IGCSE Physics Paper 6

Commonly tested topics

1. General Physics
● Measurement of physical quantities
● Springs & Balances
● Timing, Motion or Oscillation
2. Thermal Physics
● Cooling and heating
3. Electricity and Magnetism
● Electric circuit of a resistor
● Electric circuit of a potential divider
4. Wave properties
● Optic equipment such as mirrors, prisms or lenses
5. Procedure using a simple apparatus, in situation where the method may not
be familiar to you
 What are the skills needed to tackle the exam?

1. Skills regarding handling the experiment

● How to measure the length/thickness/diameter using the suitable tool?
● Measuring length
● Measuring the thickness of thin object
● Measuring the diameter of a cylinder or a sphere
● Measuring the diameter of ball bearings
● Measuring circumference of a cylindrical-shaped object (cup, test tube...)
● How to check that the ruler is vertical to the bench?
● How to check that the ruler is horizontal to the bench?
● How to measure the volume?
● Liquids
● Regular solids
● Irregular solids
● Measuring cylinder
● Displacement can
● How to measure the mass?
● How to measure the time?
● How to read results on Ammeter and Voltmeter?
● What are the electricity symbols?
2. Skills regarding handling the data

● Calculation skills

● Significant Figures and rounding

● Calculating the average according to SF
● Experimental accuracy limit (within & beyond)

● Graphing skills

● How to best represent and plot the data?

● How to make line fitting?
● How to calculate the gradient/slope (triangle method)?
● How to describe the relation represented by the graph?
● Linear
● Direct
● Inverse
● Graph with x/y reciprocals of inverse relation (Direct)
● Tabulating data skills (making a table)
3. Experiments
Aim of the experiment
Apparatus
The procedure of the experiment
Precautions to be taken into consideration
Accuracy precautions
Safety precautions
Difficulties and how to overcome them?
Possible causes of error (inaccuracy)
Conditions kept constant for fair comparison OR to repeat the experiment
 1. Skills regarding handling the experiment

● How to measure the length?

Measuring the length of an object:
I. The ruler (up to 30 cm)
Accuracy: 0.1 cm = 1 mm
The ruler should be placed as close to the
object as possible.
The eye must be directly above the mark on
the scale or the thickness of the ruler
causes parallax error.
When measuring extensions (of springs, for
example), it is best to record
the actual scale readings for the stretched and relaxed lengths, and then work
out the extension afterwards.
II. The micrometer screw gauge (up to 2 cm)
Accuracy: 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm
Can be used to measure small objects in the millimeter range.
One revolution on the drum (50 divisions) = one division on the shaft (0.5mm)
i.e. one drum division = 0.5/50 = 0.01 mm (accuracy).
The total reading = shaft scale reading + drum scale reading ×(accuracy)
A friction clutch ensures that the jaws always exert the same force on an object
and over-tightening does not occur.
Before making measurement,
check to ensure that the reading
is zero when the
jaws are closed, otherwise a zero
error must be allowed for where a
reading is
taken.
b) Measuring thickness of a thin object:
Multiples can be measured and then divided to find an average value. For
example, to obtain the average thickness of one page of a book, measure the
thickness of 20 pages and divide your result by 20.

c) Measuring the diameter of a cylinder or a sphere:

To measure the diameter of a sphere or a cylinder, place it between two
vertical blocks and take the difference between the two readings at the edges
of it.

d) Measuring Diameter of ball bearings:

To measure the diameter of ball bearings collect them together in a row between
two vertical blocks, measure the total length and then divide by
the number of balls to get the ball’s diameter.
e) How to check that the ruler is vertical
to the bench?
By using set square method: put the set
square (right-angle triangle) so
that one side of the angle is parallel to the
bench, while the other side of the right angle
is parallel to the meter rule
B. How to measure the circumference of a
cylindrical-shaped object (cup, test tube...)?
To measure a circumference of a
cylindrical-shaped object, wind a string 10 times
around it then unwind it, measure the length of
the string and divide by 10. The string should be
thin, tangent and without spacing between
turns.

Reasons for inaccuracy:

Using thick string
The marks are thick
Leaving space between turns
Winding turns at angles
Stretching of the string
Precautions:
Use thin string
Thin marks
Tangent turns without spacing
Take more number of turns
Make sure that the string isn’t stretched

Note: Dividers could be used if there is a difficulty using the measuring tool directly
or when the distance is not easy-to-access. The divider is kept fixed and then
measured by the rule.
C. How to measure the volume?
1) Volume of liquids
The volume of relatively large volumes is measured using measuring
Cylinder
(a). Small volumes are measured using a pipette or a burette
(b).
The unit of volume is ml. 1 ml = 1cm3

, 1 liter = 1dm3
.
The following precautions should be taken into consideration:
The measuring cylinder must be vertical by setting on a horizontal
bench.
The eyes should be perpendicular to the scale to avoid parallax
The reading should be taken at the bottom of the meniscus of the
liquid surface unless for mercury, it should be taken at the top of the meniscus.
2) Volume of regular solids:
Volume of a rectangular block = Length × width × Height
Volume of a sphere of radius R = 4/3πR3
Volume of a cylinder of radius R and height H= πR2H

3) Volume of irregular solids:

By using measuring cylinder (Accuracy 1cm3):
Fill the measuring cylinder with some water with a volume
V1.
Insert the solid gently in the cylinder and make sure it is
totally
immersed.
Measure the volume of the solid and the water V2.
The volume of the solid is V2 – V1.

By using displacement can and measuring cylinder:

When the solid is large to be inserted in the
cylinder.
Fill the displacement can to its full capacity.
Insert the solid gently in the displacement can
and collect the
volume of water that floods from the can in an
empty measuring
cylinder.
Take the volume reading in the measuring
cylinder which is the
volume of the solid.
Note: in both methods, if the solid traps air inside it so that some volume
of air cannot be occupied by the liquid, the measured volume
is greater than the real volume of the solid.

D. How do you measure the mass?

1. Mass can be measured by a digital top-pan balance, which gives a direct
reading of mass placed on the pan.
2. The unit of mass is kg = 1000 g
3. The mass of a very light object like a pin is determined by finding the mass of
large number of these objects and then divided by the number of object to
get the average mass of a single object.
Note:
The balance should be clean, horizontal and reads zero before applying
a mass on it.
A digital top-pan balance is accurate to the size of the smallest mass which
can be measured on the scale setting you are using, probably 1 g or 0.1 g.

E. How to measure the time?

Long times (hours) are measured using a clock or a watch.

Shorter times (up to one hour) are measured using a stopwatch. It should
be reset to zero before pressing start: otherwise a correction should be
performed.
Very short times (up to s sec) are measured using electronic /digital timer
F. How to read results on Ammeter and Voltmeter?
An ammeter measures electric current
The unit of current is ampere (A)
An ammeter should be placed in series with the device in which the current is
to be measured.
A voltmeter measures potential difference (p.d.).
The unit of potential difference is the volt (V).
A voltmeter should be placed in parallel with the device across which the p.d. is
to be measured.
There are two types of Ammeters/Voltmeters, analogue and digital.

If the analogue meter is used, the accuracy = 1 division value.

The division value = difference between two successive numbers on the
scale/number of divisions between them.

For the upper scale in figure the division value= (2-0)/10= 0.2 V= the accuracy.
For the lower scale in figure the division value= (1-0)/10= 0.1 V= the accuracy.

As with rulers, the eye should be immediately above the pointer when taking a
reading to avoid introducing parallax errors; if there is a mirror behind the
pointer, the needle and its image should coincide when you take a reading.
Check that the meter reads zero when there is no current; adjust the screw at
the base of the pointer until it reads zero.
Digital meters allow different ranges to be selected and the display gives
measurement in whatever units have been chosen. The reading will be accurate to
the last figure on the display, so for small currents and
voltages it will be more accurate to use the mA or mV setting.

Tips for using meters in electrical circuits:

Construct circuits with the power switched off or battery disconnected
and the meter last.
Check that meters are connected with
the correct polarity and are set to their
lower sensitivity initially.

Set the power supply output to zero before you switch it on.
G. What are the electricity symbols?
 2. Skills regarding handling the data

A. Calculation skills:
a) Significant Figures and rounding
Note: Always show answers to 2 or 3 significant figures. Double check all
calculations at the end of the test and check that you have given the correct
unit.
When doing calculations, your answer should have the same number of
significant figures as the measurements used in the calculation. For example,
if your calculator gives an answer of 1.23578, this should be given as 1.2 if
the measurements on which you based your calculations have two
significant figures and 1.24 if your measurements have three significant figures.
Example: if you measure lengths in mm, then:

When you use a rule, no SF is allowed to the right of the decimal point
as the accuracy is only 1mm. 15.7 mm should be written as 16.0 mm.
When you use a micrometer, only 2 SFs are allowed to the right of the
decimal point as the accuracy is only 0.01 mm. 15.73 mm should be
written as 15.73 mm and 15.77mm is rounded to 15.80 mm.

If values of different numbers of SFs are used to calculate a quantity, quote

your answer to the smallest number of SFs.
If a number is expressed in standard notations, the number of significant
figures is the number of digits before the power of 10; for example,
6.24×102 has three significant figures.
In deciding the least SF, you look at the following figure; if that is less than
5. You round down (1.23 becomes 1.2) but if it is 5 or above, you round up
(1.235 becomes 1.24).
b) Calculating the average according to SFs:
Sum the values for a quantity you have measured and divide the sum by the
number of values to obtain the average.
For example if you measure the length of a pendulum as 81.5 cm and
81.6 cm, then:
The value has been given to 3 SFs because that was the accuracy of the
individual measurements on which the calculation was based.

c) Experimental accuracy limit (below & beyond)

Subtract the smaller number from the greater number.
Divide the result by the greater number
Multiply the result by 100 to obtain the percentage error.
If the percentage is below 10%, then the results are equal within the
experimental accuracy.
If the percentage is beyond 10%. Then the results are not equal within the
experimental accuracy.
Example: An experiment is performed to determine the focal length of a
lens by two different methods.
B. Graphing skills
a) How to best represent and plot the data?
You will need about 6 points taken over as large a range as possible to
plot a graph.

Choose scales that make it easy to plot the points and use as much of the
graph paper as possible (at least half of X axis and half of Y axis unless
more) but don’t use an awkward scale to force the graph to take up all
the grid. If your range of values is for example 89 to 170, you don’t need
to start at zero, start at 80.
Make sure you label each axis of graph with the name and unit of the
quantity being plotted e.g. Resistance / Ω (Don’t write Resistance (Ω),
use the forward slash “/”).
Plot all points to within 1⁄2 small square (examiner checks this very
carefully).
Mark the data points clearly with a dot in a circle or a cross with a sharp
pencil.
Join up your points with a single, continuous, sharp and smooth line or
Curve.
b) How to make a line fitting?

In practice, points plotted on a graph from actual measurements may not lie
exactly on a straight line due to experimental error.

The best straight line is then drawn through them such that they are equally
distributed about it; this automatically averages the results.

Do not force the line through the origin unless the graph should go through
the origin (for example this is fine in the case of someone starting a stopwatch at a
start line if you are plotting time against displacement).

If possible, repeat any anomalous measurement/calculation to check that

they have been recorded and/or calculated properly or try to identify the
reason for the anomaly.
c) How to calculate the gradient/slope (triangle method)?
The slope or gradient of a straight-line graph can be determined by the
triangle method.
Use as long length of line as possible to determine the gradient from the
ratio of the vertical (rise) to the horizontal (run) of the triangle chosen.

d) How to describe the relation represented by the graph?

 I. Linear:
The straight line equation is:
Y = mx + c
where, m is the slope/gradient and c is constant. The constant c represents
the intersect point with the Y axis (at X = 0).
X and Y are called to have a linear dependence relation.

T:
 Inverse proportionality:

If the relation between X and Y is:

For the graph above, YX = 12 for all the X and Y values. It represents an
INVERSE proportionality relationship.
If, however, 1/X is plotted against Y (or X is plotted against 1/Y) then
a straight line through the origin is obtained.
 Table skills:
Numerical values should be given to the number of significant figures
appropriate to the measuring device.
Column headings in tables of readings must be headed with the quantity
and unit as in these examples: I/A, or t/s, or y/m.
Any calculated quantity should have the least number of SFs of the
quantities that were involved in the calculation (or at most one more).
If an average is calculated, it should be written to the least number of
decimal places of the averaged numbers.
Q1. How to check for zero error in
(ii) Micrometer screw gauge
(iii) Meter rule
(iv) Stopwatch
Ans:
t.
(ii) Before placing an object, turn the thimble until the spindle and anvil meet. If the
reading on the thimble is not aligned with the zero mark on the datum line, a zero
error is present.
(iii) Refer to this.
(iv) Just check what the stopwatch reads on reset. If it isn't 00:00, a zero-error is
present.
Readings are subtracted accordingly.
Q2/3. How to check for zero error in
(i) Voltmeter
(ii Ammeter?
Ans: For both of them, disconnect them (from the circuit) and check if the pointer
is pointing
at the zero mark on the scale. If they aren't, a zero-error is present.
Q4/5. Why is the pointer reading ammeter/voltmeter gently tapped before
taking a reading?
Ans: To reduce the friction between the needle and the pivot.
Q6. When making a ray diagram, why should rays and normal be as thin as
possible?
Ans: Thin lines make it possible to obtain precise readings; with thick lines it is
difficult to
measure accurate angles (of incidence, reflection etc.).
Q7. What is the purpose of a ratchet in a micrometer?
Ans: To prevent undue pressure from being exerted.
Q8. A liquid reaches the maximum temperature quickly. Give one reason.
Ans: It is due to convection currents. The water expands and gains heat energy and
its
density lowers down, and it moves upwards and the lower part of the apparatus is
replaced
by cold water which has higher density.
Q9. Why is the temperature 20°C marked on the measuring cylinder?
Ans: The scale on the cylinder is calibrated to give accurate readings when the
liquid is at
20°C.
Q10. Why is an image measured from a position behind the screen rather than
front?
Ans: If it was measured from the front, it would block the rays of light and disturb
the
apparatus.
Q11: WHAT IS A MEANT “GOOD ELECTRICAL” CONNECTION?
Ans: It means that the components are connected properly and are tightly screwed
in the
circuit. This also reduces the circuit's internal resistance.
Q14: STATE ONE PRECAUTION, OTHER THAN AVOIDING PARALLAX ERROR THAT
SHOULD TAKE WHEN USING A SCHOOL LAB THERMOMETER, TO ENSURE
ACCURATE MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE?
Ans: Check the mercury level when the reading becomes steady. If the
thermometer is in a liquid, make sure it is 1/3rd immersed and that the liquid is
stirred before taking the reading.
Q16: WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF “LENGTH” OR “MASS” ON TIME PERIOD OF
PENDULUM?
Ans: Length - The period of a pendulum increases with length.
Mass - No effect.
Q17: WHAT ARE THE CONDITIONS TO GET ACCURATE FIXED POINTS?
Ans: Immerse 1/3rd of the thermometer into the funnel containing ice, avoid parallax
error when reading the temperature on the thermometer, use ice shavings to
ensure good contact between the bulb of the thermometer and the ice, wait for the
temperature to become steady before taking the reading, etc. Ice point is 0°C and
steam point 100°C.

Q18: WHY WHILE DETERMINING THE BOILING POINT OF WATER, THERMOMETER

IS HELD IN STEAM?
Ans: Because the steam is pure and has a specific melting point. If the reading is
taken from the water, it may not be accurate as water may not be pure.

Q20: WHAT OBSERVATION MADE DURING THE EXPERIMENT WOULD CONFIRM

THAT THE GIVEN METAL IS A GOOD CONDUCTOR OF HEAT?
Ans: Experiment - Using 4 rods (copper, iron, glass and wood) which have the same
dimensions, coat one end of the rods evenly with wax. Then fill a tray of water in
boiling water and submerge the end of the rods in the tray. From observation, the
wax melts the farthest along the copper rod, showing that copper (a metal) is a
good conductor of heat
while the other rods (insulators) are poor conductors of heat.
Q22: WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF LAGGING?
Ans: Lagging is done to provide heat insulation (in boilers, pipes etc.) and trap heat
from escaping.
Q23: HOW YOU MIGHT CHECK THAT YOU HAVE MADE GOOD ELECTRICAL
CONNECTIONS?
Ans: Ensure that all components are screwed in tightly and that they work properly.
If the
resistance of the circuit is low, the electrical connection is usually good.
Q24: GIVE A REASON FOR MAKING THE LENGTH OF EACH NORMAL AT LEAST
6CM?
Ans: This will help in measuring angles accurately as the radius of a protractor is
normally 6cm.
Q25: WHAT ADVANTAGE IS THERE IN USING TRACING PAPER FOR THE SCREEN?
Ans: The image of the object can be viewed without obstruction of light. Also, the
size of the image can be conveniently measured by using a meter rule on the back
of the tracing paper without disturbing the apparatus.

Q26: WHY THE EYE NOT PLACED TOO CLOSE TO THE END OF THE RULE?
Ans: If the object is too close, the distance between the object and retina is low and
hence
the image of the object is not formed on the retina, so we cannot see the object
clearly.
Q27: WHAT WOULD BE THE EFFECT ON THE IMAGE IF THE CENTRE OF THE
OBJECT AND THE CENTRE OF THE LENS ARE NOT AT THE SAME HEIGHT?
Ans: If they aren't parallel to each other, the image will be partial or blurred.
Q28: WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF VARIABLE RESISTOR?
Ans: To adjust the current in the circuit.
Q30: BEFORE CLOSING THE SWITCH, WHY IS THE RHEOSTAT ADJUSTED TO ITS
MAXIMUM VALUE?
Ans: This makes sure minimum current f lows in the circuit, so when the circuit is
closed the
ammeter doesn't get damaged.
Q31: WHY IS A COMPASS TAPPED WHEN BEING USED?
Ans: To eliminate friction on the compass needle.
Q32: WHAT IS THE ADVANTAGE OF USING SMALLER COMPASS?
Ans: It can be used to align the weak magnetic fields.
Q33: WHY SHOULD CARD MOVE FREELY ON THE PIVOT? (referring to a card
being
hung from a hole on a support)
Ans: To ensure the card does not stick to the pivot due to friction (which ensures
that the card is hanging in equilibrium position).
Q34: WHAT IS PLUMBLINE?
Ans: A line from which a weight is suspended to determine the depth or verticality.
Q35: WHY THE PLUMBLINE SHOULD HANG SO THAT IT ALMOST TOUCHES THE
CARD?

Ans: This will help in avoiding parallax error.

Q37: WHAT IS THE MEANING OF C WRITTEN ON A THERMOMETER?
Ans: It means the temperature is measured in Celsius.
Q38: WHAT PRECAUTIONS ARE TO BE TAKEN WHILE MAKING A CIRCUIT?
Ans: Ensure that all connections are tight, make sure the components are functional
and clean, use a DC supply with low voltage (to minimize potential hazards), make
sure the power supply has a rating nearly equal to the lamp or bulb, make sure
ammeter is in series and voltmeter is in parallel, etc.

Q41: HOW COULD LID HELPS TO KEEP THE CONTENTS OF LAGGED CONTAINER
FROZEN?
Ans: It prevents heat from the surroundings entering the container.
Q42: WHY THERMOMETER HELD IN STEAM FOR DETERMINING THE UPPER FIXED
POINT OF THERMOMETER?
Ans: Because the steam is pure and has a specific melting point. If the reading is
taken from the water, it may not be accurate as water may not be pure.
Q43: WHAT COULD CAUSE THE POINTER TO AT POSITION BELOW 0?
Ans: By reversing the polarity..
Q44: STATE THE PRECAUTIONS WHILE TAKING A READING FROM
i. Voltmeter
ii. Ammeter
Ans: Check for zero-error, tap them before taking the reading, avoid parallax-error,
etc.

Q46: HOW WILL YOU “RECORD” READINGS?

Ans: Using the appropriate instruments, the readings are recorded and noted (on a
piece of
paper, etc.)
Q47: HOW WILL YOU DISPLAY / REPRESENT YOUR READING?
Ans: The relevant quantities can be tabulated.
Q48: HOW WILL YOU FIND RESULT FROM YOUR REPRESENTED READINGS?
Ans: A graph can be plotted between the relevant quantities and results can be
obtained by
deducing data from the graph (e.g. averages, a quantity from the graph, etc.).
Q49: WHAT PRECAUTIONS WOULD YOU TAKE WHILE TAKING READINGS FROM
MEASURING INSTRUMENTS? (GENERAL PRECAUTIONS)
Ans: Avoid parallax error, wait for a steady reading, remember to add/subtract if
there are zero-errors, etc.
Q50: WHAT IS AN OSCILLATION?
Ans: The process of the bob swinging back and forth steadily and coming back to
its original position.
Q52: HOW WILL YOU MEASURE THE LENGTH OF A PENDULUM?
Ans: Using a meter rule and set-square. Place the meter rule close to the thread
and note the length of the upper and lower ends of the pendulum (l1 and l2). The
length l is calculated by l2 - l1.
Q53: WHAT IS THE USE OF SET SQUARE?
Ans: They are used to align the ruler to get the correct reading. They help to avoid
parallax errors.

Q55: WHAT IS A MEASUREMENT?

Ans: The size, amount of degree of a physical quantity.
Q56/57: What is an accurate/precise reading?
Ans: Accuracy - the measure of how close you are to the true answer.
Precision - the measure of how closely all your individual measurements match
each other.

Q70. What factors to consider before measuring something?

Ans: The magnitude should not exceed the limit of the instrument, and the
instrument must be sensitive enough to detect a meaningful measurement.
Q80. When iron fillings are used, why must the current be large?
Ans: So that the field is stronger and hence the field can be detected.
Q81. Why must smaller fillings be used?
Ans: So that the weaker magnetic fields are also shown.
Q82. Why must the oscillations be counted from center of swing?
Ans: The chain is moving the fastest at the center of swing.

Q83. Suggest a suitable number of oscillations, with reason.

Ans: 20. The time for one oscillation is too short to obtain an accurate reading and
so 20
oscillations are timed instead.
Q84. Why is the reading in a pendulum repeated?
Ans: This will help ensure a more accurate average value for one oscillation (T).
Q85. Why is oil stirred during heating?
Ans: To give uniform heating to the mixture.
Q86. Why is the oil heated gently?
Ans: So that an equal change in the temperature will result in a small change of
temperature in the oil.