KCA UNIVERSITY

MIS NOTES
DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

DATA COMMUNICATION
It is the electronic transmission of information that has been encoded digitally (as for storage and
processing by computers). Telecommunication equipment are used to support data communication. Data
refers to facts, concepts and instructions that are presented in the format that can be understood by all the
parties involved.

Components of a data communication system

a) Terminals refers any input/output devices that send or receive data e.g. computer system
b) Communication channels is a medium that is used to transfer data from one point or terminal to
another. E.g. Wired channel, Wireless channel.
c) Communication processors that relieve the central computers processors of network related processing
so that it can concentrate on critical data processing activities
d) Communication software which controls input and output activities and manage other functions of
communication network. Communication software may also support configuration of protocols
e) The message i.e. the data that is sent from one terminal to another terminal. It may be in the form of text,
audio or video.
f) Protocol which is a set of rules that governs the data communications which represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating. E.g. TCP/IP

Functions of a data communication system.

a) Reliability: Ensures reliable transmission of data between computer systems.
b) Establishing connection between the sender and receiver e.g. in connection oriented networks, a
connection must first be established between the sender and receiver before the data can be sent.
c) Efficiency: Routes messages along the most efficient paths. The routers when used in wide area
networks will direct signals to their destination with reference to antennas or practical configuration.
d) Security: Ensuring that data being transmitted is secured from unauthorized access. The
communication system answers this through the use of data encryption technique and firewalls.
e) It converts messages from one format to another so that the message can be transmitted effectively. e.g.
messages from a computer system are converted using a modem into analog format so that they can be
transmitted along analog transmission lines

DATA COMMUNICATION MODES

Also called data transmission modes, they are classified with reference to how the data bits are transferred
and by the direction of flow.

Classification by data bit transmission

Parallel transmission mode

a) Method of conveying multiple binary digits (bits) simultaneously.

b) Transmits all the 8 bits using 8 wires.
c) Expensive due to the 8 wires.
d) With reference to ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) character
codes which use 8 bits to represent a character, parallel data transmission involves the simultaneous
transmission of all the bits using 8 wires. This means that it’s a fast mode of data transmission but is
however expensive due to the 8 wires.
Example:

Examples of parallel mode transmission include connections between a computer and a printer (parallel
printer port and cable). Most printers are within 6 meters or 20 feet of the transmitting computer and the
slight cost for extra wires is offset by the added speed gained through parallel transmission of data.

Serial transmission mode

a) Serial communication is the process of sending data one bit at a time, sequentially, over a
communication channel.
b) It involves bit by bit transmission of character bits using one wire.
c) A slow method of data transmission.
d) Cheaper that the parallel mode since in uses only one wire.

Example:
Examples of serial mode transmission include connections between a computer and a modem.
There are two types of serial data transmissions namely
a) Asynchronous
b) Synchronous

Asynchronous transmission

a) Is also referred to as start/stop transmission.

b) Uses the start bit (bit 0) to alert the receiver that the transmission of the bit stream has started and
the stop bit (bit 1) to indicate the end of transmission.

Examples are file transfer, email and the World Wide Web.

Synchronous transmission

Synchronous data transmission is a data transfer method in which a continuous stream of data signals is
accompanied by timing signals (generated by an electronic clock) to ensure that the transmitter and the
receiver are in step (synchronized) with one another.

Uses the clock pulse to control or time the transmission of bit stream which is combined into longer ‘frames’
that may contain multiple bytes. Each byte is introduced onto the transmission link without gaps between it
and the next one.

Example:
An example of the opposite, a synchronous communication service, is real-time streaming media

 Voice over Internet Protocol/IP telephony,

 IP-TV (IPTV offers the ability to stream the source media continuously.) and
 Video conferencing.

Classification by direction of data flow

They define how data flows from one terminal to another. It can either be unidirectional or bidirectional.
There are three main types namely
a) Simplex
b) Half duplex
c) Full duplex

Simplex

Simplex refers to one-way communications where one party is the transmitter and the other is the receiver.
An example of simplex communications is a simple radio, which you can receive data from stations but can't
transmit data.
This is a transmission technique that allows for one way communication using one channel. An example of
simplex communication is transmission of TV signals from transmitting station which are received by TV
sets. The TV viewers cannot be able to respond to the signals which they receive using the same media
Half Duplex

Half-duplex refers to two-way communications where only one party can transmit at a time.
Data can be transmitted in both directions using one channel hence it is bidirectional but one direction at a
time e.g. a citizen’s band radio where a frequency channel is shared and each party has to say “over” to
switch the direction of the communication. Thus a half-duplex line can alternately send and receive data.

For example, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a time.
Frequency channel is shared and each party has to say “over” to switch the direction of the communication.

Full Duplex
Refers to two-way communications where both parties can transmit at the same time.
This is the simultaneous transmission of data by two stations which are connected using
telecommunication links. The communication channel is used in both directions at the same time. As a result
it’s called two way simultaneous transmission modes. An example is the transmission of signals over a
telephone line
For example a telephone is a full-duplex device because both parties can talk simultaneously.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION

Analog data transmission
 Analog transmission is a transmission method of conveying voice, data, image, signal or video
information using a continuous signal which varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in
proportion to that of a variable. Analog signals are used in voice communication to reflect variations
in frequency.
 Analog transmission is still very popular, in particular for shorter distances, due to significantly lower
costs and complex multiplexing and timing equipment is unnecessary
 The transmission of video using analog techniques is very popular, especially for short distances, where
costs can be minimized and complex multiplexing and timing equipment is unnecessary.
 The transmission of analog voice signal may also be attractive in small, short-haul systems. In addition,
fiber optic sensor systems may incorporate analog transmission.
 Requirements that analog transmission places on applications include high signal-to-noise ratio and high
source linearity.

Digital transmission
Digital transmission uses a discrete wave form that transmits data coded into two separate states as bit 1 and
bit 0, which are represented as on-off electrical pulses respectively. Most computers communicate with
digital signals, as do many local telephone companies and some larger networks.

Why digital transmission?

 Digital transmission is based on large scale and the very large scale IC integration which involves
fabrication of several electronic components onto a single silicon wafer. This reduces the size of circuits
hence minimizes the cost of production.
 Through the use of digital repeaters, signals are regenerated (boosted to their original strength) as they
travel along the transmission lines. This maintains the data integrity since voice is not amplified.
 Digital transmission ensures data security by allowing data to be encrypted i.e. coded into a format that
can only be understood after decoding or decryption.
 It is easier to multiplex large channel capacities with digital
 Better integration if all signals are in one form. Can integrate voice, video and digital data.

DATA COMMUNICATION HARDWARE (NETWORK HARDWARE)

Network Interface card (Adaptor)
 This is a communication or network device that’s used to interface the computer system to the network
via a connectivity device. Old computer systems (e.g. the 80486, Pentium 1 and Pentium 2 computers)
used a network interface card which was plugged onto the expansion slots on the main board.
 Pentium 3 and Pentium 4 computers have the network circuits built onto the motherboards by
manufacturers. As a result the network interface card has been declared obsolete.

Hub
 It’s a connectivity device (connectivity is the ability to link several communication hardware or terminals
for communication purposes) that connects computers in a star network or topology (physical
arrangement).
 Hubs contain multiple ports for connecting to network components. A single data packet sent through a
hub goes to all connected computers.
 A hub is used to easily change and expand wiring systems and to enable central monitoring of network
activity and traffic.
Repeater
 This is a communication device that receives signals and re-transmits them at their original strength.
 It regenerates the signals without amplifying or filtering them so as to increase the distance of
transmission.
 For a repeater to work, both segments connected to the repeater must use the same access method.
Switch
 A switch is used to send a data packet directly from the source computer to the destination computer.
This provides for faster or greater rate of data transmission.
 A switch is similar to a hub but offers a more direct network connection between the source and
destination computers.
 When a switch receives a data packet, it creates a separate internal connection or segment between any
two of its ports before forwarding the data packets to the appropriate port of the destination computer
based on information in each pocket header.
Router
 In moving data between different segments, routers examine a packet header to determine the best path
for the packet to travel. They enable all users in a network to share a single connection to the internet or
Wide Area Network. (WAN)
 A router is used to send packets directly to a destination computer on another network or segment and to
reduce stress on the network by controlling the data passing through it.
Bridge
 This is a device that passes data packets between multiple network segments that use the same
communication protocol and network architecture.
 A packet is a logical grouping of information that includes a header, which contains the location
information and user data
 A bridge is used to expand the length of a segment and to reduce network traffic problems resulting from
an excessive number of attached computers.
Gateway
 It enables communication between different network architectures e.g. Ethernet and token ring
architectures.
 A gateway takes data from one network and repackages it so that each network can understand the
repackaged. It therefore works like an interpreter because the format of an architecture e.g. Ethernet can
be translated into a format that can be understood by token ring architecture.
 A gateway is used to link two network system that are not designed using the same architecture and
same set of communication rules.
Modem
 It is an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from a computer via telephone
or other communication lines. A modem is a communications device that can be either internal or
external to your computer. It allows one computer to connect to another computer and transfer data over
telephone lines.
 It converts analog signals to digital signals and vice-versa
DATA COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
A data communication channel is a medium that is used to transfer data from one point or terminal to
another. There are two major classifications namely
Wired channels
Also called cabled or guided media, they support point to point transmission of data. They include twisted
pair cable, coaxial cable and fiber optic cables
Wireless channels
Much of the recent growth in communications and networking services is based on wireless technologies that
use radio frequencies or infrared signals to send data between communications devices without using wires.
Common technologies for wireless data transmission include microwave transmission, communication
satellites, pagers, cellular telephones, personal digital assistants (PDAs), and smart phones. Personal
computers using wireless Wi-Fi network interface cards can connect to corporate networks and the Internet
in locations where a Wi-Fi transmitter has been installed

Types of guided media

Twisted Pair (TP) cable
 This is a communication channel that consists of insulated copper wires arranged in a spiral pattern. A
number of these pairs are bundled into a cable before they are wrapped using a tough protective plastic
sheath.
 Twisted pair cables may either be available as 4 pairs or 2 pair versions. The four pair cable uses the
RJ45 connector and is usually common in network wiring. The 2 pair cable uses RJ11 connector and is
commonly used for telephone wiring.
 Twisted Pair cables are highly prone to electromagnetic interference (EMI) and noise
 Due to their distance limitation of up to 100m, twisted pair cables may expose signals to attenuation (loss
in signal strength as it travels over long distance).
 TP cables are cheap to acquire and simple to install.

Coaxial Cable
 Commonly referred to as the coax, it consists of two conductors namely the copper wire and a wire braid
that is used to shield the signal from electromagnetic interference and noise.
 Although the signal is shielded they do not provide better resistance to EMI than fiber optic cables.
 Coaxial cables can transmit signals up to a maximum distance of 500 meters after which repeaters are
required.
 They are terminated using the BNC (British Naval Connector)
 Compared to twisted pair cables, coaxial cables can be used in harsh environments.
 They are commonly applied for television antennae wiring and for linking computers in a network.

Fiber optic cable

 It consists of strands of clear glass fiber which are bound into cables. Data is transformed into pulses of
light which are then sent through the fiber optic cable by a laser device.
 Fiber optic cable offers more security to data along the transmission line because optical signals cannot
be tapped. However, many organizations still use coaxial and twisted pair cables due to the cost of fiber
optic cable.
 These cables do not have the distance limitation of coaxial and twisted cables.
 Fiber optic cables are not susceptible to electronic magnetic interference and noise.
 They are lighter and more durable than coaxial and twisted pair cables and can transmit large volumes of
data.
 Fiber optic cables are expensive and difficult to install since they are delicate.
 They are terminated by the ST connectors.
Types of wireless media
Microwave systems
 The maturity of radio frequency (RF) technology has permitted the use of microwave links as the major
trunk channel for long distance communication.
 Microwave systems transmit high frequency radio signals through the atmosphere from one transmitting
station to another.

Bluetooth systems
 It is a proprietary openwireless technology standard for exchanging data over short distances (using
short wavelength radio transmissions) from fixed and mobile devices, creating personal area networks
(PANs) with high levels of security.
 Wireless phones, keyboards, computers, printers, and computing devices using Bluetooth can
communicate with each other and even operate each other without direct user intervention. For example,
a person could highlight a telephone number on a wireless PDA and automatically activate a call on a
digital phone or that person could direct a notebook computer to send a document file wirelessly to a
printer.
 Bluetooth can connect wireless keyboards and mice to PCs or cell phone ear pieces to a cell phone
without wires. Bluetooth has low power requirements, making it appropriate for battery-powered
handheld computers, cell phones or PDAs.

Infrared systems
 Infrared technology allows computing devices to communicate via short-range wireless signals. With
infrared, computers can transfer files and other digital data bi-directionally. The infrared transmission
technology used in computers is similar to that used in consumer product remote control units.
 Infrared communications span very short distances. Place two infrared devices within a few feet (no
more than 5 meters) of each other when networking them. Unlike Wi-Fi and Bluetooth technologies,
infrared network signals cannot penetrate walls or other obstructions and work only in the direct "line of
sight." Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) is a way to connect to the Internet without wires or cables. When you
use Wi-Fi technology, you connect wirelessly to a base station that provides the link to the Internet or
other type of network.

COMPUTER NETWORKS

A computer network refers to the interconnection of computers using cables or wireless technologies.
Computers may be connected to other terminals by telecommunication devices.

Network Architectures

Client-server architecture
Client/server architecture is a computing model in which the server hosts, delivers and manages most of the
resources and services to be consumed by the client. This type of architecture has one or more client
computers connected to a central server over a network or internet connection. This system shares computing
resources.
Client/server architecture is also known as a networking computing model or client/server network because
all the requests and services are delivered over a network.
The server houses and provides high-end, computing-intensive services to the client on demand. These
services can include application access, storage, file sharing, printer access and/or direct access to the
server’s raw computing power.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture
Peer-to-peer architecture (P2P architecture) is a commonly used computer networking architecture in which
each workstation, or node, has the same capabilities and responsibilities. It is often compared and contrasted
to the classic client/server architecture, in which some computers are dedicated to serving others.
P2P may also be used to refer to a single software program designed so that each instance of the program
may act as both client and server, with the same responsibilities and status.

Benefits of using computer networks

1. They ensure that data is transmitted to various destinations efficiently.
2. Through the use of passwords and other data protection techniques, network ensures that the
organizations data is protected from unauthorized access.
3. Since many organizations are now using client-server networks, networks ensure easy control of
organizations activities.
4. Networks ensure sharing of resources such as data, hardware and software in an organization e.g. a
printer can be locally installed on the server computer then it can be shared by the network administrator
so that users or clients can access it from remote locations.
5. Networks ensure that the organizations operation overheads are minimized for example an organization
that uses a client-server network, does not need to employ supervisors to monitor user activities since this
is done by the events log file on the server.

Disadvantages of computer networks

1. The initial cost of setting up a network is high due to the high costs of server hardware and software
2. Computer viruses spread fast in network environments compared to stand-alone environments.
3. Unless strict control measures are put in place, data can easily be hacked or accessed by unauthorized
persons.
4. When the server fails, the network users will be forced to work off-line and when the connectivity device
fails the network will be completely disabled.

Factors to consider when evaluating computer networks

Throughput
This refers to the volume of data that can be transmitted by network media over a given period of time. A
good network should support high volume of data transmission.
Cost
The organization should consider the overall cost of the network which includes the cost of planning, the
cost of administration, the cost of cabling, the cost of network software and the cost of telecommunication
devices that support connectivity. A good network should be cost effective.
Response time
This refers to how long it takes a network especially the central computer to respond to user requests. A good
network should support fast response times.
Flexibility
It refers to the capability of network to support different structures or architecture and to allow for expansion
with reference to technological changes and changes in clear requirements.
Reliability
It refers to the ability of a network to efficiently transmit messages from terminal to terminal. It also refers to
the capability of network to work for a long period without failure.
Security
This refers to the capability of a network to protect the organizations data from unauthorized users. A good
network should have inbuilt controls that prevent unauthorized access to its resources.
TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
The two major types of networks are Local Area Networks and Wide area networks

Local Area Network (LANs)

LAN is a telecommunication System or a network that is capable of interconnecting a large number of
computers, terminals and other peripheral devices within a limited geographical area.
LANs supports local and remote accessibility to data.
They majorly use wired transmission media hence they have high transmission speed. A local area network
(LAN) is a group of computers and associated devices that share a common communications line or wireless
link. Typically, connected devices share the resources of a single server within a small geographic area (for
example, within an office building). Usually, the server has applications and data storage that are shared in
common by multiple computer users. A local area network may serve as few as two or three users (for
example, in a home network) or as many as thousands of users
LANs connect groups of computers together across short distances (within a building or between a group
of two or three buildings in close proximity to each other) to share information and resources.

LAN topologies
Physical topology refers to the arrangement of computers, cables and other components on a network.
Logical topology describes the way data flows through the network components. Two networks have the
same topology if the connection configuration is the same, although the networks may differ in physical
interconnections, distances between nodes, transmission rates, and/or signal types.
Bus topology
 In this topology all the network computers are connected using a single cable or bus that connects the
computers in a straight line.
 Commonly referred to as straight line topology, it involves the transmission of a packet to all network
nodes on the segment. Because of the way electrical signals are transmitted over this cable, the ends of
the cable must be terminated by hardware devices called terminators to prevent signal bounce.
 If there is a break anywhere in the cable or if the ends of the cable are not terminated then, the signal will
not flow to its designated point.
 The number of computers attached to the bus is directly proportional to network performance i.e. as the
number of computer increase; the response time of network reduces.
 Bus networks are however, cheap and simple to install.

Star topology
 Star topology is the most common type of network topology that is used in homes and offices. In the Star
topology there is a central connection point called the hub or switch.
 In contrast to the bus topology, the star topology allows each machine on the network to have a point to
point connection to the central hub.
 A Star network topology is very easy to manage because of its simplicity in functionality.
The problems can be easily located logically in a Star topology and therefore is easy to troubleshoot
 The Star topology is very simple in format so it is very easy to expand on the network.
 The Star topology is fully dependent on the hub or switch. If there are many nodes and the cable is long
then the network may slow down.
`
Ring topology
 Computers are connected to a ring structure which is made of fiber optic cables and each packet is sent
around the ring until it reaches its final destination (using broadcast method)
 It can handle high noise environment better than both the bus and star topologies.
 The impact of noise and EMI (Electromagnetic interference) is reduced.
 Ring topologies are relatively expensive to setup (due to cost of fiber optic cable) and only one computer
at a time can send data.
 Ring topology is not dependent on a host computer.
 The need for complicated control software increases the cost of setting up the ring topology.

Hybrid topology
 It uses a combination of any two or more topologies in such a way that the resulting network does not
exhibit one of the standard topologies (e.g., bus, star, ring, etc.). For example, a tree network connected
to a tree network is still a tree network topology. A hybrid topology is always produced when two
different basic network topologies are connected. Two common examples for Hybrid networks are star-
ring network and star bus network
 A Star-ring network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a multi-station access unit
(MAU) as a centralized hub.
 A Star-bus network consists of two or more star topologies connected using a bus trunk (the bus trunk
serves as the network's backbone).

Mesh topology
 Mesh network or topology is a network where all the nodes are connected to each other and is a complete
network.
 This topology incorporates a unique network design in which each computer on the network connects to
every other, creating a point-to-point connection between every device on the network.
 The purpose of the mesh design is to provide a high level of redundancy. If one network cable fails, the
data always has an alternative path to get to its destination.

Wide Area Network (WAN)

Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across longer physical distances.
This allows computers to be remotely connected to each other over one large network to communicate even
when they’re miles apart.

The Internet is the most basic example of a WAN, connecting all computers together around the world.
Because of a WAN’s vast reach, it is typically owned and maintained by multiple administrators or the
public.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS

A communications protocol defines the rules for sending blocks of data (each known as a Protocol Data
Unit (PDU)) from one node in a network to another node. Protocols are normally defined in a layered
manner and provide all or part of the services specified by a layer of the OSI reference model.

A network protocol defines rules and conventions for communication between network devices. Network
protocols include mechanisms for devices to identify and make connections with each other, as well as
formatting rules that specify how data is packaged into messages sent and received. Some protocols also
support message acknowledgment and data compression designed for reliable and/or high-performance
network communication.

Modern protocols for computer networking all use packet switching techniques to send and receive messages
in the form of packets - messages subdivided into pieces that are collected and re-assembled at their
destination. Hundreds of different computer network protocols have been developed each designed for
specific purposes and environments.

Types of network protocols

1. Internet Protocols
The Internet Protocol family contains a set of related (and among the most widely used network
protocols. Beside Internet Protocol (IP) itself, higher-level protocols like TCP, UDP, HTTP, and FTP all
integrate with IP to provide additional capabilities. Similarly, lower-level Internet Protocols
like ARP and ICMP also co-exist with IP. In general, higher level protocols in the IP family interact
more closely with applications like Web browsers while lower-level protocols interact with network
adapters and other computer hardware.
2. Wireless Network Protocols
Network protocols designed for use on wireless networks must support roaming mobile devices and deal
with issues such as variable data rates and network security.
3. Network Routing Protocols
Routing protocols are special-purpose protocols designed specifically for use by network routers on the
Internet. A routing protocol can identify other routers, manage the pathways (called routes) between
sources and destinations of network messages, and make dynamic routing decisions. Common routing
protocols include EIGRP, OSPF and BGP.

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