Comp Network

CHAPTER 2: COMPUTER NETWORKING
Unit of learning code: IT/CU/ICT/CR/1/5
Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Perform Computer Networking
2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

This unit specifies the competencies required to perform computer Networking. It involves
Identification of network types, Connection of networking devices, configuration of network
devices, network testing, configuration of LAN network type and monitoring network
connectivity.
2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

1. Identify network type and components
2. Connect network devices
3. Configure network devices
4. Configure LAN Network type
om
.c
5. Perform Network testing

t
tve
sy
ea
2.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Identify Network Type and Components
2.2.1.2 Introduction to the Learning Outcome

This learning outcome covers identification of different types of computer networks,
identification of Network components, identification of network topologies, identification of
transmission media and benefits of computer networking.
2.2.1.3 Performance Standard

2.2.1.3.1 Types of computer networks are identified.
2.2.1.3.2 Network components are identified
2.2.1.3.3 Network topologies are identified.
2.2.1.3.4 Transmission media is identified.
2.2.1.3.5 Benefits of computer Networking are identified.
109
2.2.1.4 Information Sheet
a) Definition of Computer Network
A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer to
communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications. The
most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other shared resources can
include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be considered a computer network.
b) Key terms in Computer Networks

Table 24: Common terms in Networking
Terms Definition
1. ISO The OSI model is a product of the Open Systems Interconnection
project at the International Organization for Standardization.
ISO is a voluntary organization.
2. OSI Model Open System Interconnection is a model consisting of seven
om
logical layers.
t.c
ve
3. TCP/IP Model Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol Model is

t
sy
ea
based on four layer model which is based on Protocols.

4. UTP Unshielded Twisted Pair cable is a Wired/Guided media which
consists of two conductors usually copper, each with its own
colour plastic insulator
5. STP Shielded Twisted Pair cable is a Wired/Guided media has a metal
foil or braided-mesh covering which encases each pair of
insulated conductors. Shielding also eliminates crosstalk
6. PPP Point-to-Point connection is a protocol which is used as a
communication link between two devices.
7. LAN Local Area Network is designed for small areas such as an office,
group of building or a factory.
8. WAN Wide Area Network is used for the network that covers large
distance such as cover states of a country
9. MAN Metropolitan Area Network uses the similar technology as LAN.
110
It is designed to extend over the entire city.
10. Crosstalk Undesired effect of one circuit on another circuit. It can occur
when one line picks up some signals travelling down another
line. Example: telephone conversation when one can hear
background conversations. It can be eliminated by shielding
each pair of twisted pair cable.
11. PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network consists of telephone
lines, cellular networks, satellites for communication, fiber
optic cables etc. It is the combination of world's (national,
local and regional) circuit switched telephone network.
12. File Transfer, Standard mechanism to access files and manages it. Users
Access and can access files in a remote computer and manage it.
Management (FTAM)
13. Analog The signal is continuously variable in amplitude and
om
Transmission frequency. Power requirement is high when compared with

t .c
ve
Digital Transmission.
t
sy
ea
14. Digital It is a sequence of voltage pulses. It is basically a series of

Transmission discrete pulses. Security is better than Analog Transmission.
15. Asymmetric digital A data communications technology that enables faster data
subscriber line(ADSL) transmission over copper telephone lines than a conventional
voice band modem can provide.
16. Access Point Alternatively referred to as a base station and wireless router,
an access point is a wireless receiver which enables a user to
connect wirelessly to a network or the Internet. This term can
refer to both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth devices.
17. Acknowledgement Short for acknowledgement, ACK is an answer given by another
(ACK) computer or network device indicating to another computer that
it acknowledged the SYN/ACK or other request sent to it.
Note: If the signal is not properly received an NAK is sent.
18. Active Topology The term active topology describes a network topology in which
111
the signal is amplified at each step as it passes from one
computer to the next.
19. Aloha Protocol for satellite and terrestrial radio transmissions. In pure
Aloha, a user can communicate at any time, but risks collisions
with other users' messages. Slotted Aloha reduces the chance of
collisions by dividing the channel into time slots and requiring
that the user send only at the beginning of a time slot.
20. Address Resolution ARP is a used with the IP for mapping a 32-bit Internet Protocol
Protocol(ARP) address to a MAC address that is recognized in the local network
specified in RFC 826.
c) Network Topologies
A network topology is the arrangement of computer devices in computer network to establish

communication among them. It defines a layout of a network that means it determines how
om
.c
different nodes are connected and communicated together within a network.

t
ve
t
sy
ea
Network topology can be according to logical aspect or on physical aspect. Physical topology
describes placement of different components of the network while logical topology describes
the data flow within a network instead of physical design.
Physical and Logical Topology
There are two approaches to network topology: physical and logical. Physical network
topology, as the name suggests, refers to the physical connections and interconnections
between nodes and the network—the wires, cables, and so forth. Logical network topology is a
little more abstract and strategic, referring to the conceptual understanding of how and why the
network is arranged the way it is, and how data moves through it.
Network topology can be categorize in 2 main categories on the basis of connection: Point to
point and multi point.
Point to point topology

112
Figure 29: Point to point Topology
Point to Point topology is the simplest topology that connects two nodes directly together
with a common link. The entire bandwidth of the common link is reserved for transmission
between those two nodes. The point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable
to connect the two ends, but other options, such as satellite links, or microwaves are also
possible. om
Multipoint: This is a case where more than two specific devices share a single link.
t .c
ve
t
i. Types of Topology
sy
ea
There are five types of topology in computer networks. Hybrid topology is also common
 Star
 Bus
 Ring
 Tree
 Mesh
 Hybrid
1. Star Topology
113
Figure 29 Star topology
A star topology, the most common network topology, is laid out so every node in the network is
directly connected to one central hub via coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cable. Acting as a
server, this central node manages data transmission—as information sent from any node on the
network has to pass through the central one to reach its destination—and functions as a repeater,
which helps prevent data loss.
om
t .c
ve
Advantages of Star Topology

t
sy
ea
Star topologies are common since they allow you to conveniently manage your entire network
from a single location. Because each of the nodes is independently connected to the central hub,
should one go down, the rest of the network will continue functioning unaffected, making the
star topology a stable and secure network layout.
Additionally, devices can be added, removed, and modified without taking the entire network
offline.
On the physical side of things, the structure of the star topology uses relatively little cabling to
fully connect the network, which allows for both straightforward setup and management over
time as the network expands or contracts. The simplicity of the network design makes life easier
for administrators, too, because it’s easy to identify where errors or performance issues are
occurring.
Disadvantages of Star Topology
114
On the flipside, if the central hub goes down, the rest of the network can’t function. But if the
central hub is properly managed and kept in good health, administrators shouldn’t have too many
issues.
The overall bandwidth and performance of the network are also limited by the central node’s
configurations and technical specifications, making star topologies expensive to set up and
operate.
2. Bus Topology
A bus topology orients all the devices on a network along a single cable running in a single
direction from one end of the network to the other—which is why it’s sometimes called a “line
topology” or “backbone topology.” Data flow on the network also follows the route of the cable,
moving in one direction.
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 30 Bus toplolgy

Advantages of Bus Topology
Bus topologies are a good, cost-effective choice for smaller networks because the layout is
simple, allowing all devices to be connected via a single coaxial or RJ45 cable. If needed, more
nodes can be easily added to the network by joining additional cables.
Disadvantages of Bus Topology
115
However, because bus topologies use a single cable to transmit data, they’re somewhat
vulnerable. If the cable experiences a failure, the whole network goes down, which can be time-
consuming and expensive to restore, which can be less of an issue with smaller networks.
Bus topologies are best suited for small networks because there’s only so much bandwidth, and
every additional node will slow transmission speeds.
Furthermore, data is “half-duplex,” which means it can’t be sent in two opposite directions at the
same time, so this layout is not the ideal choice for networks with huge amounts of traffic.
3. Ring Topology - Single vs. Dual

Ring topology is where nodes are arranged in a circle (or ring). The data can travel through the
ring network in either one direction or both directions, with each device having exactly two
neighbors.
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 31: Ring topology

Pros of Ring Topology
Since each device is only connected to the ones on either side, when data is transmitted, the
packets also travel along the circle, moving through each of the intermediate nodes until they
arrive at their destination. If a large network is arranged in a ring topology, repeaters can be used
to ensure packets arrive correctly and without data loss.
Only one station on the network is permitted to send data at a time, which greatly reduces the
risk of packet collisions, making ring topologies efficient at transmitting data without errors.
116
By and large, ring topologies are cost-effective and inexpensive to install, and the intricate point-
to-point connectivity of the nodes makes it relatively easy to identify issues or misconfigurations
on the network.
Cons of Ring Topology
Even though it’s popular, a ring topology is still vulnerable to failure without proper network
management. Since the flow of data transmission moves unidirectionally between nodes along
each ring, if one node goes down, it can take the entire network with it. That’s why it’s
imperative for each of the nodes to be monitored and kept in good health. Nevertheless, even if
you’re vigilant and attentive to node performance, your network can still be taken down by a
transmission line failure.
The question of scalability should also be taken into consideration. In a ring topology, all the
devices on the network share bandwidth, so the addition of more devices can contribute to
overall communication delays. Network administrators need to be mindful of the devices added
to the topology to avoid overburdening the network’s resources and capacity.
om
Additionally, the entire network must be taken offline to reconfigure, add, or remove nodes. And
t.c
ve
while that’s not the end of the world, scheduling downtime for the network can be inconvenient
t
sy
ea
and costly.
Dual-Ring Topology
A network with ring topology is half-duplex, meaning data can only move in one direction at a
time. Ring topologies can be made full-duplex by adding a second connection between network
nodes, creating a dual ring topology.
117
Figure 32: Dual ring topology
Advantages of Dual-Ring Topology
The primary advantage of dual ring topology is its efficiency: because each node has two
om
connections on either side, information can be sent both clockwise and counterclockwise along
t .c
ve
the network. The secondary ring included in a dual-ring topology setup can act as a redundant
t
sy
ea
layer and backup, which helps solve for many of the disadvantages of traditional ring topology.
Dual ring topologies offer a little extra security, too: if one ring fails within a node, the other ring
is still able to send data.
4. Tree Topology
The tree topology structure gets its name from how the central node functions as a sort of trunk
for the network, with nodes extending outward in a branch-like fashion. However, where each
node in a star topology is directly connected to the central hub, a tree topology has a parent-child
hierarchy to how the nodes are connected. Those connected to the central hub are connected
linearly to other nodes, so two connected nodes only share one mutual connection. Because the
tree topology structure is both extremely flexible and scalable, it’s often used for wide area
networks to support many spread-out devices.
118
Figure 33: Tree topology
Pros of Tree Topology
Combining elements of the star and bus topologies allows for the easy addition of nodes and
network expansion. Troubleshooting errors on the network is also a straightforward process, as
om
each of the branches can be individually assessed for performance issues.

t.c
ve
Cons of Tree Topology

t
sy
As with the star topology, the entire network depends on the health of the root node in a tree
ea
topology structure. Should the central hub fail, the various node branches will become
disconnected, though connectivity within—but not between—branch systems will remain.
Because of the hierarchical complexity and linear structure of the network layout, adding more
nodes to a tree topology can quickly make proper management an unwieldy, not to mention
costly, experience. Tree topologies are expensive because of the sheer amount of cabling
required to connect each device to the next within the hierarchical layout.
5. Mesh Topology
A mesh topology is an intricate and elaborate structure of point-to-point connections where the
nodes are interconnected. Mesh networks can be full or partial mesh. Partial mesh topologies are
mostly interconnected, with a few nodes with only two or three connections, while full-mesh
topologies are—surprise!—fully interconnected.
119
Figure 34: Mesh topology
The web-like structure of mesh topologies offers two different methods of data transmission:
om
routing and flooding. When data is routed, the nodes use logic to determine the shortest distance
t .c
from the source to destination, and when data is flooded, the information is sent to all nodes
ve
t
sy
within the network without the need for routing logic.

ea
Advantages of Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies are reliable and stable, and the complex degree of interconnectivity between
nodes makes the network resistant to failure. For instance, no single device going down can
bring the network offline.
Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
Mesh topologies are incredibly labor-intensive. Each interconnection between nodes requires a
cable and configuration once deployed, so it can also be time-consuming to set up. As with other
topology structures, the cost of cabling adds up fast, and to say mesh networks require a lot of
cabling is an understatement.
6. Hybrid Topology
Hybrid topologies combine two or more different topology structures—the tree topology is a
good example, integrating the bus and star layouts. Hybrid structures are most commonly found
120
in larger companies where individual departments have personalized network topologies adapted
to suit their needs and network usage.
Figure 35: Hybrid topology

Advantages of Hybrid Topology
om
The main advantage of hybrid structures is the degree of flexibility they provide, as there are few
t.c
ve
limitations on the network structure itself that a hybrid setup can’t accommodate.
t
sy
ea
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

However, each type of network topology comes with its own disadvantages, and as a network
grows in complexity, so too does the experience and know-how required on the part of the
admins to keep everything functioning optimally. There’s also the monetary cost to consider
when creating a hybrid network topology.
d) Computer Network Types
There are various types of computer networks available. We can categorize them according to
their size as well as their purpose.
The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of computers,
which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a single room to millions of
devices spread across the world. Some of the most popular network types are:
121
1. Personal Area Network (PAN)
A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network that enables communication between
computer devices near a person. It is a computer network organized around an individual for
personal use only. PANs can be wired, such as USB or FireWire, or they can be wireless, such
as infrared, ZigBee, Bluetooth and ultra-wideband. The range of a PAN typically is a few meters.
Examples of wireless PAN, or WPAN, devices include cell phone headsets, wireless keyboards,
wireless mice, printers, bar code scanners and game consoles.
Wireless PANs feature battery-operated devices that draw very little current. Sleep modes
commonly are used to further extend battery life.
2. Local Area Network (LAN)
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computers and other devices that are connected
om
together over a network and are all in the same location, within a single building like an office or
.c
home.
t
ve
t
sy
ea
On a typical home or small office LAN, you might find a modem that provides an internet
connection (and a basic firewall against intrusion from the internet), a router that lets other
devices share that connection and connect to one another, and a Wi-Fi access point that lets
devices access the network wirelessly. Sometimes, those functions are combined into a single
device.
3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)
Functioning like a LAN, a WLAN provides wireless network communication over short
distances using radio signals instead of traditional network cabling. Typically, a wireless local
area network (WLAN) extends an existing wired local area network to devices not connected to
the LAN.
4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
122
These types of networks are larger than LANs but smaller than WANs – and incorporate
elements from both types of networks. MANs span an entire geographic area (typically a town or
city, but sometimes a campus). Ownership and maintenance is handled by either a single person
or company (a local council, a large company, etc.).
5. Wide Area Network (WAN)
A wide-area network (or WAN) is a computer network that connects smaller networks. Since
WANs are not tied to a specific location, they allow localized networks to communicate with one
another across great distances. They also facilitate communication and the sharing of information
between devices from anywhere in the world.
WANs allow organizations to create unified networks so that employees, customers, and other
stakeholders can work together online, regardless of location. Though WANs cover a large area,
connections can be either wired or wireless. Wired WANs usually consist of broadband internet
om
services and multiprotocol label switching (MPLS), which is a form of data-forwarding

t .c
ve
technology used to control traffic flow and speed up connection, while wireless WANs normally
t
sy
ea
include 4G/5G and Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks.
e) Computer Network Components
Computer networks components comprise both physical parts as well as the software required
for installing computer networks. Some important physical network components are NIC,
switch, cable, hub, router, and modem. Depending on the type of network that we need to
install, some network components can also be removed. For example, the wireless network does
not require a cable.
Following are the major components required to install a network:
1. NIC
123
NIC stands for Network Interface Card is an adapter card that plugs into the system bus of a
computer and allows the computer to send and receive signals on a network. A network interface
card (NIC) is also known as a network adapter card or simply a network card.
Figure 36: Network interface card

om
t .c
ve
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used
t
sy
ea
with wired NIC to transfer data.
Wireless NIC: The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless
network. For example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.
2. Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When
a computer network requests for some information from another in the network, it first sends the
request to the Hub through a cable. The hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All
the devices will check whether or not the request belongs to them. If not, the request will be
dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced
computer network components such as Switches and Routers.
124
Figure 37: Computer Network hub
3. Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch
om
contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides
t.c
where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based
ve
t
sy
on the physical address present in the incoming message. A Switch does not broadcast the
ea
message to the entire network like the Hub. It determines the device to whom the message is to
be transmitted. Therefore, we can say that switch provides a direct connection between the
source and destination. It increases the speed of the network.
Figure 38: A Network Switch
125
4. Router
 A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It
is used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
 A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
 A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
 It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
Advantages of Router:
 Security: The information which is transmitted to the network will traverse the entire cable,
but the only specified device which has been addressed can read the data.
 Reliability: If the server has stopped functioning, the network goes down, but no other
om
networks are affected that are served by the router.

.c
 Performance: Router enhances the overall performance of the network. Suppose there are
t
tve
sy
24 workstations in a network generates a same amount of traffic. This increases the traffic
ea
load on the network. Router splits the single network into two networks of 12 workstations
each, reduces the traffic load by half.
126
Figure 39: A wireless Router
om
5. Modem
t.c
ve
t
sy
 A modem is a hardware device that allows the computer to connect to the internet over the
ea
existing telephone line.

 A modem is not integrated with the motherboard rather than it is installed on the PCI slot
found on the motherboard.
 It stands for Modulator/Demodulator. It converts the digital data into an analog signal over
the telephone lines.
Based on the differences in speed and transmission rate, a modem can be classified in the
following categories:
 Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

 Cellular Modem
 Cable modem
127
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
Figure 40: modem

ea
6. Cables and Connectors (media)
Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.
There are three types of cables used in transmission:
 Twisted pair cable

 Coaxial cable
 Fibre-optic cable
7. Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.
128
A network port which is provided by the Transport Layer protocols of Internet Protocol suite,
such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Diagram Protocol (UDP) is a number
which serving endpoint communication between two computers.
8. Computers
Computers connected to a network can share files and documents with each other. Personal
computers connected to a business network can choose which files and folders are available to
share on the network.
2.2.1.5 Learning Activities

 The trainee should visit the nearest computer lab, Cyber Café or office setup and identify 4
network devices. On a computer using Ms Word, draw a table with two columns, namely
device and use. Record the use of at least 6 devices on this table.
 In the visit above, in two paragraphs, the trainee need to determine and illustrate the network
om
type and topologies in place.

t.c
ve
 Save the document and submit to the trainer, via a storage device or email.
t
sy
ea
Special instructions related to learning activities

 Lessons can be delivered in person or virtually.
 Trainees taking this unit are highly recommended to own a working computer
2.2.1.6 Self-Assessment
1. What is a computer network?
2. With an aid of a diagram, differentiate between a star and ring topology.
3. With respect to the OSI reference model, from which layer does a router operate?
4. What is POLAN?
5. In a Network Interface Card, what is meant by a MAC address?
2.2.1.7 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials
129
Tools
1. Network tool kit
2. Signal testers
Equipment
Computer
Cables
Switches
Routers/modem
Bridges
Repeaters
Fibre modules
Antistatic gloves
Ports
RJ45
om
NIC
t.c
ve
Gateways
t
sy
ea
Microwave dishes
Materials and supplies
Consumables for maintaining Network including:
RJ45
Fibre Modules
Cables
Replacement parts including:
Points
Switches
Routers
NIC
Modem
Cables
Cleaning materials;
130
Hand cleaner.
2.2.1.8 References
Stieglitz, N. (2003). Digital dynamics and types of industry convergence: the evolution of the
handheld computers market. The industrial dynamics of the new digital economy, 2, 179-208
Székely, A., Talanow, R., & Bágyi, P. (2013). Smartphones, tablets and mobile applications
for radiology. European journal of radiology, 82(5), 829-836.
Chlamtac, I., & Fumagalli, A. (1994). Quadro-star: A high performance optical WDM star
network. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 42(8), 2582-2591
2.2.1.8 Model answers to self-assessment

What is a computer network?
A computer network is a set of computers connected together for the purpose of sharing
resources. The most common resource shared today is connection to the Internet. Other shared
om
resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be considered a computer
t .c
ve
network.
t
sy
ea
With an aid of a diagram, demonstrate a star topology.

A star topology, the most common network topology, is laid out so every node in the network is
directly connected to one central hub via coaxial, twisted-pair, or fiber-optic cable. Acting as a
server, this central node manages data transmission—as information sent from any node on the
network has to pass through the central one to reach its destination—and functions as a
repeater, which helps prevent data loss
131
With respect to the OSI reference model, from which layer does a router operate?
A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
What is POLAN?
POLAN uses optical splitters to split an optical signal from one strand of single mode optical
fiber into multiple signals to serve users and devices.
In a Network Interface Card, what is meant by a MAC address?
The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip which is assigned by
the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely. The MAC address is stored in the PROM
(Programmable read-only memory).
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
132
2.2.1 Learning Outcome 2: Connect Network Devices
2.2.2.1 Introduction to the Learning Outcome
This learning outcome covers identification of network connection media, characteristics of
connection medium and connecting devices to the network.

2.2.2.2.1 Tools, materials and devices for network are identified.
2.2.2.2.2 Network devices connection is done according National and international communication
standards.
2.2.2.2.3 Strength and connectivity tests of cables and equipment are done.
a) Network connection media

om
In network communications, a connection or transmission medium is a physical connection or an

t.c
ve
interface between the transmitter and the receiver. There are two major categories of
t
sy
ea
transmission media, namely:

 Wired or guided and
 Wireless or unguided.
Wired Medium
There are three general classes of wired media types: coaxial cable, twisted pair and fiber optic
cable.
133
Figure 41: Network cables
om
.c
1. Coaxial Cable
t
ve
t
sy
Coaxial cable uses a single conductor in the middle of a cable. The central conductor is
ea
surrounded by an insulator called the dielectric. A conductive shield is put around the dielectric.
This shield acts as the second conductor for the circuit as well serves to protect the inner
conductor from interference. Coaxial cable for local area network (LAN) connections is obsolete.
Coaxial cable is being used in some cases for delivering the last mile of service. For e.g., coaxial
cables are being used by Cable TV networks to deliver high-speed service customer premises.
Figure 42: Coaxial cable with a central conductor
134
2. Unshielded Twisted Pair
Unshielded twisted pair cabling, or UTP cabling, is the most common type of network cabling. It
consists of four twisted pairs of wire, each with a different number of twists per foot, all encased
on one sheath. UTP cabling is graded according to category. Category 3 and 4 were replaced by
Category 5 cabling by the year 2000. Category 5 is recommended for running Ethernet at speeds
of 100 Mbps. Category 5e, was introduced to run gigabit Ethernet or 1000BaseT networks.
Category 6 and Category 6a have since been introduced to give better performance at higher
speeds. UTP cabling has an intrinsic impedance of 100 ohms.
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
Figure 43: Unshielded twisted pair cable

ea
3. Twisted Pair Cable

There are two types of shielded twisted pair wiring. In the 1980s and 1990s shielded twisted pair
was promoted as the best wire type for Token Ring networks. This had an intrinsic impedance of
150 ohms. A new wiring trend is to use 100 ohm shielded twisted pair. The shielding reduces
noise and increases the performance of the cable. These are sometimes called foiled twisted pair,
or FTP (not to be confused with file transfer protocol) or sometimes called screened twisted pair,
or ScTP. These types of cables are compatible with normal UTP.
135
Figure 44: FTP or ScTP has a metal back to ground the shield.
4. Multi-mode fiber Optic

Fiber optic cable is sometimes called wave guide or light guide because it guides the light waves
along the length of the cable. Multi-mode fiber is used for short cable runs, usually 1.6 mi
(approximately 2 km) or less.
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 45: Multi-mode fiber optic
5. Single Mode Fiber Optic Cable

Single mode fiber optic cable can operate over much longer distances. Because the fiber only
allows one mode of light to propagate, light pulses put on the fiber keep their shape much longer.
This allows the light pulses to travel much further without interfering with other pulses. Single
mode fiber is recommended for cable runs in excess of 1.6 mi.
136
Figure 46: Single mode fiber is used outdoors and for long
distances. om
Wireless Transmission Media

t.c
ve
Wireless transmission is a form of unguided media. Wireless communication involves no

t
sy
physical link established between two or more devices, communicating wirelessly. Wireless
ea
signals are spread over in the air and are received and interpreted by appropriate antennas.
When an antenna is attached to electrical circuit of a computer or wireless device, it converts the
digital data into wireless signals and spread all over within its frequency range. The receptor on
the other end receives these signals and converts them back to digital data.
1. Radio Transmission
Radio frequency is easier to generate and because of its large wavelength it can penetrate
through walls and structures alike. Radio waves can have wavelength from 1 mm – 100,000 km
and have frequency ranging from 3 Hz (Extremely Low Frequency) to 300 GHz (Extremely
High Frequency). Radio frequencies are sub-divided into six bands.
Radio waves at lower frequencies can travel through walls whereas higher RF can travel in
straight line and bounce back.The power of low frequency waves decreases sharply as they cover
long distance. High frequency radio waves have more power.
137
Figure 47: Radio Transmission earth
Radio waves of high frequencies are prone to be absorbed by rain and other obstacles. They use
Ionosphere of earth atmosphere. High frequency radio waves such as HF and VHF bands are
spread upwards. When they reach Ionosphere, they are refracted back to the earth.
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
2. Microwave Transmission
Electromagnetic waves above 100 MHz tend to travel in a straight line and signals over them can
be sent by beaming those waves towards one particular station. Because Microwaves travels in
straight lines, both sender and receiver must be aligned to be strictly in line-of-sight.
Microwaves can have wavelength ranging from 1 mm – 1 meter and frequency ranging from 300
MHz to 300 GHz.
138
Figure 48: Microwave transmission
Microwave antennas concentrate the waves making a beam of it. As shown in picture above,
multiple antennas can be aligned to reach farther. Microwaves have higher frequencies and do
not penetrate wall like obstacles.
Microwave transmission depends highly upon the weather conditions and the frequency it is
using.
om
3. Infrared Transmission
t .c
ve
Infrared wave lies in between visible light spectrum and microwaves. It has wavelength of 700-
t
sy
ea
nm to 1-mm and frequency ranges from 300-GHz to 430-THz.

Infrared wave is used for very short range communication purposes such as television and it’s
remote. Infrared travels in a straight line hence it is directional by nature. Because of high
frequency range, Infrared cannot cross wall-like obstacles.
4. Light Transmission
Highest most electromagnetic spectrum which can be used for data transmission is light or
optical signaling. This is achieved by means of LASER.
Because of frequency light uses, it tends to travel strictly in straight line.Hence the sender and
receiver must be in the line-of-sight. Because laser transmission is unidirectional, at both ends of
communication the laser and the photo-detector needs to be installed. Laser beam is generally
1mm wide hence it is a work of precision to align two far receptors each pointing to lasers
source.
139
Figure 49: Light transmission
Laser works as Tx (transmitter) and photo-detectors works as Rx (receiver).
om
Lasers cannot penetrate obstacles such as walls, rain, and thick fog. Additionally, laser beam is
t .c
ve
distorted by wind, atmosphere temperature, or variation in temperature in the path.

t
sy
ea
Laser is safe for data transmission as it is very difficult to tap 1mm wide laser without
interrupting the communication channel.
c) How to connect computers to a network

Connecting your computers to your home network grants access to the Internet, networked
printers and attached devices and other computers on the network. Most networks in the home or
workplace are Ethernet wired networks or Wi-Fi wireless networks. How you connect to a
network and what equipment you need depends primarily on the network connection you're
setting up.
i.Required Equipment
If you're setting up a wired network, you need an Ethernet modem, a router -- unless your
modem has a built-in router -- and Ethernet cables. If you're setting up a wireless network, you
still need an Ethernet modem and a wireless-enabled router, as well as an Ethernet cable to
connect the two. You also need one wireless adapter per computer, unless your computer has a
140
built-in wireless card.
If you're building a hybrid network involving both wired and wireless connections, a wireless
router is the best choice, as they usually also have Ethernet ports. Some modems feature built-in
wireless routers, making them a good all-in-one device choice if you have limited space.
ii.Connecting to a wired network
1. Connect the Internet coaxial or DSL cable to your modem's Internet or Cable port.
2. Connect the modem to the router's Internet, Modem or WAN port with an Ethernet cable.
Skip this step if your modem has a built-in router.
3. Connect an Ethernet cable between each computer's Ethernet port and one of the open ports
on the router or modem.
4. Click the Network icon in the System Tray and check for the wired connection.
om
5. Start a Web browser and connect to a website. If the site loads, your connection is complete.
t.c
ve
Otherwise, consult your modem and router's user manuals to see if further setup is required.
t
sy
ea
Pros
 Wired connections offer faster and more stable connections than wireless.
 Wired-only networks are generally more secure than wireless, as unauthorized users have to
directly connect to the router in order to gain access to the network.
 Ethernet cables are less expensive than wireless adapters.
Cons
 Wired-only networks have limited range compared to wireless. While this situation can be
mitigated with longer Ethernet cables, you have to run wires throughout your home to access
the Internet from any room.
 The number of computers that can connect to the router is limited to the number of available
Ethernet ports.
141
Figure 50: Connecting to a wired network
Connecting to a wireless network

1. Connect the Internet coaxial or DSL cable to your modem's Internet or Cable port.
2. Connect the modem to the router's Internet, Modem or WAN port with an Ethernet cable.
Skip this step if your modem has a built-in router.
om
.c
3. Click the Network icon in the System Tray and find your wireless network in the list.
t
ve
t
sy
4. Select your network and click Connect. If you want your computer to automatically connect
ea
to this network when you start it up, fill the Connect Automatically check box.
5. Enter your wireless network's security key when prompted.
6. Start a Web browser and connect to a website. If the site loads, your connection is complete.
Otherwise, make sure the security key you entered is correct, then check signal strength and
whether further set-up is required according to your user's manual.
 Pro: You can take your computer to most rooms of your house without having to route
Ethernet cables through your home.
 Pro: The only Ethernet cable required is the one running from your modem to your router,
assuming your modem doesn't have a built-in router.
 Con: Wireless connections aren't as fast as wired connections, as they have to transmit
bandwidth over the wireless signal.
 Con: The design of your home and nearby electronics can interfere with a wireless signal,
weakening or even completely blocking your connection.
142
 Con: Without a security key, your wireless connection can be detected and used by anyone --
including cyber-criminals engaged in illicit behavior, which may be traced back to you.
Figure 51: Wireless connection
iii.Creating Home groups

A Home group is a network used by Windows to connect your computers together and share
om
.c
files. After you create a Home group, your other computers and devices like printers can be
t
ve
t
sy
added to it.
ea
i. Creating a Homegroup
1. Press Windows-X on your keyboard and select Control Panel from the power user menu.
2. Select Network and Internet, followed by Homegroup.
3. Click Create, followed by Next.
4. Select the libraries, devices and files you want to share with other computers on the network,
then click Next.
143
5. Write down the Homegroup password when it's presented and click Finish.
ii. Adding Computers to the Homegroup
1. Sign onto the computer you're adding.
2. Press Windows-X and select Control Panel.
3. Select Network and Internet, followed by Homegroup.
4. Click Join now, followed by Next.
5. Select the libraries, devices and files you want to share from this computer, then click Next.
6. Enter the homegroup password and click Next, then Finish.
iii. Adding Printers

1. Sign onto the computer to which your printer is installed/connected.
2. Follow the steps to join a homegroup listed above.
3. Set the Printers & Devices permission to Shared. .c
om
t
ve
t
sy
ea
d) Network Devices
1. Hub
A Hub is a hardware device that divides the network connection among multiple devices. When
computer requests for some information from a network, it first sends the request to the Hub
through cable. Hub will broadcast this request to the entire network. All the devices will check
whether the request belongs to them or not. If not, the request will be dropped.
The process used by the Hub consumes more bandwidth and limits the amount of
communication. Nowadays, the use of hub is obsolete, and it is replaced by more advanced
computer network components such as Switches, Routers.
2 Switch
A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices on a computer network. A Switch
contains more advanced features than Hub. The Switch contains the updated table that decides
where the data is transmitted or not. Switch delivers the message to the correct destination based
on the physical address present in the incoming message.
144
3 Router
A router is a hardware device which is used to connect a LAN with an internet connection. It is
used to receive, analyze and forward the incoming packets to another network.
A router works in a Layer 3 (Network layer) of the OSI Reference model.
A router forwards the packet based on the information available in the routing table.
It determines the best path from the available paths for the transmission of the packet.
4 Cables and Connectors (media)

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.
There are three types of cables used in transmission:
• Twisted pair cable
• Coaxial cable
• Fibre-optic cable
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
5 Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.
A network port which is provided by the Transport Layer protocols of Internet Protocol suite,
such as Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User Diagram Protocol (UDP) is a number
which serving endpoint communication between two computers.
6 Computers
Computers connected to a network can share files and documents with each other. Personal
computers connected to a business network can choose which files and folders are available to
share on the network.
145
 The trainee is required to build a hybrid network involving both wired and wireless
connections. Use the most suitable hub and any other devices available, creating a star
topology.
 In the above setup, the trainee will be required to create a home group.
 The trainee will then add three computers and a printer to the workgroup.
Special instructions
The trainee should be provided with a wireless router as they have Ethernet ports or modems
featuring built-in wireless routers.
1. Using suitable descriptions, identify the three general classes of wired media types
2. Why do you think a single mode fiber optic cable can operate over much longer distances
compared to the other contemporary cables?
3. When building a hybrid network involving both wired and wireless connections, explain the
choice of the router you would use, and give reasons.
om
4. Demonstrate the procedure for creating a Homegroup

t .c
ve
5. Demonstrate the process of adding Computers to the Homegroup

t
sy
ea

Tools
1. Network tool kit
2. Signal testers
Equipment
 Computer
 Cables
 Switches
 Routers/modem
 Bridges
 Repeaters
146
 Fibre modules
 Antistatic gloves
 Ports
 RJ45
 NIC
 Gateways
 Microwave dishes
 RJ45
 Fibre Modules
 Cables
 Points
om

.c
Switches
t
ve

t
sy
Routers
ea
 NIC
 Modem
 Cables
Cleaning materials;
Hand cleaner.
2.2.2.7 References
1. Ma, W., Trusina, A., El-Samad, H., Lim, W. A., & Tang, C. (2009). Defining network
topologies that can achieve biochemical adaptation. Cell, 138(4), 760-773.
2. Haeder, A. (2004). Conducting the Network Administrator Job Interview: IT Manager Guide
with Cisco CCNA Interview Questions (Vol. 4). Rampant TechPress.
3. Pelle, I., Lévai, T., Németh, F., & Gulyás, A. (2015, June). One tool to rule them all: A
modular troubleshooting framework for sdn (and other) networks. In Proceedings of the 1st
ACM SIGCOMM Symposium on Software Defined Networking Research (pp. 1-7).
147
4. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_output_devices.htm
5. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_software.htm
2.2.2.8 Model answers to Self-Assessment
1. Using suitable descriptions, identify the three general classes of wired media types
Three general classes of wired media types: coaxial cable, twisted pair and fiber optic
cable.
2. Demonstrate why single mode fiber optic cable can operate over much longer distances.
Because the fiber only allows one mode of light to propagate, light pulses put on the fiber
keep their shape much longer. This allows the light pulses to travel much further without
interfering with other pulses. Single mode fiber is recommended for cable runs in excess of
1.6 mi.
2a If you're building a hybrid network involving both wired and wireless connections,
om
which router is the best choice?

t .c
ve
t
sy
A wireless router is the best choice, as they usually also have Ethernet ports. Some
ea
modems feature built-in wireless routers, making them a good all-in-one device choice if
you have limited space.
2b Demonstrate the procedure for creating a Home group
 Press Windows-X on your keyboard and select Control Panel from the power user
menu.
 Select Network and Internet, followed by Home group.
 Click Create, followed by Next.
 Select the libraries, devices and files you want to share with other computers on
the network, then click next.
 Write down the Home group password when it's presented and click Finish.
2c Demonstrate the process of adding Computers to the Home group
148
 Sign onto the computer you're adding.
 Press Windows-X and select Control Panel.
 Select Network and Internet, followed by Home group.
 Click Join now, followed by Next.
 Select the libraries, devices and files you want to share from this computer, then
click next.
 Enter the home group password and click Next, then Finis
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
2.2.3 Learning Outcome 3: Configure Network Devices
149
2.2.3.1 Introduction to the learning outcome
This learning outcome covers procedures on installation and configuration of Network software,
configuration of the TCP/IP and Ethernet network architectures, connection and configuration of
network devices, and performing connectivity tests for cables and equipment.

2.2.3.2.1 Network software is installed and configured according to user manuals.
2.2.3.2.2 IP addressing scheme configuration is done
2.2.3.2.3 Types of subnet masks are identified.
a) What is Network Configuration?

Network configuration allows a system administrator to set up a network to meet communication
om
objectives. The process involves the following tasks:

t .c
vet
sy
 Router configuration: Specifies the correct IP addresses and route settings, etc.
ea
 Host configuration: Sets up a network connection on a host computer/laptop by logging the

default network settings, such as IP addressing, proxy, network name and ID/password, to
enable network connection and communication.
 Software configuration: Any network-based software, like an intrusion detection system
(IDS), is allowed access and provided with the appropriate credentials to monitor network
traffic.
Moreover, network configuration includes Internet/network sharing, software/application

installation and firewall installation/configuration.
b) Network architecture
Network architecture refers to the way network devices and services are structured to serve the
connectivity needs of client devices.
 Network devices typically include switches and routers.
 Types of services include DHCP and DNS.
150
 Client devices comprise end-user devices, servers, and smart things.
c) Ethernet and TCP/IP suites
Ethernet is a layer 2 data link protocol that is widely used with the TCP/IP protocol, which
resides at layers 3 and 4. To understand network communications, it is essential to learn about
the protocol layers (see OSI model below).
The IP layer 3 breaks apart the data being transmitted into variable length packets, known as
"Ethernet frames," up to 1,500 bytes long. Each frame has a header containing source and
destination addresses and a trailer with error correction data.
d) TCP/IP Ensures Complete Delivery

Ethernet transmits the frames from one node to the next and only guarantees that if the frame
arrives, it arrived intact. If a frame goes missing, it is none the wiser. However, the TCP part of
TCP/IP ensures that the entire set of data has been delivered intact. For details about the
om
protocols, see data link protocol, CSMA/CD, TCP/IP and Internet protocol
t.c
ve
e) Network protocols
t
sy
ea
Network protocols are a set of rules, conventions, and data structures that dictate how devices
exchange data across networks. In other words, network protocols can be equated to languages
that two devices must understand for seamless communication of information, regardless of their
infrastructure and design disparities.
b. The OSI model: How network protocols work

To understand the nuances of network protocols, it's imperative to know about the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model first. Considered the primary architectural model for internet
working communications, the majority of network protocols used today are structurally based on
the OSI model.
The OSI model splits the communication process between two network devices into 7 layers. A
task or group of tasks is assigned to each of these 7 layers. All the layers are self-contained, and
the tasks assigned to them can be executed independently.
To put this into context, here is a representation of the communication process between two
network devices following the OSI model:
151
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 52: OSI Model

The seven layers in the OSI model can be divided into two groups: upper layers, including layers
7, 6, and 5, and lower layers, including layers 4, 3, 2, and 1. The upper layers deal with
application issues, and the lower layers deal with data transport issues.
Network protocols divide the communication process into discrete tasks across every layer of the
OSI model. One or more network protocols operate at each layer in the communication
exchange.
152
Following are the detailed descriptions of the functioning of network protocols in each layer of
the OSI model:
Table 25:OSI network protocol functions
 Provides standard services such as virtual terminal, file, and
Layer 7: Application layer
job transfer and operations.
network protocols
 Masks the differences in data formats between dissimilar

systems.
Layer 6: Presentation layer
 Encodes and decodes data, encrypts and decrypts data, and
network protocols
compresses and decompresses data.
 Manages user sessions and dialogues.

Layer 5: Session layer network
 Establishes and terminates sessions between users.
protocols

om
Manages end-to-end message delivery in networks.

.c
Layer 4: Transport layer 

t
Renders reliable and sequential packet delivery through error

ve
t
sy
network protocols recovery and flow control mechanisms.

ea
 Routes packets according to unique network device

addresses.
Layer 3: Network layer
 Renders flow and congestion control to prevent network
protocols
resource depletion.
 Frames packets.
Layer 2: Data link layer
 Detects and corrects packet transmit errors.
network protocols
 Interfaces between network medium and devices.

Layer 1: Physical layer
 Defines optical, electrical, and mechanical characteristics.
network protocols
c. TCP/IP model
153
 The TCP/IP model was developed prior to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model is not exactly similar to the OSI model.
 The TCP/IP model consists of five layers: the application layer, transport layer, network
layer, data link layer and physical layer.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network interface, internetworking, and
transport functions that correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model and these four
layers are represented in TCP/IP model by a single layer called the application layer.
 TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol made up of interactive modules, and each of them provides
specific functionality.
Here, hierarchical means that each upper-layer protocol is supported by two or more lower-level
protocols.
Functions of TCP/IP layers: .c

om
t
vet
sy
ea
Figure 53: TCP/IP Layers

i. Network Access Layer
154
 A network layer is the lowest layer of the TCP/IP model.
 A network layer is the combination of the Physical layer and Data Link layer defined in the
OSI reference model.
 It defines how the data should be sent physically through the network.
 This layer is mainly responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.
 The functions carried out by this layer are encapsulating the IP datagram into frames
transmitted by the network and mapping of IP addresses into physical addresses.
 The protocols used by this layer are ethernet, token ring, FDDI, X.25, frame relay.
ii. Internet Layer
 An internet layer is the second layer of the TCP/IP model.

 An internet layer is also known as the network layer.
 The main responsibility of the internet layer is to send the packets from any network, and
om
they arrive at the destination irrespective of the route they take.

t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Following are the protocols used in this layer:
IP Protocol: IP protocol is used in this layer, and it is the most significant part of the entire
TCP/IP suite.
Following are the responsibilities of this protocol:
 IP Addressing: This protocol implements logical host addresses known as IP addresses. The
IP addresses are used by the internet and higher layers to identify the device and to provide
internetwork routing.
 Host-to-host communication: It determines the path through which the data is to be
transmitted.
 Data Encapsulation and Formatting: An IP protocol accepts the data from the transport
layer protocol. An IP protocol ensures that the data is sent and received securely, it
encapsulates the data into message known as IP datagram.
155
 Fragmentation and Reassembly: The limit imposed on the size of the IP datagram by data
link layer protocol is known as Maximum Transmission unit (MTU). If the size of IP
datagram is greater than the MTU unit, then the IP protocol splits the datagram into smaller
units so that they can travel over the local network. Fragmentation can be done by the sender
or intermediate router. At the receiver side, all the fragments are reassembled to form an
original message.
 Routing: When IP datagram is sent over the same local network such as LAN, MAN, WAN,
it is known as direct delivery. When source and destination are on the distant network, then
the IP datagram is sent indirectly. This can be accomplished by routing the IP datagram
through various devices such as routers.
ARP Protocol
 ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.

 ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to find the physical address from the IP
om
address.
t .c
ve
 The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
t
sy
ea
o ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it
broadcasts the ARP request to the network.
o ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and
process the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its
physical address in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address
both to its cache memory and to the datagram header
ICMP Protocol
 ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.

 It is a mechanism used by the hosts or routers to send notifications regarding datagram
problems back to the sender.
 A datagram travels from router-to-router until it reaches its destination. If a router is unable
to route the data because of some unusual conditions such as disabled links, a device is on
156
fire or network congestion, then the ICMP protocol is used to inform the sender that the
datagram is undeliverable.
 An ICMP protocol mainly uses two terms:
o ICMP Test: ICMP Test is used to test whether the destination is reachable or not.
o ICMP Reply: ICMP Reply is used to check whether the destination device is
responding or not.
 The core responsibility of the ICMP protocol is to report the problems, not correct them. The
responsibility of the correction lies with the sender.
 ICMP can send the messages only to the source, but not to the intermediate routers because
the IP datagram carries the addresses of the source and destination but not of the router that it
is passed to.
iii. Transport Layer
The transport layer is responsible for the reliability, flow control, and correction of data which is
om
being sent over the network.

.c
t
t ve
sy
ea
The two protocols used in the transport layer are User Datagram protocol and Transmission
control protocol.
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

o It provides connectionless service and end-to-end delivery of transmission.
o It is an unreliable protocol as it discovers the errors but not specify the error.
o User Datagram Protocol discovers the error, and ICMP protocol reports the error to
the sender that user datagram has been damaged.
o UDP consists of the following fields:
Source port address: The source port address is the address of the application
program that has created the message.
Destination port address: The destination port address is the address of the
application program that receives the message.
Total length: It defines the total number of bytes of the user datagram in bytes.
Checksum: The checksum is a 16-bit field used in error detection.
157
o UDP does not specify which packet is lost. UDP contains only checksum; it does not
contain any ID of a data segment.
Figure 54: User Datagram protocol

om
.c

t
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

ve
t
sy
o It provides a full transport layer services to applications.

ea
o It creates a virtual circuit between the sender and receiver, and it is active for the
duration of the transmission.
o TCP is a reliable protocol as it detects the error and retransmits the damaged frames.
Therefore, it ensures all the segments must be received and acknowledged before the
transmission is considered to be completed and a virtual circuit is discarded.
o At the sending end, TCP divides the whole message into smaller units known as
segment, and each segment contains a sequence number which is required for
reordering the frames to form an original message.
o At the receiving end, TCP collects all the segments and reorders them based on
sequence numbers.
iv. Application Layer
 An application layer is the topmost layer in the TCP/IP model.

 It is responsible for handling high-level protocols, issues of representation.
158
 This layer allows the user to interact with the application.
 When one application layer protocol wants to communicate with another application layer, it
forwards its data to the transport layer.
 There is an ambiguity occurs in the application layer. Every application cannot be placed
inside the application layer except those who interact with the communication system. For
example: text editor cannot be considered in application layer while web browser using
HTTP protocol to interact with the network where HTTP protocol is an application layer
protocol.
Following are the main protocols used in the application layer:
 HTTP: HTTP stands for Hypertext transfer protocol. This protocol allows us to access the
data over the World Wide Web. It transfers the data in the form of plain text, audio, video. It
is known as a Hypertext transfer protocol as it has the efficiency to use in a hypertext
environment where there are rapid jumps from one document to another.
om
 SNMP: SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework used for
.c
t
ve
managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol suite.
t
sy
ea
 SMTP: SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that supports
the e-mail is known as a Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol is used to send the data
to another e-mail address.
 DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. But, people prefer to use the names instead of
addresses. Therefore, the system that maps the name to the address is known as Domain
Name System.
 TELNET: It is an abbreviation for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between
the local computer and remote computer in such a way that the local terminal appears to be a
terminal at the remote system.
 FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. FTP is a standard internet protocol used for
transmitting the files from one computer to another computer.
f) Network Operating System
159
An operating system (OS) is basically a collection of software that manages computer hardware
resources and provides common services for computer programs. Operating system is a crucial
component of the system software in a computer system.
Network Operating System is one of the important type of operating system.
Network Operating System runs on a server and gives the server the capability to manage data,
users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. The basic purpose of the
network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in
a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Types of network operating systems
There are two basic types of network operating systems, the peer-to-peer NOS and
the client/server NOS:
om
.c
1. Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share network resources saved in a
t
ve
t
common, accessible network location. In this architecture, all devices are treated equally in
sy
ea
terms of functionality. Peer-to-peer usually works best for small to medium LANs and is
cheaper to set up.
2. Client/server network operating systems provide users with access to resources through a
server. In this architecture, all functions and applications are unified under one file server that
can be used to execute individual client actions regardless of physical location. Client/server
tends to be most expensive to implement and requires a large amount of technical
maintenance. An advantage to the client/server model is that the network is controlled
centrally, makes changes or additions to technology easier to incorporate.
Common features of network operating systems
Features of network operating systems are typically associated with user administration, system
maintenance and resource management functionality. This includes:
160
 Basic support for operating systems like protocol and processor support, hardware detection
and multiprocessing.
 Printer and application sharing.
 Common file system and database sharing.
 Network security capabilities such as user authentication and access control Directory
 Backup and web services.
 Internetworking.
Examples of network operating systems
True network operating systems are categorized as software that enhances the functionality of
operating systems by providing added network features. A few examples of these network
operating systems and their service providers are:
 Artisoft’s LANtastic- This is a simple, user-friendly NOS that supports most PC operating
om
systems.
t .c
ve
 Banyan’s VINES- This uses a client-server architecture to request specific functions and
t
sy
ea
services.
 Novell’s NetWare- This was the first network operating system to be released and is
designed based on XNS protocol architecture.
 Microsoft’s LAN Manager- This operates as a server application and was developed to run
under the Microsoft OS. Now, most of the functionality of LAN Manager is included in the
Windows OS itself.
In addition, some multi-purpose operating systems, such as Windows NT and

Digital's OpenVMS come with capabilities that enable them to be described as a network
operating system. Further, the most popular operating systems
like Windows, UNIX, Linux and Mac include built-in networking functions that may not require
additional network services.
161
 The trainee should visit the nearest server room and identify the network operating system
running on the various servers.
 In the visit above, the trainee should determine the various resources running on the server, if
any. The trainee will also determine if there are more resources that can be included, giving
reasons for each.
The trainee can be exposed to both Windows and LINUX environments.
1. What are Network protocols?
2. Illustrate how network protocols work using the OSI model.
3. What is ARP and which two terms are associated with this protocol?
4. What is a Network Operating System?
5. Illustrate some examples of network operating systems
om
t.c
ve

t
sy
ea
Tools
1. Network tool kit
2. Signal testers
Equipment
 Computer
 Cables
 Switches
 Routers/modem
 Bridges
 Repeaters
 Fibre modules
 Ports
 RJ45
162
 NIC
 Gateways
 RJ45
 Fibre Modules
 Cables
 Points
 Switches
 Routers
 NIC
 Modem
om

.c
Cables
t
ve
t
Cleaning materials;
sy
ea
Hand cleaner.
2.2.3.7 References
ACM SIGCOMM Symposium on Software Defined Networking Research (pp. 1-7).
2. Chen, C. W. (2005). U.S. Patent Application No. 10/776,527.
3. Kessler, G., & Shepard, S. (1994). RFC1739: A Primer On Internet and TCP/IP Tools.
2.2.3.8 Model Answers to Self -Assessment

What are Network protocols?
Network protocols are a set of rules, conventions, and data structures that dictate how devices
exchange data across networks.
Illustrate how network protocols work using the OSI model.
163
The OSI model splits the communication process between two network devices into 7 layers. A
task or group of tasks is assigned to each of these 7 layers. All the layers are self-contained, and
the tasks assigned to them can be executed independently.
What is ARP and which two terms are associated with this protocol?
ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol. ARP is a network layer protocol which is used to
find the physical address from the IP address.
The two terms are mainly associated with the ARP Protocol:
 ARP request: When a sender wants to know the physical address of the device, it broadcasts
the ARP request to the network.
 ARP reply: Every device attached to the network will accept the ARP request and process
the request, but only recipient recognize the IP address and sends back its physical address
in the form of ARP reply. The recipient adds the physical address both to its cache memory
and to the datagram header
What is a Network Operating System?
om
A network Operating system is one of the important type of operating system. Network Operating
.c
t
ve
System runs on a server and gives the server the capability to manage data, users, groups,
t
sy
ea
security, applications, and other networking functions. The basic purpose of the network
operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a
network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Illustrate some examples of network operating systems
True network operating systems are categorized as software that enhances the functionality of
operating systems by providing added network features. A few examples of these network
operating systems and their service providers are:
 Artisoft’s LANtastic- This is a simple, user-friendly NOS that supports most

PC operating systems.
 Banyan’s VINES- This uses a client-server architecture to request specific
functions and services.
 Novell’s NetWare- This was the first network operating system to be released
and is designed based on XNS protocol architecture.
164
 Microsoft’s LAN Manager- This operates as a server application and was
developed to run under the Microsoft OS. Now, most of the functionality of
LAN Manager is included in the Windows OS itself
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
165
2.2.4 Learning Outcome 4: Configure LAN Network Types
This learning outcome covers the procedures to assemble prerequisite components and medium,
connecting to establish the network, configuring individual network components, and
configuring network protocols.
2.2.4.2.1 Performance Standard
2.2.4.2.2 Devices for LAN network configuration are identified.
2.2.4.2.3 Connection of the devices in LAN is done.
2.2.4.2.4 Configuration of the LAN network is done.

How to setup and configure a Local Area Network
A LAN (Local Area Network), allows connected computers and devices to talk to each other
om
.c
and access the internet. They are smaller networks, usually within an office base. LAN is used to
t
ve
t
connect computing resources, typically inside one building. The computing resources can be
sy
ea
computers, printers, servers, IP phones, or routers. Connections between the workstations are
physical, with cables, and all the office resources are shared and distributed between the network
workstations. The most common type of LAN is that of Ethernet. This is a family of frame-based
computer networking technologies for LANs.
What You Need While Setting up LAN Network

While setting up a Local Area Network, you will need a cable router, Crossover Ethernet cables,
Ethernet cables, Ethernet switch, and Network interfaces.
Determining Your Network Needs

When setting up a LAN, you'll need to know how many computers will be connecting to the
network via Ethernet. This will determine the number of ports you'll need.
166
1. If you have four or less computers that you need to hardwire, you'll just need a router. If you
have more than four, you'll likely need to get a switch to extend the number of ports available
on your router.
2. If you want to allow devices to connect wirelessly, you'll need a router that can broadcast a
wireless network. Most routers you'll find at the store or online have wireless capabilities.
Network switches do not allow wireless devices to connect, and can only be used for
hardwired LANs or to extend the number of ports available to the router.
3. If you want all of the connected devices to have access to the internet, you'll need a router to
handle the connections. If you don't need the devices to have a network connection, you can
just use a network switch.
4. Measure the distances for all hardwired devices. This isn't much of an issue in most homes,
but network cables cannot run longer than 100m (328 ft). If you have to run cable farther
than this, you'll need switches in between.
Gather your network hardware.

om
.c
t
ve
To create a LAN, you'll need a router or switch, which will act as the hub of your network. These
t
sy
ea
devices route information to the correct computers.
1. A router will automatically handle assigning IP addresses to each device on the network, and
is necessary if you intend to share your internet connection with all the connected devices. It
is highly recommended that you build your network with a router, even if you're not sharing
an internet connection.
2. A network switch is like a simpler version of a router. It will allow connected devices to talk
to each other, but will not automatically assign IP addresses and will not share an internet
connection. Switches are best used to expand the number of LAN ports available on the
network, as they can be connected to the router.
Set up your router.
You don't need to do much to set up a router for a basic LAN. Just plug it into a power source,
preferably close to your modem if you plan on sharing the internet connection through it.
167
Connect your modem to your router (if necessary).
If you're sharing the internet connection from your modem, connect the modem to the
WAN/INTERNET port on the router. This is usually a different color from the other ports.
Connect your switch to your router (if necessary).
If you're using a switch to expand the number of ports available on the router, plug an Ethernet
cable into any LAN port on the router and any LAN port on the switch. This will expand the
network to the rest of the LAN ports on the switch.
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 55: Connect switch
Setup one PC as a DHCP server if you're just using a switch.
168
If you're only using a switch as your network hub, setting up one computer as a DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol) server will allow all of the connected computers to easily obtain IP
addresses.
 You can quickly create a DHCP server on one of your computers by installing a third-party
utility.
 The rest of the computers on the network will obtain IP addresses automatically once the
server is running, as long as they are set to do so.
Verify the network connection on each computer.

After each computer obtains an IP address, they'll be able to talk to each other on the network. If
you're using a router to share your internet connection, each computer will be able to access the
internet.
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 56: Verify network connection
169
Set up file and printer sharing.
Once your network is up, you won't see anything on other computers unless that computer has
shared files. You can designate files, folders, drives, printers, and other devices as shared so that
anyone on the network, or just specific users, can access them.
Creating a Wireless Network

Set up your router.
When you're setting up a wireless router, you'll need to keep a few things in mind:
 For easy troubleshooting, the router should usually be placed close to your modem.
 It should be located centrally to allow for maximum wireless coverage.
 You'll need to connect a computer to the router via Ethernet during the setup process.
Plug a computer into one of the router's LAN ports.

om
You'll be using your computer's web browser to configure the router's wireless network
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Open a web browser on your computer.

You can use any web browser.
Type in the router's IP address.

You can typically find this printed on the bottom of the router, or in your router's documentation.
If you can't find it, there are a couple things you can try:
 Windows - Right-click the Network button in the System Tray → click Open Network and
Sharing Center → click the Ethernet link → click Details → find the Default Gateway entry
for your router's IP address.
 Mac - Click the Apple menu and select System Preferences → click Network → click your
Ethernet connection → find the Router entry for your router's IP address.
170
Figure 57: Router IP address
Log in with the administrator account.

You'll be prompted for the login information for your router. The default login information
varies depending on your router model, but the username is often "admin" and the password is
om
often "admin," "password," or blank.

t.c
 You can look up your router model at https://portforward.com/router-password/ to find the

ve
t
sy
default login information.

ea
171
om
Figure 58: Login to router

t.c
ve
t
sy
Open the Wireless section of the router settings.

ea
The exact location and wording of this section varies from router to router.
172
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 59: wireless router setup

Change the name of your network in the SSID field.
This may also be called "Network name." This is the name that appears in the list of available
wireless networks
173
Figure 60: wireless router security settings
om
t.c
ve
t
Select WPA2-Personal as the Authentication or Security option.

sy
ea
This is the most secure option currently available on most routers. Avoid WPA and WEP except
when explicitly required by older, incompatible devices.
Figure 61: Wireless router key setup
174
Create a strong password.
This password will be required in order to connect to the network. The field may be labeled "Pre-
Shared Key."
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 62: Router configuration

Ensure the wireless network is enabled.
Depending on the router, you may have to check a box or click a button at the top of the Wireless
menu to enable the wireless network.
175
Figure 63: Router authentication
Click the Save or Apply button.

This will save the changes to your router.
om
.c
t
tve
sy
ea
176
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 64: wireless router settings
Wait while your router restarts.

It may take a minute for the router and network to come back online
177
Figure 65: connect to wireless router
Connect to the wireless network on your wireless devices.

Once the network is back up, it will appear on the available network list on any wireless devices
om
in range. When connecting to the network, users will be prompted to enter the password you
t.c
ve
created.
t
sy
 Computers connected to the router via Ethernet will not require a password.
ea

The trainee is required to set up one computer as a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) server and configure all of the connected computers to obtain IP addresses.
Setup a wireless network using a router.
Use a switch as your network hub, the rest of the computers on the network will obtain IP
addresses automatically once the server is running, as long as they are set to do so.
1. What do you Need While Setting up LAN Network?
2. To create a LAN, why do you need a router or switch?
3. How do you Setup one PC as a DHCP server if you're just using a switch.
178
4. When you're setting up a wireless router, what are the three things you'll need to keep in
mind?
5. Why is it necessary to select WPA2-Personal as the Authentication or Security option?
Tools
1. Network tool kit
2. Signal testers
Equipment
 Computer
 Cables
 Switches
 Routers/modem
 Bridges
 Repeaters
om
 Fibre modules
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
 Ports
 RJ45
 NIC
 Gateways
 RJ45
 Fibre Modules
 Cables
 Points
 Switches
 Routers
179
 NIC
 Modem
 Cables
Cleaning materials;
Hand cleaner.
2.2.4.7 References
1. Brooks, R. R. (2014). Introduction to computer and network security: navigating shades of
gray. Boca Raton ; London: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
2. Haeder, A. (2004). Conducting the Network Administrator Job Interview: IT Manager Guide
with Cisco CCNA Interview Questions (Vol. 4). Rampant TechPress.
ACM SIGCOMM Symposium on Software Defined Networking Research.
4.https://www.tutorialspoint.com/microwave_engineering/microwave_engineering_components.
om
htm
t .c
ve
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network#Underlying_technology
t
sy
ea
6. https://www.tutorialspoint.com/Wireless-Networks

What do you Need While Setting up LAN Network?
While setting up a Local Area Network, you will need a cable router, Crossover Ethernet cables,
Ethernet cables, Ethernet switch, and Network interfaces.
To create a LAN, why do you need a router or switch?
 A router will automatically handle assigning IP addresses to each device on the network,
and is necessary if you intend to share your internet connection with all the connected
devices. It is highly recommended that you build your network with a router, even if
you're not sharing an internet connection.
 A network switch is like a simpler version of a router. It will allow connected devices to
talk to each other, but will not automatically assign IP addresses and will not share an
180
internet connection. Switches are best used to expand the number of LAN ports available
on the network, as they can be connected to the router
How do you Setup one PC as a DHCP server if you're just using a switch.
If you're only using a switch as your network hub, setting up one computer as a DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol) server will allow all of the connected computers to easily obtain IP
addresses.
 You can quickly create a DHCP server on one of your computers by installing a third-party
utility.
 The rest of the computers on the network will obtain IP addresses automatically once the
server is running, as long as they are set to do so.
When you're setting up a wireless router, what are the three things you'll need to keep in
mind?
om

.c
For easy troubleshooting, the router should usually be placed close to your modem.
t
ve
t
sy
 It should be located centrally to allow for maximum wireless coverage.

ea
 You'll need to connect a computer to the router via Ethernet during the setup process.
Why is it necessary to select WPA2-Personal as the Authentication or Security option?
This is the most secure option currently available on most routers. Avoid WPA and WEP except
when explicitly required by older, incompatible devices
181
2.2.5 Learning Outcome 5: Perform Network Testing

This learning outcome covers outline of a network test plan, demonstration of network
testing tools, testing network components, entire network testing, and generating a network
test report.
om

.c
2.2.5.2.1 Testing tools are assembled

t
vet
sy
2.2.5.2.2 Network components are tested

ea
2.2.5.2.3 Testing of connectivity medium between components is done

2.2.5.2.4 Network testing is done
2.2.5.2.5 Testing report is generated

a) Creating a Network Test Plan
To prepare a plan to test the network. The plan defines the scope, approach, criteria, schedule,
responsibilities, resources, and procedures.
i. Define Objectives
Define the objectives of the test by identifying the areas of the network to be tested including:
 Volume Testing. Ensures that the network operates smoothly when subjected to production
volumes of data over long periods of time.
182
 Stress Testing. Ensures that the network operates smoothly when subjected to the maximum
load expected in production, all at one time. A good rule of thumb is to subject the network
to 25 percent more data and processing than is expected during peak loads.
 Recovery Testing. Ensures that backup and recovery procedures are working properly.
 Security Testing. Verifies that the network meets the security requirements.
 Performance Testing. Verifies that performance criteria are met (e.g., response times).
ii. Define Acceptance Criteria

For each test objective, define the criteria for successful completion. For example:
 All expected results are achieved on the initial run.
 All severe, and high priority faults are corrected and the associated test(s) rerun successfully.
 A documented plan is put in place specifying how and when outstanding low and medium
priority faults will be resolved. om
iii. Define Schedule

t .c
ve
Identify the high-level activities and tasks together with expected start and completion dates.
t
sy
ea
iv. Define Responsibilities

Identify the individuals who will be involved in the test and their roles and responsibilities.
v. Define Resources
Identify the staff, hardware, and software requirements. Confirm that the Network Deployment
Plan has accounted for these requirements and resolve any differences.
vi. Define Procedures

Define the procedures to be followed in preparing the test cases, preparing test scripts, preparing
the test environment, conducting tests, and verifying test results.
vii. Tips and Hints

Document any assumptions made while preparing the plan.
183
Plan to use automated test tools wherever possible to significantly reduce the testing effort and
duration. Automated test tools can be used to generate and apply an adequate number of
transactions to facilitate stress and performance testing.
b) Network Performance Testing Tools

Whenever you suspect something wrong with the performance of a network, your best course of
action is to run some tests to confirm that there is indeed an issue and also to help you locate it
and, eventually, fix it. There are many network performance testing tools available. So many that
picking the one that is the best fit for your specific need can turn out to be a hefty challenge.
c) What is network performance?

Network performance refers to measures of service quality of a network as seen by the
customer”. There are three essential elements to that definition. The first is the measures part. It
established clearly that network performance is something one has to measure. The next
om
important bit is the service quality of a network. Service quality is a generic concept but, as
t.c
ve
you’ll see, a few specific metrics are associated with it. The last important part is the customer.
t
sy
We’re not interested in network performance as a theoretical thing. What we need to measure is
ea
the true user experience.

Several different factors affect perceived network performance and are generally considered
important. The first two are bandwidth and throughput but there is often some confusion between
these two terms. Bandwidth refers to the carrying capacity of a network. As an analogy, think of
it as the number of lanes in a highway. Throughput, on the other hand, refers to the actual usage
of the available bandwidth. To keep our previous analogy, a four-lane highway has a bandwidth
of 4 000 vehicles per hour but its current throughput could be only 400 vehicles per hours or
10% of its capacity.
Latency, delay, and jitter are more factor affecting the perceived performance of networks.
Latency refers to the time data takes to travel from source to destination. It is mainly a function
of the signal’s travel time and processing time at any nodes it traverses. It is a physical limitation
that cannot be reduced. Delay, on the other hand, can sometimes be improved. It has to do with
the time it takes for networking equipment to process, queue, and forward data. Faster, more
powerful equipment will generally add less delay to the transmission. As for jitter, it refers to the
184
variation in packet delay at the receiving end of the conversation. Real-time or near-real-time
traffic is particularly affected by it as it can cause data packets to arrive out of sequence. In the
case of voice over IP, for example, this could result in unintelligible speech.
Many other factors can also affect network performance. The error rate is one of them. It refers
to the number of corrupted bits expressed as a percentage or fraction of the total sent.
d) Testing the Network

How does one go about measuring performance from a true user’s perspective? Well, there is, of
course, the possibility of having real users running tests but this can tend to be rather impractical.
The next best thing is using a network performance testing system that uses probes deployed at
strategic location throughout your network and that can run actual simulation tests between each
other to measure true performance using specific types of traffic. This, however, can also tend to
be impractical as it requires some preliminary setup. It won’t be of much assistance to help
troubleshoot a sudden issue.
om
In these cases, what you need is a quick and dirty solution. A simple application that you can
t .c
ve
quickly deploy or install at either end of the segment you need to test and that will let you
t
sy
ea
manually configure and run simulation tests.
e) Testing vs monitoring
Another important distinction to be made is the one between performance monitoring and
performance testing. These are two similar concepts but there are a few differences. The basic
idea is the same: simulating real user traffic and measuring the actual performance of the
network. Where it differs is in how and when it is done. Monitoring systems run constantly and
perform recurring tests between preconfigured locations and using predefined simulation models.
A dashboard will typically be available to display the latest test results and reports can often be
generated for various purposes.
Testing is different in that it is typically an ad-hoc process that is run manually whenever a
problem is reported or suspected. Tests are also typically run between two specific points on the
network where one suspects a problem is. The test will often help identify and pinpoint the
problem.
185
f) Network testing tools
i. Clamp Meter
A clamp meter is an electrical test tool that combines a basic digital multimeter with a current
sensor.
Clamps measure current. Probes measure voltage. Having a hinged jaw integrated into an
electrical meter allows technicians to clamp the jaws around a wire, cable or other conductor at
any point in an electrical system, then measure current in that circuit without
disconnecting/deenergizing it.
Beneath their plastic moldings, hard jaws consist of ferrite iron and are engineered to detect,
concentrate and measure the magnetic field being generated by current as it flows through a
conductor.
ii. Voltmeter
A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electric potential difference between two points
in an electric circuit. Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the
om
voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog-
t .c
ve
to-digital converter.
t
sy
ea
iii. Cable Tester/ Signal Tester

A cable tester is a device used to test the strength and connectivity of a particular type of cable or
other wired assemblies. There are many different types of cable testers. Each of them can test a
specific type of cable or wire (some may be able to test different types of cables or wires). A
cable tester can test whether a cable or wire is set up properly, connected correctly, and the
signal strength between the source and destination.
g) Some network performance network utilities

1. SolarWinds WAN Killer (Part Of The Engineer’s Toolset)
SolarWinds is a common name in the field of network administration. The company is famous
for making some of the best network administration tools on the market. Its flagship product, the
Network Performance Monitor is generally recognized as one of the best network bandwidth
monitoring tools available. And as if it wasn’t enough, SolarWinds has also gifted us with
several free tools, each addressing a specific need of network administrators. Such tools include
the famous SolarWinds TFTP Server and the Advanced Subnet Calculator.
186
Although it’s not a network performance testing tool per se, the WAN Killer Network Traffic
Generator can be very useful in combination with other tools. Its sole purpose is generating
network traffic. It allows administrators to use other performance testing tools for testing
performance under high traffic situations, something that not many tools do by themselves.
The tool, which is part of the SolarWinds Engineer’s Toolset, will let you easily set the IP
address and hostname you want to send the random traffic to. It will also let you specify
parameters such as port numbers, packet size, and percentage of bandwidth to use. It can even let
you modify the Differentiated Services Code Point (DSCP) and Explicit Congest Notification
(ECN) settings.
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 66 An official download link has been provided below

 Official download link: https://www.solarwinds.com/engineers-toolset/registration
This tool’s primary use is for tasks such as testing traffic prioritization and load balancing. You
can also use it to make sure that your network is correctly set up and that huge amounts of
unimportant traffic—as generated by this tool—won’t have adverse effect critical traffic. The
level of fine-tuning the tool allows will let you simulate almost any type of situation.
187
The SolarWinds WAN Killer Network Traffic Generator is part of the Engineer’s Toolset, a
bundle of over 60 different tools. The toolset includes a mix of the most important free tools
from SolarWinds combined with many exclusive tools that you won’t find elsewhere. And most
of the included tools are integrated into a common dashboard from where they can be easily
accessed.
Other Components Of The SolarWinds Engineer’s Toolset
The SolarWinds Engineer’s Toolset includes several dedicated troubleshooting tools. Tools
like Ping Sweep, DNS Analyzer and TraceRoute can be used to perform network diagnostics and
help resolve complex network issues quickly. For the security-oriented administrators, some of
the toolset’s tools can be used to simulate attacks and help identify vulnerabilities.
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 67: Solarwinds toolset

The toolset also features some excellent monitoring and alerting capabilities. Some of its tools
will monitor your devices and raise alerts for availability or health issues. And finally, you can
use some of the included tools for configuration management and log consolidation.
Here’s a list of some of the other tools you’ll find in the SolarWinds Engineer’s Toolset:
188
 Port Scanner
 Switch Port Mapper
 SNMP sweep
 IP Network Browser
 MAC Address Discovery
 Ping Sweep
 Response Time Monitor
 CPU Monitor
 Memory Monitor
 Interface Monitor
 TraceRoute
 Router Password Decryption
 SNMP Brute Force Attack
 SNMP Dictionary Attack
om
 Config Compare, Downloader, Uploader, and Editor

t .c
ve
 SNMP trap editor and SNMP trap receiver

t
sy

ea
Subnet Calculator
 DHCP Scope Monitor
 DNS Structure Analyzer
 DNS Audit
 IP Address Management
2. LAN Speed Test
LAN Speed Test from TotuSoft is a simple but powerful tool for measuring file transfer, hard
drive, USB Drive, and network speeds. All you need to do is pick a destination on the server
where you want to test the WAN connection. The tool will then build a file in memory and
transfer it both ways while measuring the time it takes. It then does all the calculations for you
and gives you an evaluation of the transfer’s performance.
189
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 68: LAN Speed Test

You can also choose a computer running the LAN Speed Test Server instead of a shared folder
as a destination. This effectively takes disk access component out of the equation, giving you a
true measure of the network’s performance. The tool is initially set up in its Lite, feature-limited
version. To access the advanced features of the standard version, you must purchase a license
which is available for only ten dollars, with quantity discounts available. The tool is portable and
will run on any Windows version since Windows 2000.
3. LAN Bench
Despite the fact that its developer’s site no longer exists, LAN Bench from Zack Saw is still
readily available for download from several software download websites. It is a free and portable
TCP network benchmarking utility. The tool is based on Winsock 2.2, a rather old framework
but one with minimal CPU usage. That way, you can be reasonably sure that poor CPU
190
performance won’t come and pollute your network performance test results. All the tool does is
test the network performance between two computers but what it does, it does well.
Figure 69: LAN Bench

om
You’ll need to run LAN Bench on two computers, at either end of the network segment you
t.c
ve
t
want to test. One instance runs as the server and the other one is the client. The server-side
sy
ea
requires no configuration. All you need to do is click the Listen button. The tool’s testing
configuration is all done on the client side, before starting the test. You will need to specify the
server’s IP address and you can adjust several testing parameters such as the total duration of the
test, the packet size used for testing, as well as the connection and transfer mode.
4. NetIO & NetIO-GUI

NetIO-GUI is actually a free front end for the multi-platform command line utility NetIO.
Together, they form a very potent performance testing tool. It can be used to measures ICMP
response times as well as network transfer speeds for different packet sizes and protocols. All the
results are stored in an SQLite database and can easily be compared. This Windows tool is
available either as an installable software or as a portable tool.
191
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 70: NetIO-GUI

In order to run tests, you need two instances of the tool, one at either end. One side will run in
client mode while the other will run in server mode. Using it is rather simple, once you have it
running at both ends, you click the start button on the server (typically running at the far end)
and, on the client, you simply enter the server’s IP address and pick the protocol (TCP or UDP)
that you want to use to run the test. You start the test and let NetIO test the connectivity using
various packet sizes before it returns the test results.
5. NetStress
Initially created as an internal tool by Nuts About Nets, NetStress has since started being offered
to the public. It is yet another free and simple network benchmarking tool. Like most other
similar products, you’ll have to run the tool on two computers at either end of the network that
192
you need to test. It is somewhat easier to use than other tools because it can automatically find
the receiver IP address.
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 71: NetStress
Running a test with NetStress is very simple, although some might not find it self-explanatory.
What you need to do is click on the 0.0.0.0 next to Remote Received IP. You then select the IP
address that is listed in the window and click OK. Doing that will enable the Start button. Once
enabled, you simply click it and the tool starts testing and measuring the TCP and UDP
throughput. An interesting option found in this tool the ability to modify the MTU size used for
testing. Despite some quirks such as the inability to resize its full-screen window, NetStress is a
pretty good tool.
6. Aida32
193
Aida32 is officially a discontinued product that has been replaced by Aida64 but this older
version still very popular and easy to find. Aida is a hardware information and benchmarking
tool that can perform many different tests. The reason this specific—and older—version has
made it to our list is because it includes an excellent Network Benchmark tool which is no longer
available in recent versions. Using the plugin is easy and it can be started from the tool’s Plugin
Menu
om
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea
Figure 72: AIDA 32

Aida32 tool is not very diffèrent in its opérations from most others on this list and you’ll need to
run it at both ends of the path you want to test. On one of the computers, you need to select
Master from the drop-down list that you’ll find at the bottom of the tool’s window. You then go
to the Bandwidth tab and click the Start button. On the other computer, you select Slave instead
of Master and enter the IP address of the master. Just like you did on the master, you go to the
Bandwidth tab and click Start. Once the test completes, the Save button can be used to
conveniently save the bandwidth chart in bitmap format.
7. PerformanceTest
194
Pass Mark’s Performance Test is a complete PC performance benchmarking software. It made
it to our list because it features a pretty decent advanced network testing tool that one can use to
run network performance tests. The too can run tests on both IPv4 and IPv6 networks.
Furthermore, it will let users set the data block size used for testing. It will also allow you to
enable UDP bandwidth throttling if you so desire. The network module is well-hidden within the
PerformanceTest application. You can access it by clicking advanced and then Network from
the tool’s menu bar.
om
.c
t
t ve
sy
ea
Figure 73:PassMArk Advance

 The trainee is required to download SolarWinds WAN Killer from the official download
link and install the free 14 day trial on their personal computer.
 Using the accompanying and appropriate toolsets, specify parameters such as port numbers,
packet size, and percentage of bandwidth to use.
Use only the toolsets available on free trial.
195
1. What is network performance?
2. Create a distinction between network testing and network monitoring.
Tools
1. Network tool kit
2. Signal testers
Equipment
 Computer
 Cables
 Switches
 Routers/modem
 Bridges
 Repeaters
 Fibre modules
om
t.c
ve

t
Ports
sy
ea
 RJ45
 NIC
 Gateways
 RJ45
 Fibre Modules
 Cables
 Points
 Switches
 Routers
 NIC
196
 Modem
 Cables
Cleaning materials;
 Hand cleaner.
2.2.5.7 References
Brooks, R. R. (2014). Introduction to computer and network security: navigating shades of gray.
Boca Raton ; London: CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group.
Pelle, I., Lévai, T., Németh, F., & Gulyás, A. (2015, June). One tool to rule them all: A modular
troubleshooting framework for sdn (and other) networks. In Proceedings of the 1st ACM
SIGCOMM Symposium on Software Defined Networking Research (pp. 1-7).
Chen, C. W. (2005). U.S. Patent Application No. 10/776,527
https://docs.oracle.com/cd/E19504-01/802-5753/planning3-78185/index.html
https://www.practicalnetworking.net/stand-alone/classful-cidr-flsm-vlsm/#vlsm
https://www.vskills.in/certification/tutorial/basic-network-support/a-b-and-c-classes-of-
om
networks/
t .c
ve
t
sy
ea

What is network performance?
Network performance refers to measures of service quality of a network as seen by the
customer”. There are three essential elements to that definition. The first is the measures part. It
established clearly that network performance is something one has to measure. The next
important bit is the service quality of a network. Service quality is a generic concept but, as
you’ll see, a few specific metrics are associated with it. The last important part is the customer.
We’re not interested in network performance as a theoretical thing. What we need to measure is
the true user experience.
Create a distinction between network testing and network monitoring.
These are two similar concepts but there are a few differences. The basic idea is the same:
simulating real user traffic and measuring the actual performance of the network. Where it
differs is in how and when it is done. Monitoring systems run constantly and perform recurring
tests between preconfigured locations and using predefined simulation models. A dashboard will
197
typically be available to display the latest test results and reports can often be generated for
various purposes.
Testing is different in that it is typically an ad-hoc process that is run manually whenever a
problem is reported or suspected. Tests are also typically run between two specific points on the
network where one suspects a problem is. The test will often help identify and pinpoint the
problem.
om
t.c
ve
t
sy
ea
198

Comp Network

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Comp Network

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Comp Network

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CHAPTER 2: COMPUTER NETWORKING

Unit of learning code: IT/CU/ICT/CR/1/5

Related Unit of Competency in Occupational Standard: Perform Computer Networking

2.1 Introduction to the unit of learning

2.2 Summary of Learning Outcomes

5. Perform Network testing

2.2.1 Learning Outcome 1: Identify Network Type and Components

2.2.1.2 Introduction to the Learning Outcome

2.2.1.3 Performance Standard

b) Key terms in Computer Networks

3. TCP/IP Model Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol Model is

based on four layer model which is based on Protocols.

Transmission frequency. Power requirement is high when compared with

14. Digital It is a sequence of voltage pulses. It is basically a series of

A network topology is the arrangement of computer devices in computer network to establish

different nodes are connected and communicated together within a network.

Physical and Logical Topology

Point to point topology

Advantages of Star Topology

Figure 30 Bus toplolgy

3. Ring Topology - Single vs. Dual

Figure 31: Ring topology

each of the branches can be individually assessed for performance issues.

Cons of Tree Topology

within the network without the need for routing logic.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

Figure 35: Hybrid topology

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

d) Computer Network Types

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

4. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

services and multiprotocol label switching (MPLS), which is a form of data-forwarding

include 4G/5G and Long-Term Evolution (LTE) networks.

e) Computer Network Components

Following are the major components required to install a network:

Figure 36: Network interface card

with wired NIC to transfer data.

Figure 38: A Network Switch

networks are affected that are served by the router.

existing telephone line.

 Standard PC modem or Dial-up modem

Figure 40: modem

6. Cables and Connectors (media)

Cable is a transmission media used for transmitting a signal.

There are three types of cables used in transmission:

 Twisted pair cable

2.2.1.5 Learning Activities

type and topologies in place.

Special instructions related to learning activities

2.2.1.7 Tools, Equipment, Supplies and Materials

2.2.1.8 Model answers to self-assessment

With an aid of a diagram, demonstrate a star topology.

2.2.2.2 Performance Standard

2.2.2.3 Information Sheet

a) Network connection media

In network communications, a connection or transmission medium is a physical connection or an

transmission media, namely: