UNIT ONE

CONCEPT OF COACHCING
As a coach we expect much from our players and they in turn should expect and receive
much from us. That is the magic of the coach player relationships. A prepared coach can
meet his responsibility and unprepared one cannot. For all the need to coach, a coach
should have an objective and a philosophy for what and why he/she is coaching.
Coaching Objectives
Coaching is craft that is best learned by practical experience, developing effective
relationships with athletes and coaching colleagues, and through application of
knowledge. The term “coaching” is often used to cover a wide range of activities,
usually to help someone prepare for something. Coaching is the organized provision
of assistance to an individual athlete or group of athletes in order to help them
develop and improve.

Coaching involves teaching, training, instructing and more. It is not simple about
helping people to learn sport skills, improve performance and reach their potential.
It is also about recognizing, understanding and providing for the other needs of athletes.
These needs are many and cover a wide range such as social and emotional needs, as well
as the more obvious needs related to any field of events (football, volleyball, athletics etc)
and competition.

One of the two most important decisions you will make as a coach is the objectives you
will seek to achieve with your athletes. Your success as a coach will depend more on
your coaching philosophy than any other factor.

By philosophy mean – the beliefs or principles that guide the actions you take . It is
the foundation on which all your knowledge about sport science, sport management,
and techniques and tactics will be built.

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Your coaching philosophy will determine how nicely you use this knowledge. Coaches
often list many specific goals to achieve when coaching their athletes, usually their goals
fall under three broad objectives:
1. To have a winning team.
2. To help young people have fun.
3. To help young people develop through:
a. Physically, by learning sport skills, improving physical conditioning,
developing good health habits, and avoiding injuries;
b. Psychologically, by learning to control their emotions and developing
feelings of self- worth; and
c. Socially, by learning cooperation in a competitive context and
appropriate standards of behavior.
Which of these objectives is important to you? Winning? Having fun? Helping young
people develop? Perhaps you believe all three are worthwhile. But are they equally
important? What if you must choose between them (Which at times you will)? Coaches
often must decide whether to pursue victory at the possible expense of an athlete ’s well-
being or development. What will your priorities be?

The roles of a coach:

It is possible to see your only job as a coach in setting exercises and tasks to bring about
changes in performance. Experienced coaches will point out that this is only part of the
picture. As a coach you will have many jobs and functions. Some you will perform
willingly, others will be less attractive to you, but are just as important. All these jobs or
roles contribute to being a successful coach.
As yourself, “Do I or can I Act”:
As a teacher- imparting new knowledge, skills and ideas
As a trainer- improving fitness
As an instructor-directing activities and practices
As a motivator – generating a positive and decisive approach
As a disciplinarian – determining a system of rewards and punishments.
As a manager – organizing and planning

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 As an administrator – dealing with the paperwork
As a publicity agent – working with the media
As a social work – counseling and advising
As a friend – supporting
As a scientist – analyzing, evaluating and problem solving
As a student – willing to listen, learn and look for new knowledge.

A Philosophy of Wining:

No single decision is more important in determining how you coach than you priority for
these objectives – especially the significance you give to winning. Some coaches who say
winning is least important don’t behave in that way when they coach. For example,
coaches who play only with their best athletes, injured athletes, scream disparagingly at
athletes who have erred demonstrate that winning is more important to them than athletes’
development.

Many coaches face a dilemma about their objectives when they coach. Society clearly
rewards winners. Yet society also looks to sport as a means to help young people try out
life, build character, and develop leadership skills. Coaches who want to help young
people to develop physically, psychologically, and socially through sport are
evaluated only by their win- loss record. Perhaps altruistic at first, too many veteran
coaches are conditioned by the organizations for which they coach to pursue the objective
of winning regardless of the cost.

This must change, and coaches must take responsibility for making the change. While
society may be fickle about its objectives for sport participation, coaches must resist the
forces that encourage them to win at all costs. Coaches now more than ever need to be
clear about their objectives when coaching.

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Consider the following objective as the cornerstone for your coaching philosophy. It is an
objective for many National Sport Organizations, experienced and successful coaches at
all levels, professional educators, and physicians endorse.

The objective is: “Athletes first, winning second”

It means:
 The event is seen as one aspect of a person’s life not this whole life.
 There is respect and appreciation of the coach and his work.
 Athletes decide with the coach the importance of performance and strive to meet
their joint expectations.
 There is respect for laws and spirit of fair competition.
 Athletes’ reaching their potential is seen as success.
 There is respect for both opponents and officials.
This is quite simple, every decision you make and every behavior you display is based
first on what you judge is best for your athletes and second on what may improve the
athlete’s or team’s chances of winning.

Athletes first, winning second is the philosophical foundation for the Bill of Rights
for Young Athletes. Athlete s first, winning Second is an easy philosophy to
understand, but more difficult to put in to practice. Today many sport organizations
are led by an administrators who demand that coaches reverse this objective – ‘winning
first, athletes second’- either because winning is their personal objective or because these
administrators are pressured by others. Coaches who skillfully help young people become
better humans but fail to win an often unknown quota of games are considered losers, and
all too often are fired. This is the regrettable reality in sport today, but must and will
change. In the final analysis, it’s not how many games you win, but how many young
people you help to become winners in life. As a coach you must decide for yourself
for relative importance placed on your athlete’s development and winning.

So what do you do now if you are in this situation? If you believe the athletes first,
winning second is the right priority, resist the temptation to abandon your principles

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because the pressure to win threatens your job, or worse, you self-worth. Resist
transferring this threat by threatening the well- being of your athletes. Stick to your
principles and seek to convert those who are pressuring you to win to your objective-
athletes first, winning second.

Striving to win
Having Athletes First, Winning Second as your objective does not mean that winning is
not important. The immediate short- term objective of any contest is to win. Striving
to win within the rules of the game should be the objective of every athlete and
coach. To play sports without striving to win is to be a “dishonest competitor ”, says
Michael Novak in Joy of Sports. Striving to win is essential to an enjoyable
competition.

Commitment
Competition and the striving to win are significant in another way. Today we hear much
about our alienated youth, their lack of commitment to our established initiations, and
their lack of desire to achieve excellence. Sadly, many young people are not finding
activities in their home, school, or place of worship worthy of their commitment.

Ethical behavior
The element of competition in sport has value in yet another way. Through sport young
people can develop morally – they can learn a basic code of ethics that is
transferable to a moral code for life. Competitive sport- where winning is a valued
prize- provides opportunities for high levels of moral development to occur.

One value of competitive sport is that such moral decisions are required often, and young
people face opportunities to learn, and adult to model, appropriate ethical behavior.
To make an appropriate moral judgment at the expense of a valued victory is a real test of
character as well as an opportunity to build character.

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Keeping winning in perspective
Striving to win is important in sport. That process can bring out young people in their
best performance, commitment, and moral development. For sport to provide these
benefits, you maintain a proper perspective on winning; “Athletes First, Winning
Second.”

Remember that striving to win the game is an important objective of the contest, but it is
not the most important objective of sport participation. It is easy to lose sight of the long-
term objectives helping athletes develop physically, psychologically, and socially –while
pursuing the short-term objective of winning the contest, because the rewards for winning
are immediate and powerful. Winning or striving to win is never more important than
athletes’ well-being, regardless of the mixed messages our society sends.
When winning is kept in perspective, sport programs produce young people who
enjoy sports, who strive for excellence, who dare to risk error in order to learn, and who
grow with both praise and constructive criticism. When winning is kept in perspective,
there is room for fun in the pursuit, or, more accurately, the pursuit of victory is fun. With
proper leadership, sport programs produce young people who accept responsibilities, who
accept others and most of all who accept them selves.

The followings are coaching assets in which the coach should apply during his
coaching sessions:
 Knowledge of the subject matter
 Well organized
 Honest
 Professional appearance
 Qualified
 Enthusiastic
 Hard worker
 Punctual
 Consistent
 Understanding

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  Good listener
 Provides individual help
 Builds athlete’s Confidence
 Motivates
 Good teacher
 Encourages
 Praises effort
 Respects athletes
 Patient with athletes
 Sense of humor

Knowing what you want to achieve

If you ask coaches what they want from coaching? The answers usually include:
Winning
Fun
Athlete develop

1.3. Ethical Standards of Sports Coaches:

Sports coaches are expected to conform to ethical standards in a number of areas:

humanity, relationships, commitment, co-operation, integrity, advertising,
confidentiality, abuse of privilege, safety and competence.

Humanity
Coaches must respect the rights, dignity and worth of every human being and their
ultimate right to self-determination. Specifically, coaches must treat everyone
equitably and sensitively, within the context of their activity and ability, regardless
of gender, ethnic origin, cultural background, sexual orientation, religion or
political affiliation.

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Relationship
The good coach will be concerned primarily with the well-being, safety, protection and
future of the individual performer. There must be a balance between the development
of performance and the social, emotional, intellectual and physical needs of the
individual.

A key element in a coaching relationship is the development of independence.

Performers must be encouraged and guided to accept responsibility for their own
behavior and performance in training, in competition, and in their domestic, academic or
business life.

The relationship between coach and performer relies heavily on mutual trust and
respect. This means that the performer should be made aware of the coach's
Qualifications and experience, and must be given the opportunity to consent to or decline
proposals for training, performance or competition.

Commitment
Coaches should clarify in advance with performers (and/or employers) the number of
sessions, fees (if any) and method of payment. They should explore with performers
(and/or employers) the expectation of the outcome of coaching. Written contracts may be
appropriate in some circumstances.

Coaches have a responsibility to declare to their performers and/or employers any other
current coaching commitments. They should also find out if any prospective client is
receiving instruction from another teacher/coach. If so, the teacher/coach should be
contacted to discuss the situation.

Coaches should expect a similar level of reciprocal commitment from their performers. In
particular, the performer (parent/guardian in the case of a minor) should inform the coach
of any change in circumstances that might affect the coach/performer relationship.

Coaches should receive appropriate acknowledgment for their contribution to the

performer's progress and achievement. Where money is earned from performances, it is
reasonable to expect the coach should receive an appropriate share of the rewards. Such

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apportionment with any attendant conditions should be agreed in advance (in writing) to
avoid any misunderstanding.

Co-operation
Coaches should communicate and co-operate with other sports and allied
professions in the best interests of their performers. An example of such contact
could be the seeking of:

 Educational and career counseling for young performers whose involvement

in sport impinges upon their studies
 Sport science advice through the National Sport and Exercise Sciences
Training Institutions.

Coaches must communicate and co-operate with registered medical and ancillary
practitioners in the diagnosis, treatment and management of their performers'
medical and psychological problems.

Integrity
Coaches must not encourage performers to violate the rules of their sport. They should
actively seek to discourage and condemn such action and encourage performers to obey
the spirit of the rules.

Coaches must not compromise their performers by advocating measures that could
constitute unfair advantage. They must not adopt practices to accelerate performance
improvement that might jeopardize the safety, total well-being and future participation of
the performer. Coaches must never advocate or condone the use of prohibited drugs
or other banned performance enhancing substances.

Coaches must ensure that the activities, training and competition programs they advocate
and direct ore appropriate for the age, maturity, experience and ability of the
individual performer.

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Advertising
Advertising by sports coaches in respect of qualifications, training and/or services must
be accurate and professionally restrained. Coaches must be able to present evidence of
current qualifications upon request. Evidence should also be available to support
any claim associated with the promotion of their services.

Coaches must not display any affiliation with an organization in a manner that falsely
implies sponsorship or accreditation by that organization.

Confidentiality
Sports coaches inevitably gather a great deal of personal information about performers in
the course of a working relationship. Coach and performer must reach agreement about
what is to be regarded as confidential information (i.e. not divulged to a third party
without the express approval of the performer).

Confidentiality does not preclude the disclosure of information about a performer to

persons who can be judged to have a right to know. For example:

 Evaluation for competitive selection purposes

 Recommendations for employment
 In pursuit of disciplinary action involving performers within the sport
 In pursuit of disciplinary action by a sports organization against one of its
members
 Legal and medical requirements for disclosure
 Recommendations to parents/family where the health and safety of performers
might be at stake
 In pursuit of action to protect children from abuse

Abuse of Privilege
The sports coach is privileged to have regular contact with performers and occasionally
to travel and reside with performers in the course of coaching and competitive practice. A
coach must not attempt to exert undue influence over the performer in order to obtain
personal benefit or reward.

Personal appearance is a matter of individual taste but the sports coach has an obligation
to project an image of health, cleanliness and functional efficiency.

Sports coaches should never smoke while coaching.

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Coaches should not drink alcohol so soon before coaching that it would affect their
competence to coach, compromise the safety of the performers or obviously indicate
they had been drinking (e.g. smell of alcohol on breath).

Safety
Within the limits of their control, coaches have a responsibility to ensure as for as
possible the safety of the performers with whom they work

All reasonable steps should be taken to establish a safe working environment.

The activity undertaken should be suitable for the age, physical and emotional
maturity, experience and ability of the performers.

Coaches have a duty to protect children from harm and abuse.

The performers should have been systematically prepared for the activity and made aware
of their personal responsibilities in terms of safety.

Coaches should arrange adequate insurance to cover all aspects of their coaching
practice.

Competence
Coaches must be able to recognize and accept when to refer performers to other coaches
or agencies. It is their responsibility, as for as possible, to verify the competence and
integrity of any other person to whom they refer a performer.

Coaches should regularly seek ways of increasing their personal and professional
development.

Coaches should welcome evaluation of their work by colleagues and be able to

account to performers, employers and colleagues for what they do and why.

Coaches have a responsibility to themselves and their performers to maintain their own
effectiveness, resilience and abilities. They should recognize when their personal
resources are so depleted that help is needed. This may necessitate the withdrawal from
coaching temporarily or permanently.

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COACHING STYLE & COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Coaching styles

There are three coaching styles. This are

A. Command style (the dictator) or authoritarian

In the command style of coaching, the coach makes all the decisions. The role of the
athlete is performed by the coach’s commands because the coach assumes that
he/she has knowledge and experience. It is her/his role to tell the athlete what to do.
However, the athlete’s role is to listen, to absorb and to comply.

B. Submissive style (The babysitter) or Laissez –fair

Coaches who adopt the submissive style make as few decisions as possible. It’s throw-
out- the ball- and – have – a good- time approach. The coach provides little instruction,
minimal guidance in organizing activities, and resolves discipline problems only
when absolutely necessary. Coaches who adopt this style either lack the competence
to provide instruction and guidance, are too lazy to meet the demands of their
coaching responsibilities, or are very misinformed about what coaching is. The
submissive style coach is merely a babysitter- and often a poor one at that.

C. Cooperative style (democrat)

Coaches who select the cooperative style share decision making with athletes.
Although they recognize their responsibility to provide leadership and guide young
people toward achieving the objectives set forth. Cooperative- style coaches also know
that youngster cannot become responsible adults without learning to make decisions.

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Becoming a Better Leader:
In the past the often accepted role of the coach was to be a dominant, authoritarian
leader with the athlete as a disciplined follower. In the modern world the athlete is
exposed to wider views and his vocabulary has expanded to include the word
“why”?. This should not be seen as a challenge of the coach or his position, but a healthy
curiosity on the part of the athlete.
Most coaches tend to coach in the style that they were coached themselves. This is
sometimes effective. To become a better coach you should look carefully at the
coaching or leadership style you use most of the time. A good leadership style comes
from your coaching philosophy and your personality and allows you to
communicate more effectively with your athletes. In simple terms we can identify
three distinct leadership styles authoritarian, cooperative and casual. The
characteristics of the three styles are compared in the following table.
Leadership style
Leadership style Leadership style Leadership style
Philosophy Win centered Athlete centered No emphasis
Objectives Task objectives Social and task No objectives
objectives
Decision making Coach makes all Decision are guided Athletes make
decisions by coach, but shared decisions
Communication Telling Telling, asking Listening
style listening
Communication Little or none High None
development
What is ‘winning’? Judged by coach Judged by athlete Not defined
and coach
Athlete Little or no trust in Trust in the athlete Trust not shown
development the athlete
Motivation
Sometimes motivate Motivates all No motivation
Training structures Inflexible Flexible None

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The authoritarian and causal styles are extremes and unlikely to be successful methods of
coaching. The cooperative leadership style gives guidance and structure, but allows
the athlete to develop physically, psychologically and socially. This style is more in
line with the philosophy of ‘athletes first, winning second ’. Good coaches will able to
modify their style according to the athletes and their situation. The coaching style that is
recommended for most situations is the cooperative style.

Communication Skills:
Coaching needs communication.Communication is the two way process of exchanging
information between the athlete and coach, and assists motivation, goal setting and
all skills learning. Success in coaching depends to a large extent on your ability to
communicate effectively in a variety of situations and with people of all types and ages.
Communication skills, like all skills, can be learned. Each individual has the
potential to practice and improve their ability to communicate.
Communication consists not only of sending messages but receiving them as well.
Coaches tend to be very good in the sending area of commutation but many times pay
little attention to receiving.

Communication is not simply talking and listening. It also includes forms of non-
verbal commutation such as facial expressions, clothes and appearance and bodily
posture. Verbal commutation of sending and receiving is important. Non-verbal
communication is of equal, if not more, importance as it has been estimated that over
70% of information between two people is carried non- verbally.

Every message a person send is composed of two parts, content and emotion.
Content refers to the information is a message and emotion refers to the feelings you
have about the message. The content is usually sent verbally, and the emption, non-
verbally. Emption can also be transmitted not by what you say, but how you say it. How
you say something includes the qualities of speech such as volume, tone and tempo.
Choosing the correct speech such as volume, tone and tempo. Choosing the correct
speech pattern is one of the ways to make communication more effective.

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Three dimensions of communication
Let’s begin with some basics about the communication process. Three dimensions of
communication are illustrated. First, communication includes not only sending messages,
but also receiving them. Many coaches believe they are quite skilled at sending message,
but they are often weak at receiving them.

Sending ---------------------- Receiving

Verbal ---------------------- Nonverbal
Content ---------------------- Emotion
The three dimensions of communication.

Coaches must be skillful not only at sending clear, understandable messages, but also
sharp in listening skills to understand what athletes are communicating in return.

Second, communication consists of non- verbal as well as verbal messages. Gestures of

hostility, facial expressions of joy, movements of intimidation, and acts of kindness are
all forms of nonverbal communication. It is estimated that over 70% of
communication is nonverbal. People tend to demonstrate greater control over the verbal
than they do the nonverbal. And this is true as well of coaches. Because coaches are often
intently observed by payers, administrators, and the public they must be epically attuned
to nonverbal communication.

Third, communication has two parts; content and emotion. Content is the substance
of the message, and emotion is how you feel about it. Content is usually expressed in
verbally, where as emotion in nonverbally. Pressure- packed competitive sports
challenge coaches to be in control of both the content and the emotions they
communicate.

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Coaches are typically more skilled in the sending, verbal and content dimensions of
communication than in the receiving, non- verbal and emotion ones. But through practice
and effort, coaches can develop the latter set of communication skills equally well.
How you communicate?
Communication with your athletes consists of six steps. These are:
1. You have thoughts (ideas, feelings, intentions) that you wish to convey.
2. You translate these thoughts into a message appropriate for transmission.
3. Your message is transmitted through some channel (verbal or nonverbal).
4. The athlete receives you message (if he or she is playing attention).
5. The athlete interprets the message’s meaning. The interpretation depends upon
the athlete’s comprehension of the message’s content and your intentions.
6. The athlete responds internally to his or her interpretation of the message.
Sometimes the sequence of events flows smoothly, with you and the athlete clearly
understanding the messages that both of you are sending. But sometimes problems may
develop in one or more of the six steps.

Why communication is sometimes ineffective

The reasons for ineffective communication between coach and athlete include any or all
of the following:
 The content you wish to communicate may be wrong for the situation.
 The transmission of the message does not communicate what you intend it
because you lack the verbal or nonverbal skills needed to send the message.
 The athlete doesn’t receive the message because he or she isn’t paying attention.
 The athlete, lacking adequate listening or nonverbal skills, misinterprets the
content of the message or fails to understand it.
 The messages sent are inconsistent over time, leaving the athlete confused about
what is meant.

Ineffective communication is not always the fault of the coach; the problem may lay with
the athlete, or with both coach and athlete. But you can do much to avoid problems of
ineffective communication by developing your own skills.

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 Effective communication involves the following skills:
 Gaining the athlete’s attention
 Learning to use your voice
 Developing non-verbal skills
 Developing listening skills
Being attentive
Look at the athlete and show that you are listening.
Show understanding
Avoid interrupting
Asking questions
 Developing and maintaining credibility. This credibility is developed in a
number of ways:
* Knowledge of athletics: You should have confidence in what you know
about athletics and also the confidence to let athletes know what you don ’t
know.
* Talk only when necessary: If you talk to much athletes will not know what
is important and what is not. Make sure that what you have to say is important
and expressed in simple, clear language.
* Clothes and appearance: How you look will affect people’s opinion of
you, especially in the early stages of relationships. Athletes like to feel pride
in their coach and this is developed if the coach appears professional in
dress, manner and preparation

TYPES AND METHODS OF PREPARATION IN SPORT TRAINING

The Basic Principles of Training

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Sport training is the long term process that is progressive and recognizes the individual
athlete’s needs and capabilities. Training programs use exercise or practice to develop the
qualities required for an event.
The Sport training can be planned based on certain principles. These principles of
training need to be fully understood before the coach can produce effective long term
programs. The basic principles of sport’s training are: overload, specificity,
progression, reversibility, individualization and variety.

A. The overload principle: - It is the training principle that placing increasing (doing
more than normal) amount of stress (load) on the body to get an improvement in
fitness. A training load is the work or exercise that an athlete performs in a training
session. Loading is the process of applying training loads. When an athlete’s fitness is
changed by a new training load there is a response from the body. This response by the
body is an adaptation to the stimulus of the training load. The initial response is of
fatigue. When the loading stops there is a process of recovery from the fatigue and
adaptation to the training load.

This recovery and adaptation returns the athlete not just to his original level, but to an
improved level. This higher level of fitness is achieved through the body ’s
overcompensation to the initial training load. So, overload causes fatigue and recovery
and adaptation allow the body to overcompensate and reach higher level of fitness.

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 Overcompensation

Stimulus

Fitness

Compensation

Fig 1. The principle of Overload

In order for a muscle (including heart muscle) to get stronger, it must be overloaded, or
worked against a load greater than normal. To increase flexibility, a muscle must be stretched
longer than normal. To increase muscular endurance, muscles must be exposed to sustained
exercise for a longer than normal period.
The amount of overload is very important. Too little exercise will have no effect on fitness.
The amount of overload needed to maintain or improve a particular level of fitness for a
particular fitness component is determined through four dimensions: frequency (how
often), intensity (how hard), time (duration or how long) and type (mode of activity).

B. The Principle of Specificity: - It is the principle that indicates the need for a specific
type of exercise to improve fitness of a specific part of the body. For example strength
building exercise may do little for developing cardiovascular fitness, and stretching
exercise may do little for altering body composition.

Specificity also applies to each body part. For example, if you exercise the legs, you build
fitness of the leg; if you exercise the arm you build fitness of the arm etc. The training
load must be specific to both the individual athlete and to the demands for their chosen
event. For example, specific training loads for marathon and weight lifting. Specificity is

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important in designing the warm-up work out (main part) and cool-down programs for
specific activities.

C. The Principles of Reversibility: - It is a principle that indicates inactivity results in lost

of benefit achieved as a result of overload (the overload principle in reverse). To put is
simply,” If you don’t use it, You will lose it”.
If the athlete is not exposed to regular training there is no loading and the body has no
need to adapt. When an athlete stops exercising, up to 50% of his fitness level may loss
within 2 months. However, not all fitness levels reverser at the same rate, strength fitness is
very resilient, so a person can maintain strength fitness by doing resistive exercise as
infrequently as once a week. On the other hand, cardiovascular fitness reverse themselves
more quickly- some times within just a few days or weeks.

D. The Principles of Progression: - It is a corollary of the overload principle that indicates

the need to gradually increase overload to achieve optimal benefit. Training should be
increased progressively for safe and effective results. The benefits of all types of exercises
are best when gradually increase overload.

E. Principles of Individualization (Limits on adaptability):- Each athlete brings to sport

activities his own capabilities, capacities and response to training. There are large
individual differences in our ability to improve fitness, perform and learn sport skills.
Some people are able to run longer distances, or lift more weight, or kick a soccer ball
more skillfully than others will ever be able to, no matter how much they train . There
are limits on the adaptability the potential for improvement of any human body. The body ’s
ability to transport and use oxygen, for example, can be improved by only about 15-30%
through training. An endurance athlete must therefore inherit a large metabolic capacity
in order to reach competitive performance levels.
F. Principle of Variety: The successful coach will plan variety into the training program
to maintain the athlete’s interest and motivation. The change and variety can com from
such things as changing the nature of exercise, the environment, time of day of the
session and the training group.

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STRACTURE OF TRAINING PLAN

Planning is a long term process. The training plan consists of determining objectives
and implementing a set of increasingly detailed procedures with the aim of achieving
these objectives.
In athlete development process six most searching questions that must be answered in
the construction of an effective training plan:
1. What should be done?
2. Why is being done?
3. When should it be done?
4. How is it done best?
5. Where should it be done?
6. Who should do it?
The answers to these questions may not be perfectly obvious at first glance as athlete and
coach try to design a more specific training plan. For instant, in athletics training plan
“What” defines the details of each session- for example, running repetitions (a given number
and distance), up a hill (of a specific grade) or on a track, with a specific recovery time. It
also defines the overall goals of the entire training plan. “Why” identifies the reason for the
specific physiological training zone, or muscle groups, being challenged in a training session.
“When” addresses the time of day, or the point during a particular training cycle when
development of the system being challenged is most sensible or safest. “Where” demands a
decision as to the best site to get the job done- a track versus a grassy hill, or a gymnasium
verses a weight room. It also can refer to scheduling training camp situations in various parts
of the country (or elsewhere) to take advantage of decision as to the best method for
developing the system in question- level or uphill sprinting strength (or power, or endurance)
in the leg extensor muscles, for example. “Who” refers to event specialty or level of
development- is the athlete an 800m runner or a marathon runner; a runner at the beginning
or near the end of a development year.

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In the long term planning the coach usually looks at what the athlete want to achieve for a
particular years and divides this year into a number of periods. So the term “periodisation” is
used to describe the division of the training program into a number of periods of time. Each
of these periods will have specific training objectives.
The major objectives of any plan is to bring the athlete to the most important
competitions of the season, fully prepared and a physical mental state to perform at a
level never previously achieved. Achieving optimum performance at the right place and
time is called “peaking”. +

4.1. The annual training plan:

The annual training plan is the basis for all scheduled training activity, and the coach’s
first task is to draw up this plan before a new season gets underway. This plan varies from
country to country, either because of the structure of the fixture list of the competitions in a
given country, or because of cultural, weather and even financial considerations. A major
competition can be divided into specific periods. These periods of training should be
followed whether the time available is a full year, six month, twelve weeks or any other
amount. There are three main periods to any training program: A preparation period, a
competition period and a transition period.

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For coaches working with players at the pre-development or pre-training stage or at the
development stage, the annual training plan is based around these same periods as well, but
the scheduling of training activities is not geared solely to team performances.

Irrespective of the results achieved by the team, the training objectives that have been
set – regardless of whether these are technical objectives, combined technical and
tactical objectives or psychological and physical objectives – must remain a priority
throughout the season in the planning of training sessions.

The training load is a combination of both volume and intensity. Throughout the
training program there is a progressive increase in loading. This increase is always an
increase in volume before there is an increase in intensity.

Graph showing the relationship between the quantity and the intensity of
training in an annual training plan

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a) The preparation period
• This is the key period for getting the players and the team as a whole in the right
physical condition.
• It should last between 4 and 10 weeks (depending on the level of the players and the
type and level of competition) and must take into account physiological factors.
Experience has shown that the first positive effects of training become apparent
after 6 to 10 weeks.
• For example, a preparation period lasting 6 to 8 weeks seems to be the norm now a
days in football.
• The period is divided into two phases:
1st phase: – General preparation based around physical work. The quantity of
training is decisive for this preparation, i.e. the frequency of training
sessions and the duration and volume of training. The training done in
this phase is basic.
2nd phase: – This is the pre-competition phase, the phase of specific and physical
development with the inclusion of technical/tactical and mental aspects.
The quantity of training is reduced; the quality therefore comes from
the intensity of the work.
This period, which is subdivided into 3 or 4 cycles lasting 1 to 3 weeks each, is known as
the preparation mesocycle.

b) The competition period

• The duration of this period depends on the competition schedule.
• It usually lasts between 8 and 10 months (depending on the country and the level of
competition).
• The period is subdivided into weekly cycles called “microcycles”.
• This is the period when general and specific fitness are transformed into match
fitness. When players reach optimum performance capacity and seek to maintain this
for as long as possible.
• During this phase, the players’ need for competitive action is aroused and generated, and
they are prepared for coping with the emotions and pressures of competing.

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 • As the level of performance during this period depends on the commitment of the
players in the various competitions and on their own personal potential. The coach has
to bear in mind the need to take individual requirements into account in training.
• To ensure the right emphasis in training and to allow the training to be monitored
more easily, several of the microcycles in this period become 3 to 4-week
competition mesocycles.

In today’s game, given the heavy burden placed on players in terms of the number of matches
played (many players are involved in at least two matches per week), it is necessary to
program recovery and regeneration cycles into the mesocycle, especially when working with
young players. When players are being developed, learning mesocycles are always
programmed into the schedule.

Example: Three-week cycle with the main emphasis on technical aspects: receiving the
ball, controlling on the turn and delivering the first pass. Together with the physical
and competition-related objectives fixed this emphasis on technical elements remains a
priority in the cycle.

c) The transition period

 This period comes at the end of the season and can be thought of as an
“active rest”.
 This is the period when the level of performance drops off and where the
player has to be able to recover physically and mentally from the exertions of
playing competitive football.
 The period lasts between 4 to 8 weeks (depending on the country and the level
at which the players are playing).
This phase is scheduled after a period of competitive activity. However, bearing in
mind that 2 to 3 weeks’ absolute rest can be sufficient to cause general endurance
performance to drop by 20 to 25%. VO2max by 4 to 6%, as well as causing a decline
in overall strength and co-ordination qualities, it is also possible to arrange a program that
allows the players to maintain their fitness level with progressive physical activity.

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Examples:
– Phase 1, lasting between 7 and 14 days
After a few days’ complete break (this will depend on the player), introduce rest and
recovery with additional sports and passive activities (an excursion, cycling, swimming,
tennis, etc.).
– Phase 2, lasting between 10 and 20 days
Special and individual programs will be concentrating on endurance and muscle
strengthening. 3 to 4 sessions each week, lasting 45 to 60 minutes at 60 –70% of the
intensity required during the training phase. This phase also allows players who have
been out injured for a long period or on reduced training to return to performance level
during the final period of competition.

The stricture of microcycle training plan

The competition microcycle
The microcycle, which is a short, weekly training cycle, stretches over several days and
often a whole week. The microcycle should not be merely a repetition of the previous cycle;
it has to have a new foundation, and this also implies that some of the processes, methods
and forms of training have to be revamped as well. There obviously also has to be a change
with the workload in training.

Microcycles that are linked together over a 3 to 4-week period (thereby forming a
mesocycle) can differ from one week to the next. The content of the microcycle is often
determined by the team’s result, but also by other factors, such as the performance level
of the team as a whole or of individual players, or the weather, etc. It is always based on
the exertion–recovery process. With young players at the learning stage, the microcycle also
has to take into account whatever learning objectives have been fixed for the cycle.
The structuring of the microcycle :– physiological and physical aspects
• Always define the energy pathway that will form the physiological “focal point ” of
the session.
Example: Technical training with work on aerobic capacity (70–80%).

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 • Pay attention to the muscles/muscle groups and neuromuscular groups that are being
used.
• Begin the cycle, as soon as the match is over, with active recovery based on
oxygenation, cardio-respiratory endurance (basic aerobic endurance / aerobic
capacity) and muscular endurance (muscle strengthening).
• Work on strength, co-ordination and speed, but with emphasis on rest as well.
• The training “peak” (i.e. the most intensive training) should occur in the middle of
the cycle.
• Stimulate muscle toning at the end of the cycle and on the eve of competitive activity
(with work on reactive speed, alactic speed and co-ordination).
• Ensure that the emphasis is correctly weighted in the cycle (quantity and intensity).
• Reduce the workload in the second part of the cycle.
• Plan the recovery and energy regeneration phases.

Example of a workout in a microcycle adjusted for ball games

• Match (it is also possible to hold a brief body and muscle “wake-up session ” on the
morning of the match)
• Post-match wind-down, active recovery work (low-impact aerobic work)
• Strength (strengthening / power / plyometric work)
• Football / technical work / specific speed work (transformation work)
• Football / technical/tactical work / aerobic-anaerobic work (aerobic power)
• Aerobic endurance (recovery work, e.g. on a bike or another form of exercise)
• Rest period (possibly lasting 1 day and concluding the first half of the microcycle)
• Football / explosive speed and/or specific speed work (multi-form)
• Football / technical/tactical work (preparation for the match)
Examples of annual training plans can be found in the attached tables.

Example of an annual training plan (Football)

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Example of a competition microcycle with one match played per week (Football)

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The training session plan
The training session forms part of the microcycle and lies at the heart of the weekly
training plan. Each day, the coach has to structure and plan his session around his
objectives for that day, his medium and long term learning objectives, as well as taking
into account the physiological, physical and mental strains on the team. The training
session has to be varied – not in respect of the objectives, but certainly as far as the
methods and forms of training to be used are concerned. It should last between 80 and
100 minutes in total, depending on the type of session, the objectives and the training
cycle.

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The training session comprises three phases (Example, Football)
a) The warm-up or limbering-up phase
This is the preparation part of the session. It has to be progressive, with an initial
period of running and varied movement, with or without the ball, and at a slow to
moderate tempo to stimulate the body’s organs and systems. This is followed by
loosening up and co-ordination exercises; the tempo is then gradually increased with
exercises specifically adapted for football based on technical skills or on different game
situations. When working with young players, separate co-ordination and integrated
coordinated work with the ball must be included in the limbering-up phase.

There is nearly always a link between the content of the warm-up phase and the objectives
set for the performance phase.
This phase lasts between 15 and 20 minutes.

b) The performance phase

This is the main part of the session. During this period, the main emphasis is on
training and instruction, with clearly defined objectives. The content (games, drills and
learning activities) has to be tailored to the objectives, but it must come close to the real
match situation. Correct emphasis has to place on the various training activities, not only as
regards volume, but also the duration and intensity of the activities.

Coaches must ensure that during recovery periods, which are usually active, the players use
the ball as often as possible; this is especially the case for young players. At
training/development level, but mainly at pre-training/pre-development level, the
football played must be at the heart of the whole training process. It should take up
between 50% and 60% of the total duration of the session, although the coach must also
ensure that the players’ equip themselves with the necessary technical, tactical and
mental skills using progressive, analytical exercises. In training, play improves when there
is a better distribution between practice games on large and reduced-size pitches and training
exercises.

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Example: Once the players have completed repeated drills and gone through simulated match
situations in a training exercise that focuses on shooting at goal, a small-sided game will help
them to put the finishing skills that they have worked on into practice. Shooting on goal
should therefore be included as a topic of emphasis in the practice game, thereby allowing
the players to reproduce real match situations.
It is up to the coach to work out an optimum combination alternating between practice
games, analytical exercises and other forms of playing, or between separate forms of training
without the ball and integrated forms of training with the ball.

The duration of this phase varies. It generally lasts 50–60 minutes or up to 70 minutes,
depending on the objectives, the day on which the session is being held, the weather
conditions, local customs, and even how the coach feels.

c) The cooling-down phase

This is the phase of physical and mental relaxation. It usually takes place on the pitch and
includes some light group jogging and limbering down and muscle-stretching exercises. The
players then have hydration or energy drinks as the first step to aid recovery. This
phase serves an educative purpose with young players as well, in that it teaches them
about their own well-being and how to respect their bodies. It is also the moment chosen
by the coach to give his assessment of the session, to fix new objectives or simply to
communicate with his players. The duration varies between 10 and 15 minutes.

4.4. Recovery and regeneration training

As is the case with any form of effort, physical exertion calls for a period of rest and
recovery afterwards, to allow the individual to regain energy and rediscover his
strength. In sport, recovery is absolutely essential and forms an integral part of the training
process. In the planning of the training mesocycles and microcycles, “wind-down ” phases are
often programmed and held as part of specific sessions to help the players regenerate energy,
both biological and mental. These sessions are most frequently held on the day following
the match or in the middle of the week during a block of intense training, and even in a
micro-session immediately after the main training session during the cooling-down

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phase. If it is well planned, this recovery/regeneration process can help prevent slack
periods or fatigue and overtraining syndrome.
These sessions, which are also known as a “cooling-down ” or oxygenation session,
revolve around physical and mental recovery. The principal aims behind the sessions
are the following:
• Preventing and eliminating fatigue.
• Reducing the amount of lactic acid and other toxins in the muscles.
• Oxygenating the muscles (capillarisation, flushing out).
• Lowering stress
• Boosting concentration.
• Reducing the risks of injury.
• Regenerating and energizing the tissues

After intensive exertion, the muscles need at least 48 hours to restore their glycogen
reserves. It is, however, possible to lower this time by 24 to 30 hours with specific
oxygenation and recovery training, based around running or another form of aerobic exercise,
and with a carbohydrate-rich diet.

Different physical qualities can be restored their reserves, such as: Recovery s
Endurance (aerobic capacity) 24 to 30 hours
Endurance (aerobic power) 40 to 48 hours
Anaerobic alactic speed 24 hours
Anaerobic lactic speed 48 to 72 hours
Maximum muscle strength 40 to 48 hours
Speed – strength (explosive) 24 to 36 hours

Methods of Recovery Training (Regeneration)

a) On the day after a match or after an intense training session
• Light running, 50 to 60% of MHR (HR of 120 – 140), lasting between 20 and 30
minutes. If the running takes place in a rural setting or a forest, the quality of oxygenation
will be improved. This running can be substituted, especially with young players, by some

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light technical work: running, passing or foot tennis. Other additional activities, such as
cycling, swimming or water gymnastics, can prove beneficial for post-match wind-down.
Depending on the physical and mental state of the team, unrestricted (free) practice
games with no extra workload can be used to complement the running work.
Example: 15 to 20 minutes of running and 15 minutes of playing.

• Stretching / Mobility
Stretching causes the muscle tonus to normalize, the muscles to regain their shape, the
blood to circulate better and the regeneration process to kick in more easily. Stretching
time here is longer (15 to 30 seconds).

• Massage
After the active recovery phase (followed by a shower and possibly a hot bath), a massage is
obligatory. This massage session should last between 20 and 30 minutes; it eliminates
muscle contractures, and muscle tonus is regulated.

b) Immediately after training

• Light running is possible here (HR of 120 – 140), lasting between 6 to 12 minutes on the
pitch or a nearby location (hard surfaces should be avoided).
• Moderate or heavy stretching, depending on the session.
• Another activity: e.g. a penalty shooting session . When working with young players in
particular, the coaching staff should ensure that the players help to tidy away the equipment
used in training and clean the balls. These tasks help the players to return to a normal
emotional state, while also lowering their mental stress.

c) Active recovery during training

This recovery phase, immediately after an exercise or game, helps to eliminate waste
products caused by exercise (e.g. lactic acid) and helps to regenerate energy levels.
Based around walking, slow running, juggling and stretching exercises, this form of
recovery is recommended after speed exercises, shooting on goal (strength) and other
aerobic power sessions (i.e. running or playing on reduced-size pitches).

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d) Other methods of recovery and regeneration
• Additional, extracurricular pursuits away from normal football activities, such as
swimming, water gymnastics, cycling, walking in the mountains or at the seaside.
• Sauna, underwater massage, saltwater baths.
• Specially adapted diet and fluid intake ( providing carbohydrates, mineral salts and
vitamins) to be consumed as soon as possible after the match or training session (for
hydration purposes).
• Sleep (8 to 10 hours for a healthy, regenerating sleep)
• Relaxation techniques: self-hypnosis, breathing and concentration techniques and
yoga. These techniques are used on an individual basis.
• A healthy and balanced lifestyle, including leisure activities.

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TALENT IDENTFICATION AND STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ATHLETES
Growth, development and maturation are terms that can be used to describe changes starting at
conception and continuing through adulthood that occur in the body.
Children gradually develop a readiness for specific motor skill and type of exercise. This readiness
depends on factors such as neurological, cardiovascular and psychological development.
Training principle of the young group of sports persons have to be considered on the basis of
physiological development of various organs and systems. Understanding the principle of growth
and development helps in preparing their long term and short term training programs to achieve high
level performance in the long run. The training of growing children has to be different, and then the
adults and the children should not be taken as miniature adults.

5.1.1 GROWTH:
Growth involves the transformation of nutrients into living tissue. Growth of an individual may be
defined in terms of changes in the magnitude, gain in its mass or weight, increase in size of the
individual as a whole i.e. it is the measurable change in the size of the various body systems, for
example, muscles grow in size towards maturity. Growth can be estimated by change in physical and
physiology characteristics with age.
DEVELOPMENT
Development refers to differentiation along specialized lines of function, so it reflects the functional
changes that occur with growth. The degree of competence in a variety of performance –related area,
for example, developments of strength/ endurance with growth are:
Change on body composition Change in system

1. LBM 1. Skeletal
2. Physique 2. Circulator
3. Height 3. Muscular
4. Weight 4. Respiratory

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5. Body 5. etc

Development of
1. Speed
2. Strength
3. Endurance and other
performance related qualities
5.1.3 MATURATION:-
Maturation refers to the process of taking on the adult form and becoming fully functional, and is
defined by system or function being considered. For example, skeletal maturity refers to having a
fully developed skeletal system in which all bones have completed normal growth and ossification.
Where as sexual maturity refers to having a fully functional reproductive system. The state of child ’s
or adolescent’s maturity can be defined by, chronological age, skeletal age and the state of sexual
maturation.
In general, training can be improve different physical qualities, includes the strength, aerobic
capacity and anaerobic capacity, etc of the young athletes. Training programs for children and
adolescents should be designed specifically for each age group, keeping in mind the developmental
factors associated with that age.

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5.1.4. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT OF YOUNG ATHLETE

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Children growing and developing not only physically, but also they grow up and develop mentally
and socially. Different groups of people become more or less important as children grow. These
groups and individuals are sometimes called “significant other” because of the powerful influence
they can have on children. Significant others include parents, teachers, other children and coaches,
all of whom may have different attitudes towards a child. Changing situation and information form
these different sources means that children frequently have to adapt their image of themselves.

INFLUENCE OF OTHERS
a) Parents- Particularly in child’s early years, parents are the most important and influential figures
in children’s lives. As children grow they become more independent of their parents and parental
influence becomes shared with the influence of other. Parents, however, remain an important part of
how children see sport and most children want their parents to be pleased with them and their efforts.
b) Other children - The influence of other children becomes stronger as children become more
independent. The relationships which develop also change in nature at different stages of
development at different ages:
In infancy and early childhood ( 0-5 years ) : Children are self centered and expect other to adapt
to and meet their needs. Cooperative playa is absent. Children play alongside each other rather than
together.
In middle childhood ( 6-9 years ) : Friendship groups become bigger, but are still quite small.
Other children become more important and they learn to compare themselves with other “to see
who’s best”.
In late childhood (10-13 years): Friends become more important. A great of social contacts are
built and they may do sport .because their friends do. They work well together but become more
aware of differences in ability.
Adolescent (13-20 years): Peer groups can become the dominant influence. This frequently causes
conflict between adolescent and adults. Group members may work together very effectively.
C) The coach: Coaches teach new and exciting activities, and reveal new abilities, they can assume
a significance in children’s lives second only to that of the family. This may be particularly true
where sport becomes especially important to the child and the coach –athlete relationship continues
for long time. Coaches should be aware that they are in a position both to build confidence and to
destroy it with a few words, or even a look.

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 TALENT IDENTIFICATION OF YOUNG ATHLETES
Talent identification refers to the process of recognizing current participants with the potential to
become elite players (athletes). It entails to predicting performance over various periods of time by
measuring physical, physiological, psychological and sociological attributes as well as technical
abilities either alone or in.

A key question is whether the individual has the potential to benefit from a systematic or programme
of support and training. Talent selection involves the ongoing process of identifying players at
various stages that demonstrates prerequisite levels of performance for inclusion in a given squad or
team. Selection involves choosing the most appropriate individual or group of individuals to carry
out a task within a specific content.

There are some specific principles to consider when looking for group of children with talent.
 Physical activity stimulates growth; children need a variety of general movement
experiences.
 Children with wide variety of movement patterns in early life will most likely be ably to
efficiently master complex movement patterns in sport in their later years.
 Structural and functional growths are factors which affect athletic performance.
 The intensity, length and frequency of exposure to an activity are essential
components .of growth in that activity.

TALENT IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

Usually experienced coaches have develop their own subjective criteria to “eyeball “ talent or
potential skill, i.e. one athletes seems more coordinated than others, appears faster or stronger than
other, seems to have “ right “ attitude.
Performance in competition usually provides this opportunity to evaluate talent. A coach may even
have developed a set of basic tests to help quantify the skill or attributes that are important. For
example, the athlete can run a test distance faster than a standard, or the athlete has body
measurements that suit a particular sport, or the athlete has certain physiological attributes such as
high maximal oxygen cons consumption , that distinguish .him /her from others.

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There is a continuing debate about the use of field-based versus laboratory test. The general
philosophy reflected in the literature is that field – based tests should for initial screening and that
the results of laboratory –based procedures on a more select group of individuals.

Categories of talent identification test include:

a) Morphological ( Body measurement ): Mass , Height , Length and interrelationship among
segment length of (limbs , trunk ), fat – free mass, percent of fat.
b) Physiological measurements: Maximal aerobic capacity, maximal anaerobic capacity, muscle
fiber typing, strength, power, speed, flexibility.
c) Motor Leering (Perceptual) measurements: Coordination, balance, kinesthetic sense, visual
acuity, reaction time.
d) Psychological measures: an ability to handle stress, courage, commitment, goal orientation ,
willingness to work , readiness , self concept and coachability.
5.2.2 TESTING PROCEDURES
Before performing the test, the athlete must complete a proper dynamic warm –up. A suggested
standard warm-up rout line will be designed for use in testing programs for small and large group .It
is important that the tests are carried out properly and measurements are made with care. Also it is
essential that the same order and timing of test is adhered to for every session and that tests take
place under fair environmental condition.
Example: The following tests Battery are suggested for talent identification in basketball program.
 Body size and shape – ( To assess body shape type )
 Height
 Sitting Height
 Body mass
 Body fat assessment
 Arm span
 Catch --- ( A test of hand –eye coordination )
 Basketball throw ( A test of dynamic upper body strength )
 Vertical Jump ( A accepted test of explosive power )
 One step vertical jump ( Measures the explosiveness and is also a great indicator of speed )
 Agility run ( To set speed of lateral movement and total agility )

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 20m Sprint ( To assess linear running speed and mechanics )
 Multistage Fitness Test ( An accepted test of cardiovascular endurance )
 A repeat reaction time test to be developed using the unique capabilities of the speed fusion
equipment.

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