EDA 11

Basic Concepts &

Steps in
Determining
Statistical Inquiry
Engr. Arjane L. Magalona
 Basic concepts and Steps in Determining Statistical Inquiry involves
the following topics:

Definition of Origin and Development of Great Men’s

Statistical Terms Statistics Contribution to
Statistics

Fields of Statistics Methods and Scales of

Collecting Data
 What is Statistics?
It is an art and science of gathering, analyzing and making inferences
from data.
Refers to a set of pertinent activities such as collection, presentation,
analysis, and interpretation of data.
As a process, Statistics demands answers to some questions that were
formulated from an existing situation or environment.
It is a field of study which deals with mathematical characterization of a
group or group of items.
 Origin & Development of Statistics

3,500 years Modern

❖Egyptians
• STATISTICS had been used to
BC ❖Roman Empires
• STATISTICS had been used in
times
measure the number of men ❖Babylonian government conducting registration to • STATISTICS had been used to
under the King’s rule and the record population for the record and predict such things
vast territory that he occupied • STATISTICS had been used in purpose of collecting taxes.
the form of recording the as birth and death rates,
number of sheep or cattle employment and inflation rates,
owned, the amount of grain sports achievements, and other
produced, and the number of economic and social trends
people living in a particular city
3,800 years
700 years BC
BC
 Great men who made contributions to Statistics
STATISTICS had been
used in predictions
about the positions Made important links
of the planets in our between probability
solar system and statistics.
1620 -1674 1796-1874 1901- 1984
John Graunt Adolphe Quetelet George Gallup
English trademan Belgian Astronomer American Statistician

1777-1855 1857-1936
Karl Friedrich Gauss Karl Pearson
German Mathematician English Mathematician
Modern Statistics is said to have begun Developed the idea of the He was instrumental in
in collecting published records called “average man” from his making statistical polling, a
“bills of mortality” that included studies of the Belgian census. common tool in political
information about the numbers of Quetelet was known as the campaigns.
death in the city of London “Father of Modern Statistics“
 Great men who made contributions to Statistics
Made computer programs available such as Microstat, Soritec,
SPSS, etc. that performs more and faster than the manual
calculations .
Electronic devices made easy access to data, improves
graphics, obtain ready-made analysis and interpretation of data.
20th century
Ronald Aylmer Fisher
British

Age of information technology

Computer programmer
Developed a F-tool in inferential statistics which is
useful in testing improvement of production from
agricultural experiments & improvement of precision
of results from medical, biological and industrial
experiments.
 Fields of Statistics

Descriptive Statistics Inferential Statistics

• concerned with the methods of • concerned with inferring or drawing
collecting, organizing, and conclusions about the population
presenting data appropriately and based from pre-selected elements of
creatively to describe or assess that population
group characteristics.
• Examples: testing the significant
• Examples: percentage distribution of difference and independence between
respondents, measures of location two or more variables. A hypothesis
(Mean, median, mode, quartiles, etc.) about the population is made and
intended to be rejected or accepted.
 Terms used in Statistics
CONSTANTS VARIABLES
• quantities that may take anyone of a specified set of values
Classification of Variables
• fundamental quantities
• Qualitative (categorical) – are • Quantitative (numerical) – are
that do not change in
non-measurable characteristics those than can be counted with
value.
that cannot assume a numerical your bare hands, can be measured
value but can be classified into with the use of measuring devices,
• Examples are fixed cost two or more categories. or an be computed with the use of
and acceleration due to • Examples: Gender, smoking mathematical formula.
gravity habits classified as always, • Examples: the number of students
often, seldom, very seldom or in an English class, height of
never basketball players
 Classification of Quantitative Variables

Discrete • consists of variates (actual values) usually obtained by

Variables counting

• are obtained by measurements, usually with units such as

Continuous height in meters, weight in kilos, time in minutes, etc.;
variables also obtained by evaluating values using a formula such
as profits, IQ, final grades, etc.

Independent/
(endogenous variables • refer to any observable characteristics or attributes of a
group of objects, persons, events and having cause-and-
Dependent/(exogenous effect relationships.
Variables)
 DATA INFORMATION
• a set of data that have been processed and presented in a form
• refers to facts suitable for human interpretation, usually with a purpose of
concerning things and revealing trends or patterns about the population
are considered an asset Sources of Data
of a company if they are
accurate, updated, and • Secondary Source – taken from
available when needed. other’s works, news reports,
• Primary Source – a first-hand readings and those that are kept
• Example: number of
information obtained usually by by the National Statistics Office
cars passing the means of personal interview and (NSO), Securities and Exchange
terminal, status in life actual observation. Commission (SEC), S.S.S. and
of people, etc. other government and private
agencies.
 Methods of Collecting Data
Methods of Collecting Data Advantages Disadvantages
1. DIRECT or INTERVIEW METHOD -a person to Precise and consistent answers Time, money and effort consuming
person interaction between interviewer can be obtained and applicable only to small
and an interviewee population

2. INDIRECT or QUESTIONNAIRE Lesser time, money and effort Inconsistent responses due to poor
METHOD - written responses are obtained are consumed construction of the questionnaires.
by distributing questionnaires (by mail
or hand carry)
3.REGISTRATION METHOD – enforced by Organized data from an Problems arises only when an
private organizations or government institution can serve as ready agency doesn’t have a Mgt.
agencies for recording purposes references for future study or Information System (MIS) & if the
for personal claims of people’s system or process of registration is
records not well implemented
 Methods of Collecting Data
Methods of Collecting Data Advantages Disadvantages
4. OBSERVATION METHOD – a scientific Usually applied to respondents that Subjectivity of information sought
method of investigation that makes cannot be asked or need to speak, cannot be avoided
possible use of all senses to especially when behaviors of
measure or obtain persons/culture of
outcomes/responses from the organizations/performance
object of the study outcomes of students are to be
considered
5. EXPERIMENTATION - used when the There is objectivity since scientific Too difficult to find respondents with
objective is to determine the method of inquiry is used. almost similar characteristics.
cause –and-effect of a certain Needs repetition if the desired
phenomena under some outcome is not reached
controlled conditions
 Scales of Measuring Data
SCALE EXAMPLE
1. NOMINAL SCALE – classifies objects or people’s Respondents are grouped according to marital
responses so that all of those in a single category status
are equal with respect to some attributes and then 1 – single 3 - separated
each category is coded numerically 2 – married 4 – widow

2. ORDINAL SCALE – classifies objects or individual’s Customer’s response regarding satisfaction

responses according to degree or level, then each towards the food sold in the canteen
level is coded numerically. 1 – Excellent
2 – Very Satisfactory
3 – Satisfactory
4 – Fair
5 – Poor/Needs improvement
 Scales of Measuring Data
SCALE EXAMPLE
3. INTERVAL SCALE – refers to quantitative Household socio-economic status are classified
measurement in which lower and upper control based from what income level or age bracket
limits are adapted to classify relative order and they belong.
differences of item numbers or actual scores. ( ) P50,000 and above
( ) P40,000 - P49,000
( ) P20,000 – P39,000
( ) below P20,000
4. RATIO SCALE – takes into account the interval Weights, heights, rate of change in production,
size and ratio of two related quantities which are return on investments
usually based on a standard measurement.
Population (N) – a finite or infinite collection of objects, events, or individuals with
specified class or characteristics under consideration.
Example: number of cell phone users, Eng’g students in EVSU
Sample (n)– a finite or limited collection of objects, events or individuals selected
from a population
- it is expected to possess characteristics identical to those of the
population, otherwise the validity & reliability of information will be
questionable
Sloven’s Formula in Determining the Sample Size, n
N
n= where e = margin of error (1%-10%)
1+Ne2
N = population
Random Sampling – the most commonly used sampling technique in
which each member in the population is given an equal
chance of being selected in the sample
– usually called fair sampling

Non-random Sampling – a method of collecting a small portion of the

population by which not all the members in the population are
given the chance to be included in the sample.
– called the bias sampling
Sample Problems:
1. Find the sample size if the population size is 300 at 99% accuracy?

Given: N = 300; e = 100 – 99 = 1% = .01; Find: n

2. Find the margin of error if the sample size is 154 out of 250 polulation.
 Rounding off Numbers
1. If the first number of the portion to be dropped is less than 5, change all the digits that are to the right
of the last retained digit to zero
Example: Round off 157.2436 to two decimal places
Answer: 157.2436 = 157.2400 = 157.24
2. If the first number of the portion to be dropped is greater than 5, then simply add one to the last
retained digit.
Example: Round off 758.1386 to three decimal places
Answer: 758.1386 = 758.139
3. If the number to be dropped is exactly 5, then
a. add 1 to the last retained digit if it is odd
b. the last retained digit is unchanged if it is even
Example: Round off to two decimal places a) 527.21536 b) 527.44536
Answer: a) 527.21536 = 527.22 b) 327.44536 = 327.44
 Summation
Rule 1. If c is a constant, then the sum of n c constant is equal to c times the number of constants.
In symbols, we have
𝑛

෍ 𝑐 = 𝑐 + 𝑐 + ⋯ + 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐
𝑖=1

Example: σ3𝑖=1 4 = 4 + 4 + 4 = 3 4 = 12
Compute
1

25 12 8 22 18 31 23 8 9 14

෍3 ෍5 ෍7 ෍8 ෍ 12 ෍ 14 ෍ 27 ෍ 16 ෍ 25 ෍ 32
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
 Summation
Rule 2. If c is a constant multiplied by each of the n observations represented by xi, then the sum of
the products is equal to c times the sum of n observations. In symbols, we have
𝑛 𝑛
෍ 𝑐𝑥𝑖 = 𝑐𝑥1 + 𝑐𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑐𝑥𝑛 = 𝑐 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑐 ෍ 𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Example:
3

෍ 4𝑥𝑖 = 4( 1 + 2 + 3) = 4 6 = 24
𝑖=1

12 11 9 7 10 8 11 8 9 8

෍ 6𝑥𝑖 ෍ 8𝑥𝑖 ෍ 13𝑥𝑖 ෍ 15𝑥𝑖 ෍ 5𝑥𝑖 ෍ 22𝑥𝑖 ෍ 4𝑥𝑖 ෍ 16𝑥𝑖 ෍ 10𝑥𝑖 ෍ 12𝑥𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
 Summation

Rule 3. If xi + yi are two random quantities, then

𝑛

෍(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖) = (x1 + y1)+ (x2 + y2)+ (x3 + y3)+ … + (xn + yn)
𝑖=1

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

෍(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 ) == (x1+x2+x3+…+xn)+ (y1+y2+y3+…+yn) ෍ 𝑥𝑖 + ෍ 𝑦𝑖

𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Example: Given x1=2, x2 =6, x3 =4, x4=5 ,

y1=5, y2=2, y3=3, y4=3

Evaluate the expression

4

෍(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 ) = 2 + 5 + 6 + 2 + 4 + 3 + 5 + 3 = 30
𝑖=1
Practice Exercise:
1. Find the sample size if the: 2. Find the margin of error if:
a.) population size is 200 at 95% accuracy? a) the sample size is 200 out of 450 population?
b.) population size is 400 at 94% accuracy? b) the sample size is 100 out of 250 population?
c) the sample size is 250 out of 650 population?
2. Round off to the nearest 3 decimal places
a. 361.2456 b. 123.7892 c. 765.4321

3. Rounding off to the nearest whole number

a. 7214.464 b. 1692.732 c. 5330.811
4. Given x1=5, x2 =11, x3 = 14 x4 =3 ,
y1=12, y2=9, y3= 7 y4= 4
Evaluate the expression
4 3 4 3 4

෍(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 )2 ෍ 5(𝑥𝑖 + 2𝑦𝑖 ) ෍(3𝑥𝑖 + 4𝑦𝑖 ) ෍(𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖 2) ෍(𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑖 2)

𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=2