1 ro 1 chance. Fig. 18. Temperature of candle flame > 700°C ‘compen exo. +66woop se a 13.3 Mechanical sparks and welding sparks An explosive atmosphere can be ignited by a spark, provided it has sufficient energy. Particles can be separated from solid materials by friction, impact or sanding processes such as grinding and become heated from the energy used in the separation process. If these particles comprise substances that can oxidise, such as iron orsreel, they can reach even higher temperarures asa result of an oxidation process. Such particles (sparks) can ignite fam rable gases and vapours as well as ddust/air mixtures (metal dust /nir mixtures in part ula). Sparks can cause deposited dust layers to start smouldering and this ean be an ignition source for an explosive atmosphere. In an impact which involves rust or light metals or their alloys a thermite reaction can be initiat- ced which can cause ignition of an explosive atmosphere. Note: Examples of light metals are aluminium and magnesium. A thermite reaction is @ mixture of metal oxides and aluminium powder whick, on combustion, brings about a very high level of heat (+ 3000°C), ‘The light metals titanium and zirconium can also form sparks with the power to ignite as a result of impact or friction with any sufficiently hard material, even in the absence of vas. Activities or situations where hot particles ean be released include: grinding; hammering or knocking actions with hand tools; curting/deillingy foreign objects in the transport systems; things starting up (fans, drive belts and conveyors). ‘Welding spatter formed by welding or cutting are sparks with a very lage surface area and it is, therefore ranked among the most effective ignition sources. Sparks created by hammering oF knocking usually have a relatively low energy content so that in principle they can only ignite mixtures with an ignition energy lower than 0.25 mj. The use of low-spark tools is required where such mixtures could occur. The use of low spark tools is rec- ommended in locations where explosive gas/air mixtures with an ignition energy between 0.06 mJ and 0.25 mJ could be present. Note: Under certain circumstances, lowspark tools scraping against another metal can cause sparks, which could have a sufficient energy content to ignite an explosive mixture of gas and air. a2B 1.3.4 Electrical installations and equipment The category of ‘electrical installations and equipment’ occupies a separate position because this category can contain one or more of the other aforementioned ignition sources. The ignition is caused by either (electrical sparks or by a hot surface. The distinction of ‘electri- cal installations and equipment’ as a caregory has however grown historially because the zane chissification and the consequences relared ro it were originally taken from electrical engineer e. Sparks and surfaces with a temperature that is (too) high ean act as ignition sources here Electrical sparks can be caused by: ‘© opening or closing electrical contacts ‘loose connections ‘© stray currents. ‘Hot surfaces can arise from overloading equipment, short circuits from conductors and insuffi- cient cooling of hearing elements, such as a fan heater without ventilation or an oil-filled rad tor without oil. Special attention must also be paid to extralow voltages (ELV), eg. voltages lower than 50 V. These low voltages are normally meant to protect people and they are not a measure targeting explosion. Even lower voltages can generate sufficient energy to ignite an explosive atmosphere. Corona is phenomenon that occurs around parts carrying a high electrical voltage. Under the influence of high electrical field strengths electrons escape from the surface of those parts. They collide with the surrounding gas atoms which start ro emit light asa result. The collisions also hear the surrounding gas asa result of which autoignition could occur We still know little about the possibility of corona phenomena being able to act as an ignition source. Research has demonstrated that there is some danger ar voltages of 10 KV and higher. In any ease, ignition definitely does not occur -as a result of corona or otherwise - with approved and certified explosion-proof electrical equipment at normal voltage for that equipment and ‘under normal operating conditions. In non explosion-proof electrical installations meral parts are connected ro each other to prevent voltage differences and thereby electrocution. In installations that are explosive these connec- tions should also prevent spark formation. ‘With gases, explosion-proof equipment is used to achieve an acceprable level of safery. The de- sign of electrical installations and equipment in dust environments should be based on dust- proof design and limiting the surface temperarue to a safe value. A dustproof design should ensure thar there is no dust ingress inro the equipment in locations where this could have a negative effect on the functioning of the equipment. This concepr is elaborated in the NEN-EN-IEC 60079x series. Compex Exo1 081.3.5 Stray currents and cathodic protection Stray currents are electric currents that move unintended or along unintended routes through the earth and through metal structures. They can ignite an explosive atmosphere as a result of| ‘overheating or spark formation at the site of poor connections in the structures. Stray currents can flow in electrically conductive systems or parts of systems: #5 return current in power generation and transport systems - particularly in the vicinity of Jectric railways or rramways and large welding systems -f the resistance on the return route is reduced by, for instance, conductive electrical system parts such as rails and underground pipes and cable sheathing; ‘asa result of shorecincuiting or earth leakage + asa result of magnetic induction (e.g. in the vi rents or radio frequencies); © asa result of lightning. ceasioned by faults in electrical installations; nity of electrical installations with high cur- If parts of systems that could cany stray currents are disconnected, connected or bridged an explosive atmosphere can be ignited by electric sparks or electric ares - even at low potential differences. Moreover, ignition can be caused by the heating of those current paths. The afore- mentioned ignition hazards can also arise if impressed current cathodic protection is used. If reactive anodes are used the danger of ignition from sparks is improbable, unless aluminium or ‘magnesium anodes are used, Stray currents can be enuised by: © cathodic protection installations (also on board ships); electric milways or tramways; cearth leakage in electrical installat lightning strike; clectric welding when the earth terminalis not attached close to the welding location. An ignition can be caused inside the hazard zone even if welding is taking place outside of the hazard zone, e.g. on a pipeline. Fig. 19. Consequences of welding return current 2813.6 Static electricity Static elecricty can occur during transport in the widest sense: ransport of liquid, granulate, powder or gas or where surfaces separate (e.g. unrolling fil ora drive belr running over a pul- ley). The discharge of isolated conductors can easily lead to sparks with the power to ignite. Electro- static discharges can be divided into spark, brush, slip and cone discharges. All these types are potentially capable of igniting explosive atmospheres. Static electricity Static electricity is «significant ignition source for non- conductive materials. Static elecricty with an energy level of 25 m), enough ro ignite a dust cloud, can occur especially when dumping and transporting materials pneumatically. This is why pneumatic transport is ust ally done using nitrogen. Spark discharge These discharges ccctir between unearthed and earthed Fig. 20. components and are capable of igniting all gases and —_Statlc electricity formation vapours and almost all dusts. In theory a spark ean deliver any level of energy, how Sect are ever in practice the eapacity that can be expected from isolated conductors is limited and is a maximum of 1000 mj. This can cause both gas and dust explosions. Brush discharge Brush discharges can occur with charged parts made from nonconductive material, which ineludes most plastics and some other materials. They often occur ‘with plastic foils or nylon clothing which is the result of discharging a non-conductive material toa conduc: Fig» 24. Spark discharge tor. According to the current state of knowledge ignt- tion of an explosive dust/air mixture with an extremely Highly charged non-canductor ow minimum ignition energy by brush discharges cannot be ruled out. Chace soter Flammable gases with a minimum ignition energy of 4 * mJ can be ignited. There are also powders oa imum ignition energy lower than 4 mJ bur ignitions of these by brush discharges are not known from practical => experience. Brush discharges can also occur atthe a charged surface of a non-conductive liquid in a tank when, for instance, a level gauge or sampling device is brought close to the surface. Fig. 22. Brush discharge Compe EXO1 = 06a} 1 ) ] J 7 1 J 1 13.7 Glide discharge This involves a discharge of chargeable dusts with a small layer thickness (< 8 mm) on a surface with sufficient com ductive capacity. Powerful discharge sparks are released thar can ignite ex- plosive mixtures with a minimum ignition energy up to 1000 mJ. This occurs, for instance, during the transport of a product through metal pipes, coared with a non- conductive material. Earthing the metal in the pipe does not counteract the distribution of glide discharges. Cone discharge This isa discharge from a conical hopper with a none conductive coarse powder in a conduetive silo, which is very highly charged from, for instance, pneumatic transport. The maximum energy of this discharge is 25 m). In addition, cloud discharges and cone discharges can also occur in bulk materials. Lightning ‘Under certain weather condition static electricity is gener- ated in the atmosphere; electrically charged clouds are formed thar can discharge in the form of lightning. The energy ofa lighting discharge cient to ignite an explosive atmosphere. ays amply suffi Iflightning strikes in an explosive atmosphere it will always, ignite. Moreover, there is also a possibility of ignition from the high temperatures reached by the lightning conductors. Large currents flow from the place where the lightning strikes. These currents ean cause sparks in the vicinity of the strike location. Even without lighting strikes thunder storms can generate high induced voltages in devices, pro- tection systems and components. Lightning flows must be intercepted outside of the hazard- ‘ous area and be conducted to earth by this system without excessive temperature increases. Fig. 23. Glide discharge Sorkapintasng| Fig. 24. Cone discharge \ i Fig. 25. Lightning Fig. 26. Lightning strike Fig. 27. Lightning conductors. 3132 1.3.8 Electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum "THE ELECTRO MAGNETIC SPECTRUM . Sy wart) ado crore (iad Vale Unravot ay Gamma ay wo 19" sot wot Fig. 28, The electromagnetic spectrum, Electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum (3 x 10" Hz ro 3 x 10'° Hz) can form an igni- tion source by abserption in the explosive armosphere or on surfaces, especially when ie is con- ccentrated by a lens effector reflection on a concave surface. ‘Sunlight can, for instance, lead to ignition when objects concentrate the beam. Flash light can ‘sometimes be so strongly absorbed by dust particles that those dust particles form an ignition source. Laser radiation (eg. for communication, distance measuring equipment, surveying work, ity merers) ean lead to ignition at long distances even without being concentrated, especially by irradiating fixed surfaces, dust particles or diet, translucent parts. Each device, protection system or component that generates radiation (for example, lamps, elec- tric ares, lsers, ete) ean be an ignition source itself. ‘Compe €x03 -€6] 13.9 1.3.10 Exothermic chemical reactions Exothermic reactions (chemical reactions which release heat) can act as an ignition source if the heat generation is greater than the hear emitted to the surroundings. Many chemical reactions are exothermic. Whether or not a reaction can reach a high temperature depends on various aspects, including the relationship between the volume and surface area of the reaction system, the ambient temperature and the length of time, Reactions subject ro selfheating can start as low as room temperature. In that ease, generally the reaction speed is so low that the heat released is dissipared sufficiently under normal circum- stances. A dangerous situation could arise asa result of insulation or an increase in the ambient temperature, Such reactions can occur due to: ‘© oxidation (e.g, though coal, hay or oil contaminated cleaning cotton heating up); '* decomposition (e.g. of organic peroxides); '* polymerisation. Powerful reactions that could lead ro ignition occur with some combinations of structural mate- rials and chemical substances. Some dusts ignite spontaneously in contact with air, others will start fo glow. In many of the renctions described flammable gases, vapours, mists or dusts can arise so that an explosive atmosphere can be formed which itself can then be ignited by the reac- tion. This process increases the danger of spontaneous exothermic reactions as an ignition source. Electromagnetic radiation in the radio frequency spectrum Electromagnetic waves are emitted by all systems that generare radio frequency (10* Hz to 3x 10" Hz) electrical energy, e.g. radio and television transmitters (including calling systems, radio telephones and CB radio), radar antennas and industrial or medical RF genera tors for heating, drying, curing, welding, cutting, etc. The radiation emitted is received by all ‘metal structures in the radiation field, such as pipe bridges, flares, cranes and Indders. These structures fumetion as antennas, whereby an electrical voltage is generated. Ifthe feld is strong enough and the receiving antenna large enough, those voltages can ignite an explosive atmosphere. The radio frequency energy received can, for instance, cause thin wires 10 glow or generate sparks when making or breaking conrace with conductive parts. This ean be the case, for example, when the last bolt is removed from a flange joint, when a crane lifts a load or when a ladder is taken down. A large number of variables are important in evaluating the prob- lem, such as the power of the transmitter, the distance between the transmitter and the installa- tion and the transmission frequency. Some transmitters such as radio telephones and CB radios that an be used on nearby public roads as well as radar installations on moored oF passing ships, can have unpredictable properties.34 13.11 13.12 1.3.13 lonising radiation Lonising radiation (from UV lights, Xray rubes, radionctive substances et.) can ignite an explo- sive armosphere (especially an explosive atmosphere with dust particles) as a result of energy absorption. Moreover, as a result of internal absorption of radiation energy the radioactive source itself can become so hor that the minimum ignition temperature of the surrounding explosive atmos- here is exceeded. lonising radiation can cause chemical decomposition ot other reactions which lead to the creation of highly reactive radicals or unstable chemical compounds. This can ‘cause ignition. lonising radiation can also create an explosive atmosphere as a result af decomposition (for example, a mixture of oxygen and hydrogen as a result of the decompesition of water. Ultrasonic sound Ultrasonic sound is understood to mean waves with a frequency above the audible range (above 16 kHz to 20 kH2). When using ultrasonic sound a large proportion of the ultrasonic energy is absorbed by solid substances and liquids. The remperarure of these substances will rise asa re- sult of internal friction; higher than the ignition temperature i extreme cases. Adiabatic compression, shock waves and flowing gases As a result of adiabatic or nearadiabatic compression and in shock waves such high tempera- tures can be reached that an explosive atmosphere (and deposited dus) can be ignited In high-pressure pipes on air compressors and in vessels connected by chose pipes explosions ean occur as a result of compression ignition of atomised lubricant oil. Shock waves are an example of adiabatic compression. They ean be created when, for instance, a gas under high pressure suddenly has the chance to eseape. A shock wave expands ar supersonic speed in the low-pressure area. Extremely high tempern- tures ean occur, especially with reflection (in bends or constrictions, at che ends, closed valves an suchlike) Ata break in a vacuum lamp a hydrogen or acetylene air mixture that flows in the evacuated tube could be heated by compression such that ignition follows, even ifthe tube is not connect ced to the electricity network. Compe Ex01 - 0614 Preventing an explosive atmosphere The creation of an explosive atmosphere can be prevented by, among other things, changing the concentration of combustible matter so that it lies outside of the explosive range or by changing the oxygen level. Preventing an explosive atmosphere is also known as primary protection against explosion. This can be achieved by, among others: ‘* Replacing or reducing the combustible matter. ‘© Limiting the emission of combustible matter, This depends on, among others, the design of the structures, the installation and the process. After all, you can never guarantee thar seals on drive shafts, flange gaskets or stop cocks eannot leak. In vehicles the fuel system ean start to leak or storage tanks are designed with ventilation openings. With pneumatic transport of, for instance, coal powder the pipe could burst through the grinding action of the grit in the pipes. The surroundings of these installations then become explosive. ‘© Limiting the concentration of flammable gases by ventilation. Ventilation can be used to censure that the gas concentration rem created. ‘+ Adding inert gases o that the cxygen concentration is reduced, known as inertisation. This can, however, only be done within the equipment in 1 processing installation, ‘© Removing dust deposits asa result of which no dust is present which can be switled up s0 that a dust cloud eannot form. Nor can dust star ro smoulder then. ‘© Use of measuring and control systems (fire & gos detection). This ean be used to switch off parts of installations ifan explosive hazard occurs. ‘below the LEL and an explosive atmosphere is not Dust explosions rarely occur in oursde air. This is because the air speed outdoors is usually higher than 2 m/s and rarely lower than 0.5 m/s, so that, as a rule, the wind will earry the dust away from the vicinity of the escape point. Because itis not akvays possible to prevent the creation of an explosive atmosphere itis im- portant that there are no mechanieal and (potential) electrial ignition sources in the environ- ment. Protective measures must be raken o reduce the Fisk of an ignition source igniting an explosive atmosphere. Taking such protective measures is also known as secondary prorecrion ‘against explosions. If'preventing an explosive atmosphere’ and ‘preventing ignition sources’ cannot be implemented safely, measures will have to be taken to limit the consequences of an explosion to 8 non hazardous scale. These measures are: 1. Explosion resistant but 2, Explosion pressure relief 3. Explosion suppression; 4. Preventing the spread of flames and explosions. ng method; 3536 14.1 14.2 Explosion resistant building method ine building method the seruc- ture is sufficiently rigid thar in the event of an ine ternal explosion the explosion is confined to a sin- ale area and cannot propagate to the surroundings. ‘The pressure that is created in an internal explosion of an atmospheric flammable gas/air mixture de- pends on the type of gas and the concentration. In precrice, ie turns ou that a pressute of approximate: ly 10 bar occurs with most gases. After an internal explosion the pressure usually dissipates slowly through cracks and splits. Fig. 29. Explosion resistant test vessel {stuvex) Explosion pressure relief If building a robust, pressure resistant room is not economically or technically attractive, a ‘option that could be chosen is ereating an area with pressure relief. The passage for the pressure relief must be enough to ensure thar, after an internal explosion, the explosion pressure wave is discharged r0 a safe area ourdoors and thar an unacceptably high pressure is nor erented inside the enclosure. In practice, rupture dises and explosion doors are used to direct the positive pres sure outdoors. A ruprure dise must be replaced after rupturing, an explosion door can be de- signed to close again afer an explosion, Fig. 30. Explosion doors. After opening the door Fig. 32. Rupture discs. These must be replaced Is cushioned by springs which ensure that it _after rupturing. closes again, Directing the pressure wave outside is necompanied by a flame jet coming out of the vent. Ifthe vent does not discharge into a safe are, or the flame jer can cause other damage because it cfed 10 a sufficiently open area, che vent must be fitted with a flame arrestor. ‘Compéx EX02 -06 ano1.4.3. Explosion suppression In explosion suppression an extinguishing agent is quickly fired into the area where the explo- sion is taking place. This stops the explosive reaction. As a result of this the system limits the damage. The extinguishing agent is contained in one or more pressure vessels that ae activated bby means of a sensor at the moment fire breaks out or an explosion oxcurs, In explosion sup pression, alarms with sensors stop the accident very quickly, before i develops carastrophicalhy. “The pressure vessels must be replaced immediately once they have been used. Fig. 32. Pressure vessel with extinguishing agent on a process pipe. 1.4.4 Preventing the spread of flames and explosions ‘When an explosion occurs somewhere, flame arrestors and rapidaction valves ean be used to restrict the explosion to a specific area. Fig, 33, Flame arrestor with built-in rupture disc 3738 The flame arrestor comprises a series of plates with narrow slits berween them or plates with holes. After an internal explosion the hor gases are forced out through the slits or holes. When doing so the gases are cooled sufficiently that no flames reach the outside. This prevents the explesion spreading. Flame arrestors are found, for example, on the de- aerators of vessels or on the exhaust of s combustion engine. Flame arrestors can correde and become fouled, causing the slits oF holes to seal up torally acta tm The flame arrestor must then be cleaned. Often the flame arrestor is Delete stim Temoved to be cleaned in an easily ac- cessible location, The installation must not be operate eevee the flame arrestor is not fitted, because this produces an explosion hazard! Fig, 34. Rupture disc with flame arrestor Fig. 35. Spark detec- tion with extinguish- Adiabatic compression occurs in an explosion in 1 longdistance pipeline for transporting a flammable gas oF vapour. The result of this is thar anosher explosion occu after a certain dis tance. During this process the pressure wave precedes the flame front. Frstahurting gate valves, which close very quickly, are used to halt this provess in the event of a pressure wave in this type of pipeline. Fig. 36. Fast-shutting valves (StuvEx) Compe EX01 - 08145 Ls Additional measures for dust explosion hazard A dust explosion can be prevented by ensuring that: * combustible dust is not present; © the duse cannot swiel up; © oxygen is not present at the location where dust can swirl up; # no ignition sources are active in the location where the dust can swiel up. A dust explosion cannot occur if these conditions are fulfilled. However, itis not always possible to doso. The cirect influence of people on these measures is extremely high because preventi- tive measures are mainly of an organisational nature. Prevention of ignition sources within equipment can be achieved by: Installing sieves, magnetic separators, stone separators etc. ro remove foreign objects. Metal detection if necessary. Good maintenance and supervision of these tools ate, of course, vital: Vy importane; The correct choice of suitable elecrrical equipment; Preventing dangerous static charging Detecting sipping and misalignment in elevators and conveyor belts; Detecting overheating of critical bearings (eg. mills and elevators); Proper and regular maintenance which can significantly limit the number and scale of opera- tional problems in equipment (e.g. wear, ageing and breakage); © Correct operation of the installation and the personnel reacting immediately to anomalous noises, unexpected hor surfices, ete. There are also preventative measures thar reduce the likelihood of ignition sources or detect these ignition sources afier which they can be rendered harmless, such as: + earth leak monitoring systems (e.g on silo rrucks}; + ionisation equipment ro eliminate static charging; + spark detecsion systems combined with extinguishing if necessary e.g. when sawing wood); © CO detection to be able to detect smouldering fires. ns the disti In combating dust explos jon between dust explosions outside of the equipment and explosions inside the equipment is of vital importance. Outside of the equipment the prime consideration is preventative measures aimed at preventing combustible dust being present, deposited or swirling up, as well as the regular removal of dust deposits. Often it is not possible to implement stich preventative measures inside the equipment, but on the other hand repres sive and control measures can often be taken which are not suitable outside of the equipment. If dust escapes from the equipment through leaks this could lend to a hazard outside of the equipment. If dust escapes in an intensive mixture with air, as is possible wih pnewmatic rransporr ystems, hopper discharges and conveyor belt ejection points, a dust explosion hazard ‘occurs directly at that location. Ifthe dust eseapes in calm air it wll sink and there is no explo- sion hazard as long as the deposited dust does not swirl up again. However, if the dust is not removed it can hen swirl up again any time later and cause an explosion hazard. Equipment protection principles ‘The materials we use must nor cause ignitions in normal nor in specific circumstances. It is therefore impertant to ensure that the equipment does not spark and does not become too hot.40 15.1 However, it is not always feasible to prevent electrical equipment from sparking or becoming too hot, Examples of his are motor starters, push buttons, light fittings or faults such as seized mo- tots, loose connections etc. In these cases itis possible ro ensure that the explosive atmosphere cannot reach the iporential) ignition source and that, if this does happen, the explosion resilt- ing from ignition of the explosive atmosphere cannot propagate to the surroundings. inciples to prevent ignition sources in installations. These princi- ciples for preventing explosions (see Chap- ter 1: Explosion hazard introduction). The three basic protection principles for equipment are: 1, The elecrrical equipment does not contain ignition sources; 1. The explosive atmosphere cannot reach the ignition source; 3. The explosion cannot propagate to the surroundings and remains confined. The equipment does not contain ignition sources This can be achieved by, among others: using selflocking clamping devices; maintaining a sufficient distance from air duets and ereepage areas; not using switch contacts using flamearesting equipment; using enclosures with a specific mechanical impact resistance; using enclosures thar cannot become statically charged; Using circuits thar contain insufficient energy to be able to cause an ignition; metal that does not cause any sparks. ‘Compe Ex02 -0615.2 15.3 15.4 The explosive atmosphere cannot reach the ignition source This is achieved by, among others: ing the enclosure with the ignition sources and keeping ir press eg. with an immersing the ignition sources in oil © encapsula placing the ignition sources in a (herme! the ignition sources in casting compound; ally) sealed enclosure. The explosion cannot propagate to the surroundings This is achieved by placing the ignition sources in a pressuresesistant enclosure or by filling the cnelosure with the ignition source with sand. Should an explosion rake place in the enclosure, it will not be able to emerge to the outside to ignite an explosive atmosphere there. Constructional safety protection method 's’ “This Ex s protection method relates to the construction measures that cannot be clasified as cone of the recognised protection methods to be taken in accordance with the standards. A com- bination of various protection methods with the aim of achieving a higher degree of safery is also considered ro be special constr There is no European harmonisation document or IEC standard for protection method's. A. manufacturer marketing Ex s equipment can use the IEC 6079-33 standard to draw up a risk inventory. aa42 Blank Compex Exo1 - 06,Areas with a risk of explosive atmospheres Based on working conditions legislation the employer is obliged to draw up a risk inventory and evaluation (RI&E) of workplaces and formulate a safery document, When there is a risk of ex- plosion an explosion safety document should be draw h includes a hazard zone class fication, The company evaluates the specific risks arising from explosive atmospheres, aking atleast the following into account: # the likelihood that explosive atmospheres will oecur and their persistence ‘© the likelihood that ignition sources, including clectrostatic discharges, will be present and become active and effective; ‘the installations, substances used, processes, and their possible interactions ‘© the scale of the anticipated effects. Working conditions legislarion requires that the employer classifies the locations in an installa- tion where explosive atmospheres could occur into zones in accordance with the standards, based on the frequency and duration of the presence of an explosive atmosphere. IEC 60079-10 Part 1 (gas) and Part 2 (dust) include the principles for determining the location and class of those areas, The risks are analysed, evaluated and described in a socalled mandatory classification docu ment. This eventually results in one or more zone drawings. ‘Wher: combustible dust as well a flammable gases can occur simultaneously this is known as a hybrid mixture that falls outside of the scope of both IEC 60079-10-1 and IEC 60079-10-2 so that suitable measures are taken under the responsibility of he user. The owner of an installation with explosion hazard areas must mark the Izardous areas with this symbol: Fig. 37, ATEX zoning area sign 4344 241 Organisational aspects Presentation and report on zone classification ‘Once the aforementioned classification has been carried out the location, the dimensions and the class of the zone are recorded. The findings are recorded in drawings of the building or in- stallation concerned, “The classification of explosion hazard areas isa tak for experts such as process engineers, assist- ed by mechanical and electrical engineers. Within an organisation a group of experts should be responsible for zone classification This group must include a process rechnologist, because he or she is aware of the properties of gases, gas mixtures, liquids and dusts. This group must also include technical engineers, This group should preferably be able to work independently within the organisation and report directly to the management. The classification, location, dimensions and the zone class must be recorded on the drawings of the building or installation concemed. If reporting the details would make the drawing too ‘complex then recording them solely in a classification report is also permitted. Practical experi- ‘ence has shown that the most important details can easily be shown on the drawing, ‘The zone classification details, as described, should be managed carefully. Careful management includes: filing, sending the details to interested parties and, in the event of changes, replay all existing documents relating to the installation’s zone classification. It should be elear which expert or group of experts is/are responsible for the zone classification. It is recommended that the zone classification of installations and buildings be checked periodi- cally. (See IEC 60079-17 also.) ‘The zone drawings can be regarded as the final conclusion of an RISE in a mandatory classifi- cation document. The zone drawing is a base document for the engineers who have to design the installation in detail, for the technicians who have to maintain the installation and for the ‘operators who have to operate the installation. Drawings A floor plan of the building concerned (or one of its floors) or the installation concerned ean serve as the srarting point for the drawings. Occasionally it may be necessary to draw a cross- section, ‘The dimensions and the class of the zones should be shown on these drawings. In addition, the drawing and/or the classification report should contain details of the ype(s) of | lust or gas that occur with the maximum permissible surface temperature, the ignition tempera ture, group classification and minimum ignition energy. ‘These details and other important explanations, fundamentals and reasoning can also be stated in the classification report, because this report is inseparably linked to the drawing. The drawing or report often also indieate per zone whether the gas is lighter or heavier than air so that people are aware of the spreading behaviour of the explosive gas. The results of the area classifications make it possible o determine which equipment is allowed to be used. Compéx EXO1 08Each zone drawing must have an explanation of the symbols used. Preferably the symbols used for the hazardous zone classification will be in accordance with fig- C.1 of NEN EN IEC 60079-10-1 or provision 8.2 of NEN EN IEC 60079-10-12. Zone 1 with ventilation conditions Zone 2 with ventilation conditions ‘Symbol Explanation ‘Symbol ‘Explanation zones lise nea powpalc hrs 9) AA |: | nmi Z zone 26 | Zone 22 Zone 21 ‘Table 11. Preferred symbols for hazardous zone classification 2.1.2 Characteristics of a hazardous zone For each explosion hazard area there must be an indication of how often an explosive armos- phere can occur each year. ng the designations Zone 0 (20), Zone 1 (21) or Zone 2 (22). can be assumed that there is, in principle, a permanent risk of explosion, ily occurs in enclosed spaces and at deaeration and ventilation openings. ‘You would not readily find electrical equipment in zone 0/20, nor even cables, with a few exceptions; '¢ In Zone 1/21 gae or dust is released regularly, for example at connections in transshipment stations and bag filling systems; * In Zone 2/22 there is, in principle, no explosive atmosphere in normal operation. 45The zone designation only indicates the isk, over time, that an explosive mixture is present. Every dust hazardous zone is characterised by a zone cls, the maximum permissible surface temperature, the minimum ignition energy and the electrical conductivity of the dust. This ‘means that sufficient conditions are specified for meacures which should be met to prevent igni- tion (eg. the ype of equipment thar is allowed to be used). The gas or dust group that may be present, such as IIA, HB of IC and/or LILA, IIB or I1IC rust also be indicated per explosion hazard arca. In addition, for each explosion hazard area there must be an indication of what the maximum surface temperature of the materials present there is allowed to be, in normal operation and under expected faule conditions. In the ease of gas this is shown in temperature groups, specif cally: TI, 72, T3, T4, T5 or T6. In the case of dust it is indicated dircetly, eT = 250°C. Example of a zone classification: Zone 1 IIB T4 / Zone 21 IIB 250°C. Example: Zone 22, 10 mJ, 240°C, poor conductivity: equipment should be suitable for use with powders with an MLE of 10 m] (or high), is allowed to reach a maximum surface temperature of 240°C and should be suitable for Zone 22. In the case of some ignition protection methods, eg. dust-proof design, there is no need to know the MIE. ‘Compe EXO - 66‘SINGOUd TaVMIVIVT 30 saLwOOUd Fig, 38. Example zone classification drawing2.2. Areas with a risk of gas explosive atmospheres 1 ‘The following zone classes have been defined for gases: [Zone 0] Areas within which an explosive mixture is present continu- |> 1,000 hours per year ously of for long periods. > 10% of operational time 7 Zone 1 [Areas within which an explosive mixture s likely to occurin |10- 3,000 hours per year : ‘normal operation. 0.1 - 10% of operational 1 time Zone 2 |Areas within which on explosive mixture is not likely to occur |< 10 hours per year In normal operation but, if it does occur, will persist for only al < 0.1% of operational time short period. 1 ‘Table 12. Zone definitions The clasification of explosion hazard areas is a method of determining: © where an explosive gas could occur; ‘the likelihood of an explosive mixture forming; ‘© the pe of gas thar could be present; 1 ‘© the remperarure at which the gas could ignite spontaneously. The classification of explosion hazard areas is a rask for experts such as process engineers, using the IEC 60079-1041 standard and the Durch Code of Practice 7910-1 guideline. All potential | hhazard sources must be charted to produce a proper zone classification. Fig. 39. Example of zones ina tank ‘Compéx EXO1 - 052.2.2 Classification criteria ‘The hazard zone classification is carried out in three steps, in the order shown below. The deci- sion trees in Durch Code of Practice 7910-1 can be used when doing so, Step 1: determination whether hazard zone classification is necessary: mandatory classifi- cation. This is determined by the following criteria: # Isa flammable substance present! # Isa hazardous amount present? Step 2: determination of the nature of the hazard zones. This relates to the type of zone (0, 1 or 2) and the nature of the dust. This is determined by the following criteria: # What are properties of the hazard sources? ‘This is understood to mean the nature of the substance, specifically: temperature class gas group, and release density as well as frequency and duration. ‘Whar are the prevalent ventilation conditions in the vicinity ofthe hazard sources? ‘Step 3: determination of the dimensions of the zones. This is determined by the following criteria: * How much flammable substance can be released (capacity or flow of the hazard sources)! © What are the prevalent ventilation conditions in the vicinity of the haeard sources? © The nature and form of obstacles in the vicinity of the hazard sources. Zone class The likelilioux of an explosive gas atmosphere being present is primarily determined by the ‘emission level and ventilation. This is known as a zone. Zones are classified as Zone 0, Zone 1, Zone 2 and Unclassified Area, where: * Zone 0 is normally linked to a continuous hazard source; © Zone | toa primary hazard source; and '* Zone 2 toa secondary hazard source. ‘Where zones overlap the more stringent criteria are usually applied. 492.2.3 Mandatory classification ‘Carrying out a hazard zone classification is only meaningful if more than a certain amount of flammable substance could be present or could be released. Because there is legal requirement ro evaluate any amount of a flammable substance in eo nection with explosive hazard, the overall minimum amounts stared in the Dutch Code of Pr tice of #5 kilograms in an enclosed build #50 kilograms in the open air can only be seen as guidance, ‘They are not based on any scientific or theoretical criteria but on general, practical experience. A hazard zone classification only needs to be carried our if © a flammable substance is present, and © the applicable hazardous amount is exceeded under the circumstances concerned, Flammable substances can be subdivided into: © flammable gases + flammable gases compressed into liquid © flammable liquids. Flammable gases, flammable gases compressed into flammable liquids and flammable liquids swith a flashpoint lower than 23°C always lead ro a hazardous zone classification when che aforementioned minimum amounts are exceeded. Legally, the employer is and remains responsible for explosion protection in relation to the flammable substance, regardless of the amount. Nore In some situations it might not be meaningful to carry out a hazardous zone classification; this should be apparent from the RISE. Complex EX01 -062.24 Hazard sources There could be many hazard sources in a factory or installation in which flammable substances are present. They are subdivided into three classes: * continuous hazard sources; © primary hazard sources; # secondary hazard sources. In addition to this there are components that are not regarded as hazard sources, such as UN packaging. Continuous hazard sources Continuous hazard sources are sources in locations where the insides of the installation are more or less openly connected ro the environment during the normal process. These hazard sources leak almost c Continuous hazard sources include: © aeration openings; ‘outlets on ‘analysers’ breather valves/breather vents installed in ranks and barrels: the inside wall of ranks with a floating roof; open barrels. ously. Primary hazard sources Primary hazard sources are sources in locations where a flammable substance is released fre- ‘quently or there is an increased likelihood of release in normal operation. On the one hand this concerns locations where actions have to performed regularly which could release a flammable substance and on the other hand it concerns components that are manufactured from fragile material with a relatively high risk of breaking. The following are considered to be primary hazard soure ‘places where installation parts are frequently connected and disconnected, lations; gaskets and other sealing structures on shaft passages that could leak in normal operations drip trays; delicate equipment; unprotected sight glasses and gauges; sampling, dosing of drain points. loading instal 5152 Secondary hazard sources Secondary hazard sources are caused by components thar do not leak often and, if they do, leak for a short period only. An installation is usually constructed from parts that are assembled us ing connecting elements. In normal operation and when well maintained these elements, flang- es, connectors, shaft passages ete. are well sealed and will only leak under abnormal conditions. ‘They are considered to be secondary hazard sources. This includes components such as: flanges, screw thread and other connections; tins and barrels of flammable liquids; connections on gas cylinders (pressure containers); closed sampling points; taps and stop cocks; protected sight glasses and gauges; pumps; compressors; gaskets, stuffing boxes and seals on rotating shafts constructed in such a way that they are sealed, in principle; ‘properly implemented seals on piston pumps. Components not considered to be hazard sources The following parts of pipes and fittings do nor need to be regarded as hazard sources: © Fully welded or hard soldered pipes and connections ‘© Paris where it can be demonstrated that: good design testing good construction good maintenance and good business practices make the likelihood of flammable matter being released even under abnormal operating conditions and faults negligibly low. This only applies ifthe released flammable substances cannot accumulate. Examples include: shaft passages where leakage is excluded by a spectal stuffing box structure (e.g. dual seal with pressurised inert gas in the space berween the seals or self-repairing seals); reduction equipment with a fully enclosed constructions flanges, screw thread and compression connectors and fittings with an internal pressure less than or equal ro 0.5 bar; ‘© flanges, serew thread and compression connectors that are nor or are hardly ever exposed to process temperature variations, pressure surges or vibrations. UN packaging UN packaging withour an aeration valve which, after being filled by the manufacturer of the product, is transported to the end user and is not opened sooner, is not considered tobe a haz ard source. This also applies to UN packaging thar is reused, provided that it has been specially designed for repeated opening and resealing. See Hazardous Substances Publication Series PGS 15 for storing this packaging. ‘Compex €X02 +08Areas with a risk of dust explosive atmospheres The following zone classes have been defined for dust: ‘Zone 20 [Areas within which, in normal operation, an explosive > 3,000 hours per year [dust/air mixture is likely to be present continuously or for |> 10% of operational time long periods. Zone 21 [Areas within which, in normal operation, an explosive 10- 1,000 hours per year dust/air mixture is likely to be present asa result of release 0.1 - 10% of operational from a hazard source and/or dust that is present as a result | time (of depositing over long periods swirling up. [and dust depositing over [more than 10% of operating time [Zone 22 [Areas within which an explosive dust/air mixture Is not likely | < 10 hours per year to occur in normal operation but, fit does occur, will persist | < 0.1% of operational time for a short period as a result of release fram a hazard source | and dust depositing over ‘and/or dust that is present as a result of depositing over long| less than 10% of operating periods swirling up. ‘Table 13. Zone definitions This area is classified into hazardous zones to evaluate the permissibility of ignition sources in an area where flammable substances could be present in amounts larger than the specified min- imum amounts. It is subdivided into Non-hazardous Areas (NHA) and hazardous areas (hazard- cous zones 20, 21 or 22). The scope for areas with a likelihood of dust explosive atmospheres is limited to: ‘© dust explosion hazard; ++ atmospheric conditions, including on the inside of the equipment (environmental conditions where the pressure can vary berween 80 kPa and 110 kPa and the temperature between -20°C and *40°C and where the oxygen content is (21 + 1) % (volume percentage) the release of a combustible dust that leads to hazardous dust deposits; the release of a combustible dust from known hazard sources which leads to combustible dust clouds, An explosive dust cloud can be recognised by ‘visibility less than 1 m'. ‘2one20 chuteofen 22 unloading station Zone 22 immediate vicinity (cedlus tm) around the opened chute Loto 22 ron cutside of fone 23 duet deposition of dust Fig. 40, Example of dust 2oning 532.3.1 Classification criteria The hazard zone classification is carried our in three steps, in the order shown below. ‘Step 1: determination whether hazard zone classification is necessary: mandatory classifi- cation This is determined by the following criteria: © Is combustible dust present or could it form! * Does it relate to the inside of equipment? ‘© Is more than the applicable minimum amount of dust present? Step 2: determination of the nature of the hazardous zones: zone classes 20, 21 or 22 This is determined by the following criteria: ‘What is the narure of the hazard sources? ‘© Is che dust extracted locally? © Cana layer of dust form a dust cloud? ‘© Is the dust removed by good housekeeping? Step 3: determination of the dimensions of the zones This is determined by the following criteria: © Does the dust migrate? (Migrating dust: dust particles that are so small and comprise material with a density so low thae the dust spreads throughout the entire area, in such quantities that an explosive atmos- phere can be formed.) + How does the dust spread? ‘© Isthe dust removed by good housekeeping? Mandatory classification Carrying out a hazard zone classification is only meaningful if more than a certain amount of flammable substance could be present or could be released. The minimum amounts are not based on any scientific or theoretical criteria but on general, practical experience. Ifa risk inventory and evaluation (RISE) pursuant to the Working Condi- tions Act indicates that an explosive hazard could be present in places in situations in which the ‘minimum amounts mentioned in the code of practice are not reached, that hazard must be combated with measures targeting thar specific risk. The specified minimum amounts are based on the consequences of a dust explosion that are comparable with the consequences of gas explosions. In principle, classification should also be undertaken for situations in the open air. In many cases, however, the class, shape and dimen- sions of the zone could be heavily influenced by the effects of the weather, such as wind or rain. ‘Compe EX01 - 066.0.0 te] 2.3.2 In the interior of equipment (dust enclosures) there is ne need to undertake hzardous zone classification for amounts smaller than: © 0.1 kg of combustible dust with a particle size smaller than 0.1 mm; © 1kg of combustible dust with a particle size between 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. In the case of dust within a ling there is no need fora hazardous zone classification to be undertaken for amounts smaller than: © 50 kg of combustible duse with #500 kg of combustible dust with a particle size berween 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm. wticle size smaller than 0.1 mm; Dust mixtures containing both particles smaller chan 0.1 mm and particles berween 0.1 mm and 0.5 mm are subject to mandatory classification if the sum of the fractions refati mum amounts of both particle size classes is equal to or greater than 1 Example A building contains 160 kg of dust that contains 40 kg o” particles with dimensions smaller than. 0.1 mm. The building is subject to mandatory classification because 40/50 + 120/500 = 1.04 (> D. “The conditions under which process equipment, process phases or other activities taking place in the installations can lead to explosive dust/air misturcs or layers of combustible dust should be identified. Attention must be paid ro both the inside and the outside of a dust enclosure. Zone class The zone class is determined by: the nature of the hazard sources, i. the frequency and duration with which, and the cir- cumstances under which, combustible dust is released or is present; # The nature of the dust layers, ie. the frequency and duration, the conditions and the amounts of the combustible dust layers thar are present Local ventilation conditions / weather conditions in the v © The level of good housekeeping. ity of the hazard sources; The areas can be elsified according to the following rable based on the likelihood of pore ly explosive dust/air mixtures being formed. Presence of combustible dust Zone classification of areas with dust clouds (Continuous dust cloud. 20 Primary hazard source 21 Secondary hazard source, 22 Fig. 42. Hazardous zone classification based on the presence of combustible dust Zone 20 Zone 20 also includes the inside of pipes as well ss production and processing equipment which contain explosive dust/air mixtures continuously, for lorg petiods or frequently ~ for example, for more than 10% of the operating time of an installation or the duration of an activity. Classi- fication as Zone 20 is required if an explosive dust/air misture is continuously present ourside of the dust enclosure, 55Note: Some silos are filled or emptied infrequently; in this ease the inside can be classified as Zone 21. In such cases it is possible that the equipment inside the silo is only used when the silo is being filled oF emptied. When choosing the equipment, account should be taken of the fact that the dust cloud is probably present when the device is operating. Zone 21 In most circumstances the scope of Zone 21 can be defined by evaluating hazard sources related to the environment which can give rise to an explosive dust/air mixture. The scope of Zone 21 is as follows: # The inside of duse processing equipment where there is likelihood of an explosive dust/air mixture being present. The area ourside of the equipment, such as thar which is formed by a hazard source and which also depends on a number of the dusts properties, such as the amoung, the flow speed, the particle size and the moisture content of the product. Usually a distance of 1 m around the hazard source is sufficient (a vertical, downward extension to the ground or to a solid floor). Ifa distance greater than 1 m can reasonably be expected the dimensions of the zone should be determined based on a calculation or a practical inspection. ‘© When the spread of dust is limited by mechanical structures (walls, etc) the surface of the structure can be used as the boundary of the zone. For practical reasons it may be desirable to classify the entire area under consideration as Zone 21 Zone 22 In most circumstances the scope of Zone 22 can be defined by evaluating hazard sources related to the environment which can give rise ro explosive dust/air mixtures. The size of an area stich as that formed by a hazard source also depends on a number of the dus’s properties, such as the amount, the flow speed, the particle size and the moisture content of the product. In general, a distance of 1 m around the hazard source (with a vertical, downward extension to the ground or to a solid floor) is sufficient for secondary hazard sources. Ifa distance greater than I m can reasonably be expected (e.g. with pressure differences between the in- side and the outside of a dust enclosure), the dimensions of the zone should be determined based on a ealculation or a practical inspection in accordance with Annex B to Durch Code of Practice 79102. ‘© When the spread of cust is limited by mechanical structures (walls, etc.) the surface of the structure can be used as the boundary of the zone. For practical reasons it may be desirable to classify the entire area under consideration as Zone ‘© An internally sitsared, unlimited Zone 21 (not limited by mechanical structures, eg. a vessel ‘with open manhole) is always surrounded by a Zone 22. Note: Many products, such as grain and sugar, contain a small amount of dust that is mixed with a large amount of granular material. When choosing the equipment account must be taken of the tisk of the coarse material overheating and catching fire, even if a dust explosion is not possible in that location. In a process, burning granular material could be transported onwards, creating a tisk of explosion elsewhere. Compex €xon - 06Boo poo a G8 Es J C0 2.3.3 Hazard sources Continuous dust cloud formation Locations where a dust cloud forms continuously are locations where a combustible dust cloud can persist or where it could be expected ro be present for long periods or frequently present during short periods - for example, for more than 10% of the operating time of an inst or the duration of an activity e.g. work). Examples: places within the dust enclosure; + in hoppers, cyclones, mixing machines, dryers, mills, mixers, filling hoppers, silos, bag filling ‘ystems, ete in dust extractors and filers; in pneumatic or other transport systems for powders and dust forming products, except cer- tain pars of belt and chain conveyors. Primary hazard source A primary hazard source isa location where combustible dust is expected to be released ocea- sionally in normal operation ~ for example, for 0.1% to 10% of the operating time of an instal lation or the duration of an activity e-g. work). Exampl Areas outside of the dust enclosure and in the immediate vicinity of operating equipment which could release dust in normal operation; ‘Areas outside of the dust enclosure and in the vicinity of filling and draining points, sam- pling points etc. thar are opened frequently and where no measures are taken to prevent the formation of explosive dust/air mixtures or dust layers; ‘+ Areas outside of the dust enclosure and in the vicinity of equipment where accumulated dust could easily form an explosive dust/air mixture when the dust swirls up; ‘© Areas outside of the dust enclosure and in the vicinity of bag filling or emptying locations, feed conveyors, sampling points, truck tipping sites, conveyor belt ripping points, etc. where no measures are taken to prevent the formation of explosive dust/air mixtures; ‘+ Areas inside of the dust enclosure where there is « high risk of explosive dust clouds being present (not persistently, not for long periods and not frequently however), e.g silos (if they are only filled and/or emptied occasionally) and the intake side of fitters with long self cleaning intervals. Secondary hazard source A secondary hazard source is a location where combustible dust is not expected to be released normal operation. Ifany combustible dust is released, this occurs infrequently oF for a shore period ~ for example, for less than 0.1% of the operating time of an installation or the duration of an activity (eg. work), 87ty of storage bags with pondered products. A bag tearing could occasional ly cause a dust cloud or dust layer; © Areas in the vi of flexible connections between installation components that could ‘occasionally split or wear through Areas in the vicinity of a manhole or other opening that is opened occasionally and where dust can be released; ‘© Areas in the vicinity of explosion pressure relicfrelated safery syscems such as rupture dises and explosion doors which could generate a dust cloud when activated occasionally; ‘© Arcas in the vicinity of outlets on aeration vents on bag filters from which explosive dust/air mixtures could escape in the event ofa faul; * Locations in the vicinity of equipment that is not opened often or equipment that has prov ‘en to leak easily and, as a result, blows out dust ifa positive pressure is present; * Pneumatic equipment, flexible connections that could be damaged; © Areas that are normally classified as Zone 21 bur could fall under Zone 22 when measures are taken to prevent the formation of explosive dust/nir mixtures. This includes dust extrac. tion. The measures to be taken would have to be taken in the vicinity of (bag) filling or emp- tying locations, feed conveyors, sampling points, ruck ripping sites, conveyor belt tipping points, etc; ‘© Areas where manageable dust layers are formed where there is a high risk of them being dis- turbed and explosive dust/air mixtures being formed as a result. The area can only be classi fied as non-hazardous if the deposit is removed by cleaning before hazardous dust/air mix- tures can form. No hazard source “The following parts do not need to be regarded as hazard sources in normal and abnormal oper- ation: Pressure vessels: the main structure of the casing including the dampers/valves and manholes ina closed state Pipes, tubes and shafts withour connectors, ‘© Valve connections and flat flange connections, provided char the design and construction have paid sufficient attention to preventing dust leaks Dust layers Another basic principle included in the hazardous zone classification concems the presence of dust layers, ic. the locations where dust layers may be present during a specific period of time. Ina dust enclosure where powders are treated or processed itis often impossible to prevent dust layers of unmanageable thickness accumulating because this is part ofthe process. In principle the thickness of dust layers outside of the equipment can be limited by good house- keeping ‘When considering hazard sources itis essential that agreements are reached on the nature of| good housekeeping in the installation within the ftamework of installation management. The hazards from dust layers in brief the occurrence of secondary cust explosions, the occur- rence of smouldering fires and fires and a dust explosion from the ignition of dust that has swirled up. ‘Compe EXO1 - 06ui 23.4 Hazard sources in relation to the environment All of rhe aforementioned hazards should also always be considered in relation to the et ment, such as: positioned outdoors; inan open building; in an enclosed buildings ina large build artificially ventilated good housekeeping. Good housekeeping 1f dust layers that accumulare outside of the equipment are kepe ro an acceptable level through regular cleaning, their thickness is termed ‘manageable’. This is known as good housekeeping. In ‘most cases a dust layer of only 0.1 mm is sufficient to create an explosive dust/air mixture. AS a le of chumb, a hazard must be deemed 10 exist if you ean see foorprints on the floor. Good housekeeping is achieved by removing dust everywhere around the location where it is released. The frequency of dust removal activities should be sufficient ro prevent a dust layer with a thickness of 0.1 mm from forming over large areas. Good housekeeping should be carried out in such a way that dust/air mixtures do not occur and that no ignition sources are introduced. The use of (hard) brooms and compressed air should be avoided; ‘wet’ removal is preferred, ‘When dust extraction systems are used: ‘the internal parts of the installation in which explosive dust/air mistures could occur must be classified as Zone 20; central dust extractors should be used preferably; ‘the systems must be equipped with electrostatic conductive hoses and mouthpieces. The cleaning frequency is linked to the speed at which dust is deposited. As a result, the pres- ence and the duration ofthe presence of a dust layer depend on: ‘the speed ar which the dust is released from a hazard source; the speed ar which the dust is deposited; the efficiency of good housekeeping (cleaning). Three levels of good housekeeping can be distinguished: © Good: The thickness and, by extension, the duration of the dust layers are kept to negligible level, ‘or deposits are absent, regardless of the hazard source. In this case, the risk of explosive dust clouids being created from deposits and the risk of fire from dust layers are removed. © Satisfactory: Dust layers are not negligible bur are of short duration (present for ess than approximately ight consecutive hours). Depending on the thermal stability ofthe dust and the surface temperature of the equipment the dust may be removed before a fire can occur. + Poor: Dust layers are not negligible and remain present for longer than ayproximately eight con- secutive hours. ‘Asa result of good housekeeping, the characteristics of the dust ayer change, causing dust clouds nor to form as frequently in the vicinity when dust swirls up. This determines the class of the hazard zone classification. 59