Course Objectives

• To Understand The Various Characteristics of Intelligent

Agents
• To Learn About The Different Search Strategies In AI
• To Learn To Represent Knowledge In Solving AI Problems
• To Understand The Different Ways Of Designing Software
Agents And Prolog
• To Learn The Machine Learning Techniques
 Course outcomes

• Analyze And Design Problems Using Various AI Techniques

• Solve The Prediction And Classifications Problems
• Understand The Prolog Programming
 UNIT I INTRODUCTION
Module 1 Introduction–Definition - Future of
Artificial Intelligence – Characteristics
of Intelligent Agents - Typical Intelligent
Agents – Problem Solving Approach to
Typical AI problems.
Module 1
Introduction – Definition

INTRODUCTION TO ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Introduction
• AI & ML most popular technologies in the 21st century.

• Artificial intelligence is concerned with the design of

intelligence in an artificial device. The term was coined
by John McCarthy in 1956.

• Intelligence is the ability to acquire, understand and

apply the knowledge to achieve goals in the world.
Introduction
• Artificial Intelligence (AI)
Field of Computer Science that deals with developing
Intelligent Machines that can behave like Humans,
such as Speech Recognition, Learning and Planning,
Text Recognition, etc.

• Machine Learning (ML)

• Subset of Artificial Intelligence that enables the
Machines to use Past Data or Experience and make
a Prediction and learn more Accurately.
What is AI?
❑Branch of computer science by which we can create
intelligent machines which can behave like a human,
think like humans, and able to make decisions.
❑AI exists when a machine can have human based
skills such as learning, reasoning, and solving
problems.
Realtime Example:
❑Google Maps
❑Autopilot - Boeing plane involves only seven minutes of
human-steered flight.
❑Spam Filters
Goals of AI
❑Replicate Human Intelligence

❑Solve Knowledge-intensive Tasks

❑An Intelligent Connection Of Perception And Action

❑Building A Machine Which Can Perform Tasks That

Requires Human Intelligence Such As:

❑ Proving A Theorem

❑ Playing Chess

❑ Plan Some Surgical Operation

❑ Driving A Car In Traffic

What Contributes to AI?
Programming Without & With AI
Programming Without AI Programming With AI
A computer program without AI A computer program with AI can
can answer answer the generic questions it
the specific questions it is meant is meant to solve.
to solve.
AI programs can absorb new
modifications by putting highly
independent pieces of
Modification in the program leads
information together. Hence you
to change in its structure.
can modify even a minute piece
of information of program without
affecting its structure.
Modification is not quick and
Quick and Easy program
easy. It may lead to affecting the
modification.
program adversely.
 Pros & Cons
❑High Accuracy with Less ❑High Cost
Errors: ❑Can't Think Out Of The
❑High-speed Box
❑High Reliability ❑No Feelings And
❑Useful For Risky Areas Emotions
❑Digital Assistant ❑Increase Dependency
❑Useful As A Public Utility On Machines:
❑No Original Creativity
Definitions of AI
Sub Areas of AI
❑ Game Playing

❑ Speech Recognition

❑ Computer Vision

❑ Expert Systems

❑ Mathematical Theorem Proving

❑ Natural Language Understanding

❑ Scheduling And Planning

❑ Artificial Neural Networks

❑ Machine Learning
Application of AI

❑ Business; Financial Strategies

❑ Engineering: Check Design, Offer Suggestions To
Create New Product, Expert Systems For All
Engineering Problems
❑ Manufacturing: Assembly, Inspection And
Maintenance
❑ Medicine: Monitoring, Diagnosing
❑ Education: In Teaching
❑ Fraud Detection
❑ Object Identification
❑ Information Retrieval
❑ Space Shuttle Scheduling
Future Scope of AI

❑Cyber Security - Ensure In Curbing Hackers

❑Data Analysis - Prediction
❑Transport - Tesla
❑Various Jobs - Robotic Process Automation
❑Emotion Bots - Cortana & Alexa
❑Marketing & Advertising – Flipkart
1.1 INTRODUCTION

INTELLIGENCE ARTIFICIAL
INTELLIGENCE
It is a natural process. It is programmed by
humans.
It is actually hereditary. It is not hereditary.
Knowledge is required for KB and electricity are
intelligence. required to generate output.
No human is an expert. We Expert systems are made
may get better solutions which aggregate many
from other humans. person’s experience and
ideas.

23
1.2 DEFINITION

• The study of how to make computers do things at which

at the moment, people are better.
• “Artificial Intelligence is the ability of a computer to act
like a human being”.

• Systems that think like humans

• Systems that act like humans
• Systems that think rationally.
• Systems that act rationally.

24
Definition

25
a. Intelligence - Ability to apply knowledge in order to
perform better in an environment.
b. Artificial Intelligence - Study and construction of agent
programs that perform well in a given environment, for a
given agent architecture.
c. Agent - An entity that takes action in response to precepts
from an environment.
d. Rationality - property of a system which does the “right
thing” given what it knows.
e. Logical Reasoning - A process of deriving new
sentences from old, such that the new sentences are
necessarily true if the old ones are true.

26
Four Approaches of Artificial Intelligence:

• Acting humanly: The Turing test approach.

• Thinking humanly: The cognitive modelling approach.
• Thinking rationally: The laws of thought approach.
• Acting rationally: The rational agent approach.

27
1.3 ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING TEST
APPROACH
• The Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing (1950), was
designed to provide a satisfactory operational definition
of intelligence.
• A computer passes the test if a human interrogator,
after posing some written questions, cannot tell whether
the written responses come from a person or from a
computer.

28
1.3 ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING TEST
APPROACH

Turing Test 29
1.3 ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING TEST
APPROACH
• natural language processing to enable it to
communicate successfully in English;
• knowledge representation to store what it knows or
hears;
• automated reasoning to use the stored information to
answer questions and to draw new conclusions
• machine learning to adapt to new circumstances and to
detect and extrapolate patterns.

30
1.3 ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING TEST
APPROACH
• Total Turing Test includes a video signal so that the
interrogator can test the subject’s perceptual abilities,
as well as the opportunity for the interrogator to pass
physical objects “through the hatch.” To pass the total
Turing Test, the computer will need
• computer vision to perceive objects, and robotics
to manipulate objects and move about.

31
1.3 ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING TEST
APPROACH
Thinking humanly: The cognitive modelling approach
• Analyse how a given program thinks like a human, we must have
some way of determining how humans think. The interdisciplinary
field of cognitive science brings together computer models from
AI and experimental techniques from psychology to try to
construct precise and testable theories of the workings of the
human mind.
• Although cognitive science is a fascinating field in itself, we are
not going to be discussing it all that much in this book. We will
occasionally comment on similarities or differences between AI
techniques and human cognition. Real cognitive science,
however, is necessarily based on experimental investigation of
actual humans or animals, and we assume that the reader only
has access to a computer for experimentation. We will simply
note that AI and cognitive science continue to fertilize each other,
especially in the areas of vision, natural language, and learning.
32
1.3 ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING TEST
APPROACH
Thinking rationally: The “laws of thought” approach

• The Greek philosopher Aristotle was one of the first to

attempt to codify ``right thinking,'' that is, irrefutable
reasoning processes. His famous syllogisms provided
patterns for argument structures that always gave correct
conclusions given correct premises.
• For example, ``Socrates is a man; all men are mortal;
therefore Socrates is mortal.''

• These laws of thought were supposed to govern the

operation of the mind, and initiated the field of logic.
33
1.3 ACTING HUMANLY: THE TURING TEST
APPROACH
Acting rationally: The rational agent approach

• Acting rationally means acting so as to achieve one's goals,

given one's beliefs. An agent is just something that
perceives and acts.
• The right thing: that which is expected to maximize goal
achievement, given the available information
• Does not necessary involve thinking.

• For Example - blinking reflex- but should be in the service

of rational action.

34
1.4 FUTURE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Transportation: Although it could take a decade or more to

perfect them, autonomous cars will one day ferry us from
place to place.
Manufacturing: AI powered robots work alongside humans
to perform a limited range of tasks like assembly and
stacking, and predictive analysis sensors keep equipment
running smoothly.
Healthcare: In the comparatively AI-nascent field of
healthcare, diseases are more quickly and accurately
diagnosed, drug discovery is sped up and streamlined,
virtual nursing assistants monitor patients and big data
analysis helps to create a more personalized patient
35
experience.
1.4 FUTURE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Education: Textbooks are digitized with the help of AI, early-

stage virtual tutors assist human instructors and facial
analysis gauges the emotions of students to help determine
who’s struggling or bored and better tailor the experience to
their individual needs.
Media: Journalism is harnessing AI, too, and will continue to
benefit from it. Bloomberg uses Cyborg technology to help
make quick sense of complex financial reports. The
Associated Press employs the natural language abilities of
Automated Insights to produce 3,700 earning reports stories
per year — nearly four times more than in the recent past

36
1.4 FUTURE OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Customer Service: Last but hardly least, Google is working

on an AI assistant that can place human-like calls to make
appointments at, say, your neighborhood hair salon. In
addition to words, the system understands context and
nuance.

37
1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLIGENT
AGENTS
• Situatedness
The agent receives some form of sensory input from its
environment, and it performs some action that changes its
environment in some way.
Examples of environments: the physical world and the
Internet.
• Autonomy
The agent can act without direct intervention by humans or
other agents and that it has control over its own actions
and internal state.

38
1.5 CHARACTERISTICS OF INTELLIGENT
AGENTS
• Adaptivity
1. The agent is capable of reacting flexibly to changes in
its environment;
2. taking goal-directed initiative (i.e., is pro-active), when
appropriate; and
3. Learning from its own experience, its environment, and
interactions with others.

• Sociability
• The agent is capable of interacting in a peer-to-peer
manner with other agents or humans

39
1.6 AGENTS AND ITS TYPES

Agent types
40
1.6 AGENTS AND ITS TYPES
• An agent is anything that can be viewed as perceiving its
environment through sensors and acting upon that
environment through actuators.
• Human Sensors:
• Eyes, ears, and other organs for sensors.
• Human Actuators:
• Hands, legs, mouth, and other body parts.
• Robotic Sensors:
• Mic, cameras and infrared range finders for sensors
• Robotic Actuators:
• Motors, Display, speakers etc

41
1.6 AGENTS AND ITS TYPES
An agent can be:

• Human-Agent: A human agent has eyes, ears, and other

organs which work for sensors and hand, legs, vocal tract
work for actuators.
• Robotic Agent: A robotic agent can have cameras, infrared
range finder, NLP for sensors and various motors for
actuators.
• Software Agent: Software agent can have keystrokes, file
contents as sensory input and act on those inputs and
display output on the screen.
• Hence the world around us is full of agents such as
thermostat, cell phone, camera, and even we are also
agents. Before moving forward, we should first know about
sensors, effectors, and actuators. 42
1.6 AGENTS AND ITS TYPES
Sensor: Sensor is a device which detects the change in the
environment and sends the information to other electronic
devices. An agent observes its environment through sensors.

Actuators: Actuators are the component of machines that

converts energy into motion. The actuators are only responsible
for moving and controlling a system. An actuator can be an
electric motor, gears, rails, etc.
Effectors: Effectors are the devices which affect the
environment. Effectors can be legs, wheels, arms, fingers,
wings, fins, and display screen.

43
1.6 AGENTS AND ITS TYPES

Effectors
44
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
• An environment is everything in the world which surrounds
the agent, but it is not a part of an agent itself. An
environment can be described as a situation in which an
agent is present.
• The environment is where agent lives, operate and provide
the agent with something to sense and act upon it.

45
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
Fully observable vs Partially Observable:

• If an agent sensor can sense or access the complete state of

an environment at each point of time then it is a fully
observable environment, else it is partially observable.
• A fully observable environment is easy as there is no need to
maintain the internal state to keep track history of the world.
• An agent with no sensors in all environments then such an
environment is called as unobservable.
• Example: chess – the board is fully observable, as are
opponent’s moves. Driving
• – what is around the next bend is not observable and hence
partially observable.

46
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
1. Deterministic vs Stochastic
• If an agent's current state and selected action can
completely determine the next state of the environment, then
such environment is called a deterministic environment.
• A stochastic environment is random in nature and cannot be
determined completely by an agent.
• In a deterministic, fully observable environment, agent does
not need to worry about uncertainty.

2. Episodic vs Sequential
• In an episodic environment, there is a series of one-shot
actions, and only the current percept is required for the
action.
• However, in Sequential environment, an agent requires
memory of past actions to determine the next best actions.
47
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
3. Single-agent vs Multi-agent

• If only one agent is involved in an environment, and

operating by itself then such an environment is called single
agent environment.
• However, if multiple agents are operating in an environment,
then such an environment is called a multi-agent
environment.
• The agent design problems in the multi-agent environment
are different from single agent environment.

48
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
4. Static vs Dynamic

• If the environment can change itself while an agent is

deliberating then such environment is called a dynamic
environment else it is called a static environment.
• Static environments are easy to deal because an agent does
not need to continue looking at the world while deciding for
an action.
• However for dynamic environment, agents need to keep
looking at the world at each action.
• Taxi driving is an example of a dynamic environment
whereas Crossword puzzles are an example of a static
environment.

49
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
5. Discrete vs Continuous

• If in an environment there are a finite number of precepts

and actions that can be performed within it, then such an
environment is called a discrete environment else it is called
continuous environment.
• A chess game comes under discrete environment as there is
a finite number of moves that can be performed.
• A self-driving car is an example of a continuous environment.

50
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
6. Known vs Unknown

• Known and unknown are not actually a feature of an

environment, but it is an agent's state of knowledge to
perform an action.
• In a known environment, the results for all actions are known
to the agent. While in unknown environment, agent needs to
learn how it works in order to perform an action.
• It is quite possible that a known environment to be partially
observable and an Unknown environment to be fully
observable.

51
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
7. Accessible vs. Inaccessible

• If an agent can obtain complete and accurate information

about the state's environment, then such an environment is
called an Accessible environment else it is called
inaccessible.
• An empty room whose state can be defined by its
temperature is an example of an accessible environment.
• Information about an event on earth is an example of
Inaccessible environment.

52
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
Task environments, which are essentially the "problems" to
which rational agents are the "solutions."
PEAS: Performance Measure, Environment, Actuators,
Sensors
Performance
• The output which we get from the agent. All the necessary
results that an agent gives after processing comes under its
performance.
Environment
• All the surrounding things and conditions of an agent fall in
this section. It basically consists of all the things under which
the agents work.

53
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
Actuators
• The devices, hardware or software through which the agent
performs any actions or processes any information to produce
a result are the actuators of the agent.

Sensors
• The devices through which the agent observes and perceives
its environment are the sensors of the agent.

54
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT

Examples of agent types and their PEAS descriptions

55
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
Rational Agent - A system is rational if it does the “right thing”.
Given what it knows.

Characteristic of Rational Agent

• The agent's prior knowledge of the environment.

• The performance measure that defines the criterion of
success.
• The actions that the agent can perform.
• The agent's percept sequence to date.

For every possible percept sequence, a rational agent should

select an action that is expected to maximize its performance
measure, given the evidence provided by the percept sequence
and whatever built-in knowledge the agent has.
56
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
• An omniscient agent knows the actual outcome of its actions
and can act accordingly; but omniscience is impossible in
reality.
• Ideal Rational Agent precepts and does things. It has a
greater performance measure.
• Eg. Crossing road. Here first perception occurs on both
sides and then only action. No perception occurs in
Degenerate Agent.
• Eg. Clock. It does not view the surroundings. No matter
what happens outside. The clock works based on inbuilt
program.

57
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
• Ideal Agent describes by ideal mappings. “Specifying which
action an agent ought to take in response to any given percept
sequence provides a design for ideal agent”.

• Eg. SQRT function calculation in calculator.

• Doing actions in order to modify future precepts-sometimes

called information gathering- is an important part of rationality.
• A rational agent should be autonomous-it should learn from its
own prior knowledge (experience).

58
1.7 PROPERTIES OF ENVIRONMENT
The Structure of Intelligent Agents

Agent = Architecture + Agent Program

Architecture = the machinery that an agent executes on.

(Hardware)
Agent Program = an implementation of an
agent function. (Algorithm, Logic – Software)

59
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
Agents can be grouped into four classes based on their degree
of perceived intelligence and capability :

1. Simple Reflex Agents

2. Model-Based Reflex Agents
3. Goal-Based Agents
4. Utility-Based Agents
5. Learning Agent

60
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
1. The Simple reflex agents

• The Simple reflex agents are the simplest agents. These

agents take decisions on the basis of the current percepts and
ignore the rest of the percept history (past State).
• These agents only succeed in the fully observable
environment.
• The Simple reflex agent does not consider any part of
percepts history during their decision and action process.
• The Simple reflex agent works on Condition-action rule, which
means it maps the current state to action. Such as a Room
Cleaner agent, it works only if there is dirt in the room.

61
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
1. The Simple reflex agents

• Problems for the simple reflex agent design approach:

❑ They have very limited intelligence

❑ They do not have knowledge of non-perceptual parts of the
current state
❑ Mostly too big to generate and to store.
❑ Not adaptive to changes in the environment.

62
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
1. The Simple reflex agents
• Condition-Action Rule − It is a rule that maps a state
(condition) to an action.
• Ex: if car-in-front-is-braking then initiate- braking.

63
A simple reflex agent
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
2. Model Based Reflex Agents
• The Model-based agent can work in a partially observable
environment, and track the situation.
• A model-based agent has two important factors:
• Model: It is knowledge about "how things happen in the
world," so it is called a Model-based agent.
• Internal State: It is a representation of the current state
based on percept history.
• These agents have the model, "which is knowledge of the
world" and based on the model they perform actions.
• Updating the agent state requires information about:
• How the world evolves
• How the agent's action affects the world.
64
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
2. Model Based Reflex Agents

A model-based reflex agent

65
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
3. Goal Based Agents
• The knowledge of the current state environment is not always
sufficient to decide for an agent to what to do.
• The agent needs to know its goal which describes desirable
situations.
• Goal-based agents expand the capabilities of the model-
based agent by having the "goal" information.
• They choose an action, so that they can achieve the goal.
• These agents may have to consider a long sequence of
possible actions before deciding whether the goal is achieved
or not. Such considerations of different scenario are called
searching and planning, which makes an agent proactive.

66
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
3. Goal Based Agents

A goal-based agent
67
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
4. Utility Based Agents
• These agents are similar to the goal-based agent but provide
an extra component of utility measurement (“Level of
Happiness”) which makes them different by providing a
measure of success at a given state.
• Utility-based agent act based not only goals but also the best
way to achieve the goal.
• The Utility-based agent is useful when there are multiple
possible alternatives, and an agent has to choose in order to
perform the best action.
• The utility function maps each state to a real number to check
how efficiently each action achieves the goals.

68
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
4. Utility Based Agents

A utility-based agent 69
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
5. Learning Agents
• A learning agent in AI is the type of agent which can learn
from its past experiences, or it has learning capabilities.
• It starts to act with basic knowledge and then able to act and
adapt automatically through learning.
• A learning agent has mainly four conceptual components,
which are:
a. Learning element: It is responsible for making improvements by
learning from environment
b. Critic: Learning element takes feedback from critic which describes
that how well the agent is doing with respect to a fixed performance
standard.
c. Performance element: It is responsible for selecting external action
d. Problem generator: This component is responsible for suggesting
actions that will lead to new and informative experiences.
70
1.8 TYPES OF AGENTS
5. Learning Agents
• Hence, learning agents are able to learn, analyze
performance, and look for new ways to improve the
performance.

Learning Agents 71
1.9 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO
TYPICAL AI PROBLEMS
Problem-solving agents
In Artificial Intelligence, Search techniques are universal
problem-solving methods. Rational agents or Problem-
solving agents in AI mostly used these search strategies or
algorithms to solve a specific problem and provide the best
result. Problem- solving agents are the goal-based agents and
use atomic representation. In this topic, wewill learn various
problem-solving search algorithms.
• Some of the most popularly used problem solving with the
help of artificial intelligence are:
1. Chess.
2. Travelling Salesman Problem.
3. Tower of Hanoi Problem.
4. Water-Jug Problem.
72
5. N-Queen Problem.
1.9 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO
TYPICAL AI PROBLEMS
Problem Searching

• In general, searching refers to as finding information one

needs.

• Searching is the most commonly used technique of problem

solving in artificial intelligence.

• The searching algorithm helps us to search for solution of

particular problem.

• Problem: Problems are the issues which comes across any

system. A solution is needed to solve that particular problem.

73
1.9 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO
TYPICAL AI PROBLEMS
Steps : Solve Problem Using Artificial Intelligence
• The process of solving a problem consists of five steps.
These are:

74
Problem Solving in Artificial Intelligence
1.9 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO
TYPICAL AI PROBLEMS
Defining The Problem: The definition of the problem must be
included precisely. It should contain the possible initial as well
as final situations which should result in acceptable solution.
1. Analyzing The Problem: Analyzing the problem and its
requirement must be done as few features can have
immense impact on the resulting solution.
2. Identification of Solutions: This phase generates
reasonable amount of solutions to the given problem in a
particular range.
3. Choosing a Solution: From all the identified solutions, the
best solution is chosen basis on the results produced by
respective solutions.
4. Implementation: After choosing the best solution, its
implementation is done.
75
1.9 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO
TYPICAL AI PROBLEMS
Measuring problem-solving performance

We can evaluate an algorithm’s performance in four ways:

Completeness: Is the algorithm guaranteed to find a solution

when there is one?
Optimality: Does the strategy find the optimal solution?
Time complexity: How long does it take to find a solution?
Space complexity: How much memory is needed to perform
the search?

76
1.9 PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH TO
TYPICAL AI PROBLEMS
Search Algorithm Terminologies
• Search: Searching is a step by step procedure to solve a
search-problem in a given search space. A search problem
can have three main factors:
1. Search Space: Search space represents a set of
possible solutions, which a system may have.
2. Start State: It is a state from where agent begins the
search.
3. Goal test: It is a function which observe the current state
and returns whether the goal state is achieved or not.
• Search tree: A tree representation of search problem is called
Search tree. The root of the search tree is the root node which
is corresponding to the initial state.
• Actions: It gives the description of all the available actions to
the agent. 77
Example Problems
• A Toy Problem is intended to illustrate or exercise various
problem-solving methods.
• A real- world problem is one whose solutions people actually
care about.
Toy Problems
• Vacuum World
• States: The state is determined by both the agent location
and the dirt locations. The agent is in one of the 2 locations,
each of which might or might not contain dirt. Thus there are
2*2^2=8 possible world states.
• Initial state: Any state can be designated as the initial state.
• Actions: In this simple environment, each state has just three
actions: Left, Right, and
• Suck. Larger environments might also include Up and Down. 78
Example Problems
• Transition model: The actions have their expected effects,
except that moving Left in the leftmost squ are, moving Right
in the rightmost square, and Sucking in a clean square have
no effect. The complete state space is shown in Figure.
• Goal test: This checks whether all the squares are clean.
• Path cost: Each step costs 1, so the path cost is the number
of steps in the path.

Vacuum World State Space Graph 79

1) 8- Puzzle Problem

8- Puzzle Problem

• States: A state description specifies the location of each of the

eight tiles and the blank in one of the nine squares.
• Initial state: Any state can be designated as the initial state.
Note that any given goal can be reached from exactly half of
the possible initial states.
• The simplest formulation defines the actions as movements of
the blank space Left, Right, Up, or Down. Different subsets of
these are possible depending on where the blank is.
80
1) 8- Puzzle Problem

• Transition model: Given a state and action, this returns the

resulting state; for example, if we apply Left to the start state
in Figure 3.4, the resulting state has the 5 and the blank
switched.
• Goal test: This checks whether the state matches the goal
configuration shown in Figure. Path cost: Each step costs 1,
so the path cost is the number of steps in the path.

81
2) Queens Problem

Queens Problem
• States: Any arrangement of 0 to 8 queens on the board is a
state.
• Initial state: No queens on the board.
• Actions: Add a queen to any empty square.
• Transition model: Returns the board with a queen added to
the specified square.
• Goal test: 8 queens are on the board, none attacked. 82
2) Queens Problem
• Consider the given problem. Describe the operator
involved in it. Consider the water jug problem: You are
given two jugs, a 4-gallon one and 3-gallon one. Neither
has any measuring marker on it. There is a pump that can
be used to fill the jugs with water. How can you get
exactly 2 gallon of water from the 4-gallon jug ?
• Explicit Assumptions: A jug can be filled from the pump,
water can be poured out of a jug on to the ground, water
can be poured from one jug to another and that there are
no other measuring devices available.
• Here the initial state is (0, 0). The goal state is (2, n) for
any value of n.

83
2) Queens Problem
• State Space Representation: we will represent a state of the
problem as a tuple (x, y) where x represents the amount of
water in the 4-gallon jug and y represents the amount of water
in the 3-gallon jug. Note that 0 ≤ x ≤ 4, and 0 ≤ y ≤ 3.
• To solve this we have to make some assumptions not
mentioned in the problem. They are:
• We can fill a jug from the pump.
• We can pour water out of a jug to the ground.
• We can pour water from one jug to another.
• There is no measuring device available.

• Operators - we must define a set of operators that will take us

from one state to another.
84
2) Queens Problem
Sr Current State Next State Descriptions
.
1 (x,y) if x < 4 (4,y) Fill the 4 gallon jug
2 (x,y) if x < 3 (x,3) Fill the 3 gallon jug
3 (x,y) if x > 0 (x – d, y) Pour some water out of the 4 gallon jug
4 (x,y) if y > 0 (x, y – d) Pour some water out of the 3 gallon jug
5 (x,y) if y > 0 (0, y) Empty the 4 gallon jug
6 (x,y) if y > 0 (x 0) Empty the 3 gallon jug on the ground
7 (x,y) if x + y > = 4 (4, y – (4 – x)) Pour water from the 3 gallon jug into the 4
and y > 0 gallon jug until the 4 gallon jug is full
8 (x,y) if x + y > = 3 (x – (3 – x), 3) Pour water from the 4 gallon jug into the 3
and x > 0 gallon jug until the 3 gallon jug is full
9 (x,y) if x + y < = 4 (x + y, 0) Pour all the water from the 3 gallon jug
and y > 0 into the 4 gallon jug
10 (x,y) if x + y < = 3 (0, x + y) Pour all the water from the 4 gallon jug
and x > 0 into the 3 gallon jug
11 (0, 2) (2, 0) Pour the 2 gallons from 3 gallon jug into
the 4 gallon jug
12 (2, y) (0, y) Empty the 2 gallons in the 4 gallon jug
on the ground 85
2) Queens Problem

Solution

86
2) Queens Problem
S S.No Gallons in 4- Gallons in 3- Rule Applied
. gel jug(x) gel jug (y)
o
1. 0 0 Initial state
l
2.. 4 0 1. Fill 4
u
3 1 3 6. Poor 4 into 3 to fill
t 4. 1 0 4. Empty 3
i 5. 0 1 8. Poor all of 4 into
3
o 6. 4 1 1. Fill 4

n 7. 2 3 6. Poor 4 into 3
87
2) Queens Problem
S
• 4-gallon one and a 3-gallon Jug
o

u
•No measuring mark on the jug.
t •There is a pump to fill the jugs with water.
•How can you get exactly 2 gallon of water into the 4-
i gallon jug?

n
88
END

89