College of Natural and Computational Science

Department of Physics

Introduction to Laser and Optics

Exit-Exam Module

By:

➢ Seblewongel Getachew (M.Sc.)

January 2023

Bonga, Ethiopia
 CHAPTER ONE

WAVE

A wave is a disturbance in a medium that transports energy without causing net particle
movement. Elastic deformation, pressure variations, electric or magnetic intensity, electric
potential, or temperature variations are all examples.

Fig. 1 Pictorial representation of waves.

1.1.Characteristics of Waves

Waves include the following characteristics:

• The particles of the medium traversed by a wave vibrate only slightly about their mean
positions, but they are not permanently displaced in the wave’s propagation direction.

• Along with or perpendicular to the wave’s line of travel, each succeeding particle of the
medium performs a motion quite identical to its predecessors.

• During wave motion, only energy is transferred, but not a piece of the medium.

1.2.Types of Waves

(1) Based on Propagation

(i) Mechanical waves: Waves which requires a material medium for their propagation
are calledmechanical waves.Ex: Seismic waves, Water waves, sound waves etc.

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Characteristics:

1. They cannot propagate in vacuum.

2. Particles in the medium will vibrate.
3. Depends on elastic properties of the medium.
(ii) Electromagnetic waves: Waves which do not require a material medium for their
propagationare called mechanical waves.Ex: Light waves, X-rays, micro waves etc.

Characteristics:

1. They can travel in vacuum

2. Speed of the wave is 299792458 m/s
3. Electric and magnetic field will oscillate
(iii) Matter waves: Waves associated with moving material particles are called matter
waves.Louis de Broglie theoretically suggested that a moving matter such as electron,
proton, neutron,atoms or molecules is associated with matter waves.

(2) Based on Vibration of particles of the medium.

(i) Transverse waves: If the oscillations/vibrations in the medium are perpendicular to

thedirection of wave propagation, then the waves are called transverse waves.
Ex: Light waves, Seismic S-waves etc.

Characteristics:

1. They contain alternate crests and troughs.

2. Crests are the elevations formed in the medium and troughs are the depression formed in
amedium.
3. Transverse waves are either mechanical or electromagnetic.
4. They can travel only in solids, if waves are mechanical.
(ii) Longitudinal waves: If the oscillations/vibrations in the medium are along or parallel
to thedirection of wave propagation, then the waves are called transverse waves.
Ex: Sound waves, pressure waves, Seismic P-waves etc.

Characteristics:

1. They contain alternate compressions and rarefactions.

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 2. Compressions are the portion of the medium having more density and rarefactions are
theportions of the medium having less density.
3. They are always mechanical.
4. They can travel in solids, liquids and gases.

Formula for Speed of Wave

It’s the entire distance a wave travels in a particular amount of time. The formula for calculating
wave speed is as follows:

Wave Speed = Distance Covered/Time taken

1.3.Properties of Waves

The following are the primary characteristics of waves:

• Amplitude – A wave is a form of energy transmission. The amplitude of a wave is its

height, which is commonly measured in meters. It is proportional to the quantity of
energy transported by a wave.

• Wavelength – A wavelength is a distance between identical locations in adjacent cycles

of crests of a wave. In addition, it is measured in meters.

• Period – A wave’s period is the amount of time it takes a particle on a medium to

complete one complete vibrational cycle. Because the period is a unit of time, it is
measured in seconds or minutes.

• Frequency – The number of waves passing a spot in a certain amount of time is referred
to as the frequency of a wave. The hertz (Hz) unit of frequency measures one wave every
second.

The frequency’s reciprocal is the period, and vice versa.

Period=1 / Frequency

OR

Frequency = 1 / Period

• Speed – The speed of an object refers to how quickly it moves and is usually stated as the
distance traveled divided by the time it takes to travel. The distance traveled by a specific

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 point on the wave (crest) in a given amount of time is referred to as the wave’s speed. A
wave’s speed is thus measured in meters per second or m/s.

1.4.Electromagnetic Waves
1.4.1. What are Electromagnetic Waves?

Electromagnetic (EM) waves are waves that are related to both electricity and magnetism. These
waves travel over space and are made up of time-varying electric and magnetic fields.

When electric and magnetic fields interact and change over time, electromagnetic waves are
produced. These waves, which are linked to electricity and magnetism, would almost certainly
travel beyond space.

The electromagnetic equations are derived using Maxwell’s equations. These EM waves,
according to Maxwell, have a wide range of unique properties that can be applied to a variety of
purposes. Electromagnetic waves are the connected temporally changing electric and magnetic
fields that flow through space.

The magnetic field varies with time and gives rise to the electric field; the electric field changes
with time and gives rise to the magnetic field again, and so on. When time-varying electric and
magnetic fields are coupled and propagate together in space, electromagnetic waves are formed.

Fig. 2 Electromagnetic Wave

The magnetic field, like the electric field, is a sine wave, except it goes in the opposite direction.
Both of these fields (Electric and magnetic) generate electromagnetic fields. When the electric
field is along the x-axis and the magnetic field is along the y-axis, the wave propagates on the z-

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axis. The propagation direction of waves and the electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular
to each other.

1.4.2. Formation of Electromagnetic waves

In general, a charged particle generates an electric field. Other charged particles are pushed by
this electric field. Negative charges accelerate in the opposite direction of the field, while
positive charges accelerate in the field’s direction. The magnetic field is created by a travelling
charged particle. Other moving particles are pushed by this magnetic field. Because the force
acting on these charges is always perpendicular to their motion, it only influences the velocity’s
direction, not its speed.

As a result, the electromagnetic field is created by an accelerating charged particle. Electric and
magnetic fields travelling at the speed of light c through open space are referred to as
electromagnetic waves. A charged particle is considered to be accelerating when it oscillates
about an equilibrium place. The charged particle produces an electromagnetic wave of frequency
f if its oscillation frequency is f. This wave’s wavelength λ can be determined using the formula
λ = c/f. Electromagnetic waves are a sort of space-based energy transfer.

1.4.3. Sources of Electromagnetic Wave (EM)

• Electromagnetic waves are created when electrically charged particles vibrate. The
vibration of the electric field associated with the speeding charge produces an oscillating
magnetic field. These vibrating electric and magnetic fields produce electromagnetic
waves.

• When the charge is at rest, the electric field associated with it is also static. As a result,
because the electric field does not change with time, no EM waves are generated.

• A charge travelling at uniform velocity has no acceleration. Because the change in

electric field with time is also constant, no electromagnetic waves would be generated.
This illustrates that the only way to make EM waves is to accelerate charges.

• Consider the instance of an oscillating charge particle. It has an oscillating electric field
that creates an oscillating magnetic field. After then, the oscillating magnetic field
generates an oscillating electric field, and so on.

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 • The propagation of the wave = the regeneration of electric and magnetic fields.

• All of these events are contained in an electromagnetic wave. It’s also worth noting that
the frequency of an EM wave is always equal to that of the oscillating particle that
produces it.

1.4.4. Nature of Electromagnetic waves

• Transverse waves are Electromagnetic waves. The disturbance or displacement in the

medium caused by transverse waves is perpendicular to the wave’s propagation direction.
In such a wave, the medium particles travel in a path perpendicular to the wave’s
propagation direction.

• The electric and magnetic fields will be perpendicular to an EM wave propagating along
the x-axis. When wave propagation is parallel to the x-axis, the electric field is parallel to
the y-axis, and the magnetic field is parallel to the z-axis.

• In nature, Electromagnetic waves are clearly transverse waves. The electric field of an
EM wave is now provided by,

Ey = E0sin(kx-ωt )

where, Ey is the x-axis represents wave propagation, while the y-axis represents the electric field.

• The following formula is used to compute the wavenumber-

k = (2π/ωt)

• The magnetic field of an electromagnetic wave is created by,

Bz = B0sin( kx-ωt )

where, Bz is the electric field is along the z-axis, while the wave propagation direction is x.

B0 = (E0/c)

Here, we do some electromagnetic wave observations. In free space or vacuum, they’re self-
sustaining electric and magnetic field oscillations. The electric and magnetic field vibrations are
unlike any other waves we’ve looked at so far in that there is no material medium involved.
Longitudinal compression and rarefaction waves are compressions and rarefaction waves in the
air. A rigid, shear-resistant solid can also propagate transverse elastic (sound) waves.

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1.4.5. Energy of Electromagnetic waves

• EM waves carry energy with them as they move. As a result of this feature, they have a
wide range of uses in our daily lives. The energy of an EM wave is carried in part by an
electric field and partly by a magnetic field.

• The total energy stored per unit volume in an EM wave is calculated as,

ET = Per unit volume electric field energy is stored + stored magnetic field energy per unit
volume

ET = (1/2)(E2ε0) + (1/2)(B2μ0)

• Experimentally, it has been discovered that,

Speed of an EM wave = Speed of light

ET = (1/2)(E2ε0) + (1/2)(E2/c2μ0)

• Maxwell’s equations-

ET = (1/2)(E2ε0) + (1/2)(E2μ0ε0)

ET = E2ε0

Mathematical Representation of Electromagnetic Wave

It’s a plane we’re talking about. In the x-direction, the shape of an electromagnetic wave is

E(x , t) = Emax cos(kx – ωt + φ)

B(x , t) = Bmax cos(kx – ωt + φ)

where,

• E = electric field vector in an electromagnetic wave,

• B = magnetic field vector in an electromagnetic wave.

Maxwell was the first to envision electromagnetic radiations, while Hertz was the first to
experimentally confirm the presence of an electromagnetic wave. The propagation direction of
an electromagnetic wave is determined by the vector cross product of the electric and magnetic
fields. It’s written like this:

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1.4.6. Characteristics of EM waves

• The velocity of EM waves in open space or vacuum is a fundamental constant. In

experiments, the velocity of EM waves was discovered to be the same as the speed of
light. (c = 3 × 108 m/s). c is a basic constant defined as follows :

c = 1/√μ0ε0

• EM waves require time-varying electric and magnetic fields to propagate.

Electromagnetic waves convey both energy and velocity.

• ET=E2ε0 is the total energy stored per unit volume in EM waves (Partly carried by an
electric field and partly by magnetic field). This is a vital element for EM waves practical
applications since they carry both energy and momentum.

• EM waves are used in communication, such as in cell phone speech communication.

• Electromagnetic waves (EM waves) apply pressure. Because they carry energy and
momentum, they exert pressure. The force exerted by electromagnetic waves is known as
radiation pressure.

• The form of sunlight that we receive from the sun, for example, is visible light rays.
These light beams are included in EM waves. Our hand will become warm and sweaty if
we leave them in the sun for a long time. Because sunlight is transmitted in the form of
energy-carrying electromagnetic waves (EM waves), this occurs.

• Assume that the total energy transferred to the hand is equal to E. Momentum = (E/c)
Because c is so huge, the momentum appears to be little. The pressure is also low because
the momentum is so low. Because of this, our hands are not affected by the sun’s
pressure.

1.4.7. Applications of Electromagnetic Waves

1. These waves assist the pilot in navigating the aircraft and accomplishing a smooth take-
off and landing. They’re also used to figure out how fast planes are flying.

2. Radio and television broadcasting signals are transmitted via electromagnetic waves.

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 3. In the medical field, these waves can be used in a variety of ways. X-rays and laser eye
surgery, for example.

4. They are utilized in electronic equipment like television remote controls, remote vehicles,
LED televisions, microwave ovens, and so on.

5. Electromagnetic waves can be used to determine the speed of passing cars.

1.4.8. Electromagnetic Spectrum

Definition: Full range of electromagneticwaves; all forms of light.

The types of light are classified by theirfrequency and wavelength.The types of light, in order of
increasing energy are:

• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared waves
• Visible Light – the only one we see
• Ultraviolet light
• X rays
• Gamma rays

Remember: the higher the frequency the more energy

➢ Gamma rays are the highest energy form of e-mag waves, while radio waves are the
lowest energy
➢ The visible spectrum is a very small portion of theelectromagnetic spectrum.
➢ Contains the colors of light ROY G BIV
➢ The color of light is determined by its wavelengthand frequency
➢ Red is the lowest energy visible light, and violetis the highest energy form of visible
light.
➢ All colors travel at the same speed in a vacuum.
➢ Higher energy forms of e-mag waves, such as,
➢ x-rays and gamma rays can penetrate matter.

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 ➢ This can be useful in inspecting items, but arealso dangerous in large quantities to
livingorganisms.

Brightness or intensity of light decreases by the square of the distance from the source (inverse
square law).

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 CHAPTER TWO

LIGHT AND COLOR

Light is a wave which transfers energy from one place to another. It is most easily detected by
our eyes, which is a very important sense that we often take for granted.

Light travels in straight lines called rays.A beam of light consists of many rays travelling
together.

The rays can travel in three ways:

We can use different terms to describe light:

➢ Color
➢ Wavelength
➢ Frequency
2.1.Characteristics of light
❖ Light is an electromagnetic wave. As shown below, an electromagnetic wave is a
transverse wave consisting of mutuallyperpendicular oscillating electric and magnetic
fields.
❖ Electromagnetic waves are ultimately produced by an acceleratingcharge. A changing
electric field produces a changing magnetic field which in turn produces a changing
electric field and soon. Because of this relationship between the changing electric and
magnetic fields, an electromagnetic wave is a self-propagating wave that can travel
through a vacuum or a material medium since electric and magnetic fields can exist
ineither one.

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 ❖ All electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light. Electromagnetic waves are
distinguished from each other by their differences in wavelengths and frequencies
(wavelength is inversely related to frequency).
❖ c=fλ c = speed of light = 3.0 x 108 m/s in a vacuum = 300,000 km/s = 186,000 miles/s
❖ A light year is the distance that light travels in one year in a vacuum.
❖ The electromagnetic spectrum is a continuum of all electromagnetic waves arranged
according to frequency and wavelength.
❖ Visible light is only a small portion of the entire electromagnetic spectrum.
2.2.Behavior of light at a boundary
 Whenever light (or any wave) encounters a different medium one of three things can
happen. The light can be absorbed bythe new medium and turned into internal energy
and/or heat, the light can be transmitted through the new medium, or thelight can be
reflected back into the original medium. In reality, what most often happens is a
combination of the three fates.
 Good mirrors reflect about 90 percent of the incident light and absorb the rest. If the light
is reflected the angle of thereflected ray will be equal to the angle of the incident ray. If
the ray is transmitted into the new medium the ray may be bentor refracted.

When Light encounters Matter, the 3 possible “fates” to befall the energy of the light when it
interacts with matter/substances:

1. Reflected – Reflection of the light bounces the energy back into the same medium that it
came from.

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 2. Transmitted through – The light can travel through the new material while undergoing
varying degrees of interaction with the substances’ molecules.
3. Absorbed – The light energy can be completely absorbed into the molecules of the
substance and turned into heat.
2.3.Nature of light

That light is a wave has been demonstrated by Newton’s ring phenomenon in the eighteenth
century (1717). In 1801, Thomas Young demonstrated the double slit experiment for light that
further confirmed its wave nature. But by the beginning of the 20-th century, one has to accept
that light is both a particle, called a photon, carrying a quantum of energy with momentum, as
well as a particle endowed with wave-like behavior. This is called wave-particle duality.

The key difference between wave and particle nature of light is that the wave nature of light
states that light can behave as an electromagnetic wave, whereas the particle nature of light states
that light consists of particles called photons.

Dueling theories

a. Classical wave theory says that light is a traveling wave, and this satisfies such
phenomena as interference and diffraction.
b. Quantum theory, with says light can be a particle is necessary to explain the
photoelectric and Compton effects. The two were combined to produce a description of
the dual nature of light.

At the end of the 19th century, James Clerk Maxwell combined electricity, magnetism, and light
into one theory. He called his theory the electromagnetic theory of light. According to Maxwell,
light was an electromagnetic wave with the same properties as other electromagnetic waves.
Maxwell’s theory, however, was unable to explain the photoelectric effect. In 1900, Max Planck
suggested that light was transmitted and absorbed in small bundles of energy called “quanta.”
Albert Einstein agreed with Planck’s theory and explained the photoelectric effect using a
particle model of light. The quantum theory combines the two major theories of light, suggesting
that light does not always behave as a particle and light does not always behave as a wave.

2.3.1. Wave Particle Duality

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To explain all electromagnetic phenomena, light has to be considered sometimes as a wave and
other times as a beam of photons. When it interacts with small (quantized systems), such as
atoms, nuclei, and molecules, the photon (quantized energy) picture must be used. In everyday-
sized systems – for example, slit systems causing diffraction and interference – the wave model
is applicable.

2.3.1.1.Dual Nature of Light (As a Particle)

The scientist who debated much on light as a particle was Sir Isaac Newton, with his prism
experiments Sir Isaac proved that light travels in a shower of particles, each proceeding in a
straight line until it is refracted, absorbed, reflected, diffracted or disturbed in some other
manner.

Evidence that light is a particle:

Light travels in straight lines; if light is a particle, then it won’t be able to diffract after going
through an opening or around an obstacle. Particles always move in straight lines and since light
seem to move in straight lines then that suggests that light is a particle.

Light can travel though a vacuum; during Newton’s era the only waves that anybody knew
much about were mechanical waves which by nature need a medium to move through, such as
sound. Though these were early ages scientists still had the understanding and agreed that
between the earth and sun was a vacuum, so how could light reach earth if it was a wave? Then
again if light is a particle, it would have no trouble moving through a vacuum.

Photons

Light behaves in some ways as if it consists of discrete particles rather than infinitely variable
waves. These particles have been designated photons.

Characteristics of these photons:

➢ Any single photon has a fixed, discrete energy level.

➢ Each color of light has its own unique energy level and it is not possible to increase or
decrease the energy of that single photon without changing its wavelength or absorbing it
completely therefore ending its existence.

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 ➢ The intensity of visible light can be increased or decreased only by changing the number
of photons present.
➢ Actually, photons are not particles in the physical sense that we normally associate with
that word. Rather, they consist of discrete bundles of energy which are fixed in
magnitude. As a result, each photon takes on some of the characteristics of a physical
particle.

Viewed in this context, light still does not change its basic behavior. These apparent particles
areelectrically neutral, so they tend to travel in straight lines, without being affected by
eithermagnetic fields or electrical fields.

The Photoelectric Effect

We know that a photon is a bundle of energy; we also know that photons can transfer its energy
to anelectron; this is what happens in the Photoelectric effect. The Photoelectric effect is
phenomenon thathappens when matter such as metals and non-metallic solids emit electrons
because of the absorption of energy. This effect is also known as the Hertz effect and the
electrons emitted are called photoelectrons.

The Photoelectric effect:

Max Plank’s

Formula for finding energy in a photon:

E=h*f

Where: E= Energy

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h=Plank’s constant (6.63 x 10-34)

f = c/λ

C=Speed of light

λ = wavelength of the wave

Einstein’s explanation for the photoelectric effect: Light is composed of individual quanta of
energy. We call those quanta photons.

2.3.1.2.Dual Nature of Light (As a Wave)

Huygens Principle

➢ Plane waves generate plane waves, circular waves generate circular waves
➢ obey the law of reflection when bounced off a surface
➢ wavelet envelop model (each point on a wavefront acts as a source for the nextwavefront)
➢ Light was composed of longitudinal waves like sound
➢ Waves slowed down when they entered a denser medium causing their paths to
"bendtowards the normal"

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Light should produce interference patterns and diffraction patterns. The way in which light
travels as a wave comes in many forms being

➢ Refraction and Reflection

➢ Interference
➢ Spectrum and dispersion
➢ Diffraction
➢ Polarization

Light can travel not only as a particle but also as a wave as we can see from the headings above.

Refraction and Reflection

Reflection

In many cases waves of all types will travel in a straight line, reflecting off of objects and
surfaces at the same angle that they strike the surface. This is called the law of reflection and is
true for light waves as long as the surface is smooth relative to the wavelength. In the pictures
below the arrows show the direction the light or sound is traveling. On the left for reflection off a
smooth flat surface the angle of incidence, θi equals the angle of reflection, θr.

Law of reflection states that

• Angle of incident is equal to angle of reflection. θi = θr

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 • The incident ray, the normal to the surface and the reflected ray all lay on the
same plane called the plane of incidence.

Refraction

A wave that changes speed as it crosses the boundary of between two materials will also change
direction if it crosses the boundary at an angle other than perpendicular. This is because the part
of the wavefront that gets to the boundary first, slows down first. The bending of a wave due to
changes in speed as it crosses a boundary is called refraction.

Light in air or a vacuum travels at c=3.0×108 m/s but slows down when passing through glass.
As shown in the diagram below, this will cause light to change direction a little. For a piece of
glass with flat surfaces this isn't very noticeable unless the glass is very thick. But for a curved
surface the light ends up leaving the glass going in a different direction and this is how lenses for
glasses, telescopes, microscopes, binoculars, etc. are made.

Law of Refraction states that

• nisinθi=ntsinθt
• The incident and refracted rays all lie in the same plane of incidence.

Interference

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Interference is what happens when two or more waves come together. Depending on how the
peaks andtroughs of the waves are matched up, the waves might add together or they can
partially or evencompletely cancel each other.

Linear superposition

The principle of linear superposition - when two or more waves come together, the result is
the sum of theindividual waves.The principle of linear superposition applies to any number of
waves, but to simplify matters just considerwhat happens when two waves come together.

When the waves come together, what happens? The resultis that the waves are superimposed:
they add together, with the amplitude at any point being the additionof the amplitudes of the
individual waves at that point.Although the waves interfere with each other when they meet, they
continue traveling as if they had neverencountered each other. When the waves move away from
the point where they came together, in otherwords, their form and motion is the same as it was
before they came together.

Constructive interference

Constructive interference occurs whenever waves come together so that they are in phase with
each other.This means that their oscillations at a given point are in the same direction, the
resulting amplitude at thatpoint being much larger than the amplitude of an individual wave. For
two waves of equal amplitudeinterfering constructively, the resulting amplitude is twice as
large as the amplitude of an individual wave.

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Destructive interference

Destructive interference occurs when waves come together in such a way that they completely
canceleach other out. When two waves interfere destructively, they must have the same
amplitude in oppositedirections. When there are more than two waves interfering the situation is
a little more complicated; thenet result, though, is that they all combine in some way to produce
zero amplitude. In general, whenever anumber of waves come together the interference will not
be completely constructive or completelydestructive, but somewhere in between. It usually
requires just the right conditions to get interference thatis completely constructive or completely
destructive

Spectrum and dispersion

Visible light, also known as white light, consists of a collection of component colors. These
colors areoften observed as light passes through a triangular prism. Upon passage through the
prism, the white lightis separated into its component colors - red, orange, yellow, green, blue and
violet. The separation of visible light into its different colors is known as dispersion.

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While a light wave travels through a vacuum at a speed of c (3.00 x 108 m/s), it travels through
atransparent material at speeds less than c. The index of refraction value(n) provides
a quantitativeexpression of the optical density of a given medium. Materials with higher index of
refraction values havea tendency to hold onto the absorbed light energy for greater lengths of
time before reemitting it to theinteratomic void. The closer the frequency of the light wave match
the resonant frequency of theelectrons of the atoms of a material. The greater the optical density
and the greater the index of refraction.A light wave would be slowed down to a greater extent
when passing through such a material.

Index of refraction values are dependent upon the frequency of light. For visible light, the n
value doesnot show a large variation with frequency, but nonetheless it shows a variation. For
instance, for sometypes of glass, the n value for frequencies of violet light is 1.53; and the n
value for frequencies of redlight is 1.51. The absorption and re-emission process causes the
higher frequency (lower wavelength) violet light to travel slower through crown glass than the
lower frequency (higher wavelength) red light. Itis this difference in n value for the varying
frequencies (and wavelengths) that causes the dispersion of light by a triangular prism. Violet
light, being slowed down to a greater extent by the absorption and re-emission process, refracts
more than red light. Upon entry of white light at the first boundary of atriangular prism, there
will be a slight separation of the white light into the component colors of thespectrum. Upon

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exiting the triangular prism at the second boundary, the separation becomes even greaterand
ROYGBV is observed in its splendor.

The amount of overall refraction caused by the passage of a light ray through a prism is often
expressed in terms of the angle of deviation (θ). The angle of deviation is the angle made
between the incident ray of light entering the first face of the prism and the refracted ray that
emerges from the second face of theprism. Because of the different indices of refraction for the
different wavelengths of visible light, theangle of deviation varies with wavelength. Colors of the
visible light spectrum that have shorterwavelengths (BV) will deviated more from their original
path than the colors with longer wavelengths(ROY). The emergence of different colors of light
from a triangular prism at different angles leads anobserver to see the component colors
of visible light separated from each other.

Diffraction

Diffraction is one of the interactions that light has with matter. But what does the diffraction
mean? It refers to the bending of light waves around obstacles or through apertures. The amount
of bending depends on the wavelength of the light and the size of the obstacle or aperture.

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Diffraction is a phenomenon unique to waves. When a wave passes through a gap or travels
around an obstacle, it spreads out. All waves can be diffracted, and diffraction doesn't affect the
speed, wavelength or frequency.

The diagram below illustrates this. When the wavelength of the wave is close to the aperture
(size) of the gap, then it diffracts more. On the other hand, when the wavelength is a lot smaller,
it doesn't diffract as much.

Polarization

Light is the interaction of electric and magnetic fields travelling through space. The electric and
magnetic vibrations of a light wave occur perpendicularly to each other. The electric field moves
in one direction and the magnetic field in another ‘perpendicular to each other. So, we have one
plane occupied by an electric field, another plane of the magnetic field perpendicular to it, and
the direction of travel is perpendicular to both. These electric and magnetic vibrations can occur
in numerous planes.

A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is known as unpolarized light. The light
emitted by the sun, by a lamp or a tube light are all unpolarized light sources. As you can see in
the image below, the direction of propagation is constant, but the planes on which the amplitude
occurs are changing.

The image here shows its various types:

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The other kind of wave is a polarized wave. Polarized waves are light waves in which the
vibrations occur in a single plane. Plane polarized light consists of waves in which the direction
of vibration is the same for all waves. In the image above, you can see that a plane polarized
light vibrates on only one plane. The process of transforming unpolarized light into polarized
light is known as polarization. The devices like the polarizers you see are used for the
polarization of light.

2.4.Color
➢ The color of an object depends on:
1. which wavelengths of light shine on an object,
2. which wavelengths are absorbed,
3. and which are reflected.
➢ If all wavelengths of incoming light are completely reflected by an object, that object
appears the same color as the light illuminating it. An object of a particular color absorbs
light of all colors except light whose color is the same as the object’s color.
➢ Sunlight is composed of all colors of visible light. We call sunlight “white light” because
when allwavelengths of light are present they produce white. White is not a color - it is
the combination of all colors.

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 ➢ Black is not acolor either…it is the absence of light. An object looks black when it is
absorbing all the light that hits it. When objectsabsorb light, they become warmer due to
the absorption of energy.
2.4.1. Color phenomenon in nature

Atoms and molecules in substances vibrate and can resonate when lighthits and interacts with
them. This is what causes some wavelengths orfrequencies to be absorbed by certain objects and
determines which of the“three fates” will come to light that encounters matter.

If the light encounters solids or liquids and the light matches the naturalfrequency of the
substance, the atoms will resonate, absorb the light andturn it into heat in the substance. In low-
density gases, this resonance does not result in complete absorption and conversion toheat. This
concept explains several natural phenomena:

Why is the sky blue? 3 important factors explain this:

1. Molecules in the atmosphere are very small molecules of nitrogen and oxygen and they
resonate in the frequencies ofviolet and blue visible light.
2. Since air or gas molecules are so far apart, their resonance does not cause them to absorb
the light. Instead thevibrations just scatter out the violets and blues in all
directions…including down to the surface and to your eyes.
3. Violet is actually scattered out the most, but our eyes are not very sensitive to
violet…Consequently we see a mostlyblue sky!

Why are sunsets red? 2 important factors in this:

1. The sun’s light must travel a much longer path through the atmosphere to get to you at
sunset and all the atmospherekeeps scattering out more of the high frequency violets and
blues as the light travels through.
2. Once all the higher frequencies are scattered out, then all that is left to go straight
through to you is the lowerfrequencies like the orange and reds. So, you see an orange -
red sunset!

25
Why is water greenish-blue (cyan)?

1. Liquids produce a different effect than gases when they resonate with certain
colors/frequencies of light. Watermolecules resonate with infrared and low frequency
visible light (reds and oranges). When molecules in solids orliquids resonate with light, it
results in those resonant wavelengths or colors being absorbed and/or
scattered…aftersome depth through water all that is left to reach a receiver (such as your
eyes) is the higher frequency blues andgreens. Blue and green combine to make cyan. If
you were to take a red object deep under water - it wouldappear black because no red
light would reach the object to be reflected to your eyes.

26
 CHAPTER THREE

THE BASIC PRINCIPLES AND TYPES OF LASERS

3.1.Introduction

The word LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Similar to the way in which transistor systems are available to generate andamplify electrical
signals, with the advent of lasers we have at our disposal devicesthat are able to generate and
amplify coherent light.

A laser is a device that amplifies light and produces a highly directional, high-intensity beam that
typically has a very pure frequency or wavelength.

3.2.Characteristics of laser

The light emitted by lasers is different from that produced by more common light sources such as
incandescent bulbs, fluorescent lamps, and high-intensity arc lamps. An understanding of the
unique properties of laser light may be achieved by contrasting it with the light produced by
other, less unique sources.

Laser is basically a light source. Laser light has the following important characteristics

High Directionality
High Intensity
Highly Monochromatic
Highly Coherence
I. Directionality

Ordinary light spreads in all directions and its angular spread is 1m/m.

Fig. 3 Directionality property of Laser

27
But it is found that laser is highly directional and is angular spread is 1mm/m. For example,

the laser beam can be focused to very long distance with a few divergence or angular spread
shown

in Fig. 1.1.

II. Intensity

Since an ordinary light spread in all directions, the intensity reaching the target is very less. But
in the case of laser, due to high directionality, the intensity of laser beam reaching the target is of
high intense beam. For example, 1 mill watt power of He-Ne laser appears to be brighter than the
sunlight (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Intensity variation

III. Monochromatic

Laser beam is highly monochromatic; the wavelength is single, whereas in ordinary light like
mercury vapour lamp, many wavelengths of light are emitted Fig.5.

Fig. 5 Monochromaticity nature of Laser

28
 IV. Coherence

It is an important characteristic of laser beam. In lasers the wave trains of same frequency are in
phase, the radiation given out is in mutual agreement not only in phase but also in the direction
of emission and polarization. Thus, it is a coherent beam. Due to high coherence, it results in an
extremely high power. Fig. 6 shows the coherence nature of Laser

Fig. 6 shows the coherence property of Laser

Differences between ordinary light and Laser beam.

S.No. Ordinary light Laser beams

1. In ordinary light the angular spread is more In laser beam the angular spread is less.
2. They are not directional. They are highly directional.
3. It is less intense It is highly intense
4. It is not a coherent beam and is not in phase It is a coherent beam and is in phase
5. The radiations are polychromatic The radiations are monochromatic
6. Example: Sun light, Mercury vapor lamp He- Ne Laser, Co2 laser

3.3.Energy levels in atoms

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element. An
atom consists of a positive nucleus surrounded by a "cloud" of negative electrons. All neutral
atoms of a given element have the same number of positive charges (protons) in the nucleus and
negative charges (electrons) in the cloud.

29
The energy content of atoms of a particular type may vary, however, depending on the energies
contained by the electrons within the cloud. Each type of atom can contain only certain amounts
of energy. When an atom contains the lowest amount of energy that is available to it, the atom is
said to be in its "atomic ground state." If the atom contains additional energy over and above its
ground state, it is said to be in an "excited atomic state." Figure 7 is a simplified energy-level
diagram of an atom that has three energy levels. This atom can contain three distinct amounts of
energy and no others. If the atom has an energy content of El, it is in the atomic ground state and
is incapable of releasing energy. If it contains energy content E2 or E3, it is in an excited state and
can release its excess energy, thereby dropping to a lower energy state. Real atoms may have
hundreds or even thousands of possible distinct energy states. The three-level mode is utilized
here for purposes of clarity.

Fig. 7 Atomic energy-level diagram

The essential elements of a laser device are as follows:

_ An active medium, consisting of a collection of atoms, molecules, or ions in agaseous, liquid,

or solid state, which generates and amplifies light by means ofappropriate transitions between its
quantum energy levels.

_ A pumping process, to excite those atoms (molecules, ions, etc.) up to higher quantumenergy
levels to produce population inversion.

_ An optical resonator system, which provides the optical feedback.

30
Both the active medium and the resonator determine the light frequencies generated. The light–
matter interaction process that takes place in the active medium constitutes the essential key of
laser radiation. On the basis of phenomenological considerations, Einstein developed a theory
that permits a qualitative understanding of the processes related to light absorption and emission
by atoms.

Three basic light–matter interaction processes can be considered:

➢ absorption,
➢ spontaneous emission, and
➢ stimulated emission of photons.

The basis of laser radiation lies in the last process: stimulated emission. That is, when the atomic
system has absorbed a photon of energy hν= E2 − E1, and thus the upper level is populated, a
second photon of the same energy hν may cause this energy to be emitted as a photon. Then, two
photons withidentical properties, one incident and the other emitted due to stimulation leave
thesystem.

In terms of waves, we can say that the electromagnetic wave associated withthe stimulated
emission has the same direction, phase, polarization, and wavelengthas the incident radiation.
Thus, the stimulated emission process in itself constitutesan optical amplification phenomenon,
since the energy liberated due to the stimulatedtransition adds to the incidentwave on a
constructive basis, reinforcing the light beam.

3.4.Stimulated Absorption, Spontaneous Emission and Stimulated Emission

Process 1 - Stimulated absorption

An atom in the lower energy level or ground state energy level E1 absorbs the incident photon
radiation of energy and goes to the higher energy level or excited level E2 as shown in figure 8
This process is called absorption.

31
 Fig. 8 Absorption and emission process in Laser

Process 2- Spontaneous Emission

The atom in the excited state returns to the ground state by emitting a photon of energy
E=(E2 – E1)=hν spontaneously without any external triggering as shown in the figure. This
process is known as spontaneous emission. Such an emission is random and is independent of
incident radiation.

Process 3 - Stimulated Emission

The atom in the excited state can also return to the ground state by external triggering or
inducement of photon thereby emitting a photon of energy equal to the energy of the incident
photon, known as stimulated emission. Thus, results in two photons of same energy, phase
difference and of same directionality as shown.

S.No. Stimulated emission Spontaneous emission

1. An atom in the excited state is induced The atom in the excited state returns to the
toreturn to the ground state, thereby ground state thereby emitting a photon,
resulting in two photons of same frequency without any externalinducement is called
and energy is called Stimulated emission Spontaneous emission.
2. The emitted photons move in the same The emitted photons move in all directions
direction and is highly directional. and are random.
3. The radiation is highly The radiation is less intense and is
intense,monochromatic and coherent. incoherent.
4. The photons are in phase, there is a constant The photons are not in phase (i.e.) there is
phase difference. no phase relationship between them.

32
 3.5.Population Inversion

Population Inversion creates a situation in which the number of atoms in higher energy state is
more than that in the lower energy state. Usually at thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms
N2i.e., the population of atoms at higher energy state is much lesser than the population of the
atoms at lower energy state N1 that is N1>N2. The Phenomenon of making N2> N1 is known as
Population Inversion (Fig. 9).

Fig. 9 Population Inversion

Condition for Population inversion

1. There must be at least two energy levels E2> E1.

2. There must be a source to supply the energy to the medium.

3. The atoms must be continuously raised to the excited state.

3.6.Principle of laser action

Let as consider many number atoms in the excited state. We know the photons emitted during
stimulated emission have same frequency, energy and are in phase as the incident photon. Thus
result fig. 10 in 2 photons of similar properties.

Fig. 10 Amplification in Laser process

33
These two photons induce stimulated emission of 2 atoms in excited state there by resulting in 4
photons. These 4 photons induce 4 more atoms and give rise to 8 photons etc., as shown in
figure.

Principle:

Due to stimulated emission the photons multiply in each step-giving rise to an intense beam of
photons that are coherent and moving in the same direction. Hence the light is amplified by
Stimulated Emission of the Radiation termed LASER.

Active medium

A medium in which population inversion can be achieved is known as active medium.

Active center

The material in which the atoms are raised to the excited state to achieve Population Inversion is
called Active Center.

Pumping Action

The process to achieve the population inversion in the medium is called Pumping action. It is
essential requirement for producing a laser beam.

Methods of pumping action

The methods commonly used for pumping action are:

1. Optical pumping (Excitation by Photons)

2. Electrical discharge method (Excitation by electrons)

3. Direct conversion

4. In elastic atom – atom collision between atoms

1. Optical pumping

When the atoms are exposed to light radiations energy, atoms in the lower energy state absorb
these radiations and they go to the excited state. This method is called Optical pumping. It isused
in solid state lasers like ruby laser and Nd-YAG laser. In ruby laser, xenon flash lamp is usedas
pumping source.

34
2. Electrical discharge method (Excitation by electrons)

In this method, the electrons are produced in an electrical discharge tube. These electrons are
accelerated to high velocities by a strong electrical field. These accelerated electrons collide with
the gas atoms.

By the process, energy from the electrons is transferred to gas atoms. Some atoms gain energy
and they go to the excited state. This results in population inversion. This method is called
Electrical discharge method. It is represented by the equation

A + e* = A* + e

Where A – gas atom in the ground state A* = same gas atom in the excited state

e* = Electrons with higher Kinetic energy e – Same electron with lesser energy.

This method of pumping is used in gas lasers like argon and CO2 Laser.

3. Direct Conversion

In this method, due to electrical energy applied in direct band gap semiconductor like GaAs,
recombination of electrons and holes takes place. During the recombination process, the
electrical energy is directly is converted into light energy.

4. In elastic atom – atom collision

In this method, a combination of two gases (Say A and B are used). The excited states of A and
B nearly coincides in energy.

In the first step during the electrical discharge atoms of gas A are excited to their higher energy
state A* (metastable state) due to collision with the electrons. A + e* = A* + e

Now A* atoms at higher energy state collide with b atoms in the lower state. Due to inelastic
atom - atom collision B atoms gain energy and they are excited to a higher state B*. Hence, A
atoms lose energy and return to lower state. A* + B = A + B*

Optical Resonator

An optical resonator consists of a pair of reflecting surfaces in which one is fully reflecting (R1)
and the other is partially reflecting (R2). The active material is placed in between these two
reflecting surfaces.

35
 Fig. 11 View of optical resonator

The photons generated due to transitions between the energy states of active material are
bounced back and forth between two reflecting surfaces. This will induce more and more
stimulated transition leading to laser action.

36
Flow Chart of Laser action

3.7.Types of Lasers

Several ways to classify the different types of lasers

➢ What material or element is used as active medium
➢ Mode of operation: Continuous Wave (CW) or Pulsed
Classification may be done on basis of other parameters
Gain of the laser medium

37
 Power delivered by laser
Efficiency or
Applications
Preference to classify the lasers on the basis of material used as Active Medium. Broadly divided
into four categories
❖ Solid lasers
❖ Gas lasers
❖ Liquid lasers
❖ Semiconductor lasers
3.7.1. Solid-state laser
A solid-state laser is a laser that uses solid as a laser medium. In these lasers, glass or
crystalline materials are used.
Ions are introduced as impurities into host material which can be a glass or crystalline.
The process of adding impurities to the substance is called doping. Rare earth elements
such as cerium (Ce), erbium (Eu), terbium (Tb) etc are most commonly used as dopants.
Materials such as sapphire (Al2O3), neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum garnet
(Nd:YAG), Neodymium-doped glass (Nd:glass) and ytterbium-doped glass are used as
host materials for laser medium. Out of these, neodymium-doped yttrium aluminum
garnet (Nd:YAG) is most commonly used.
The first solid-state laser was a ruby laser. It is still used in some applications. In this
laser, a ruby crystal is used as a laser medium.

38
 In solid-state lasers, light energy is used as pumping source. Light sources such as
flashtube, flash lamps, arc lamps, or laser diodes are used to achieve pumping.
Semiconductor lasers do not belong to this category because these lasers are usually
electrically pumped and involve different physical processes.
3.7.2. Gas laser
➢ A gas laser is a laser in which an electric current is discharged through a gas inside the
laser medium to produce laser light. In gas lasers, the laser medium is in the gaseous
state.

➢ Gas lasers are used in applications that require laser light with very high beam quality
and long coherence lengths.

39
➢ In gas laser, the laser medium or gain medium is made up of the mixture of gases. This
mixture is packed up into a glass tube. The glass tube filled with the mixture of gases acts
as an active medium or laser medium.
➢ A gas laser is the first laser that works on the principle of converting electrical energy
into light energy. It produces a laser light beam in the infrared region of the spectrum at
1.15 µm.
➢ Gas lasers are of different types: they are, Helium (He) – Neon (Ne) lasers, argon ion
lasers, carbon dioxide lasers (CO2 lasers), carbon monoxide lasers (CO lasers), excimer
lasers, nitrogen lasers, hydrogen lasers, etc. The type of gas used to construct the laser
medium can determine the lasers wavelength or efficiency.
3.7.3. Liquid laser
❖ A liquid laser is a laser that uses the liquid as laser medium. In liquid lasers, light
supplies energy to the laser medium.
❖ A dye laser is an example of the liquid laser. A dye laser is a laser that uses an organic
dye (liquid solution) as the laser medium.
❖ A dye laser is made up of an organic dye mixed with a solvent. These lasers generate
laser light from the excited energy states of organic dyes dissolved in liquid solvents. It
produces laser light beam in the near ultraviolet (UV) to the near infrared (IR) region of
the spectrum.
3.7.4. Semiconductor laser
Semiconductor lasers play an important role in our everyday life. These lasers are very
cheap, compact size and consume low power. Semiconductor lasers are also known as
laser diodes.
Semiconductor lasers are different from solid-state lasers. In solid-state lasers, light
energy is used as the pump source whereas, in semiconductor lasers, electrical energy is
used as the pump source.
In semiconductor lasers, a p-n junction of a semiconductor diode forms the active
medium or laser medium. The optical gain is produced within the semiconductor
material.

40
 3.8.Applications of Lasers

(i) In Industry:

➢ Laser is used for welding. Highly collimated and intense beam of laser can be used for
cutting. Whenfocused to an appropriate spot size, the heat generated melts the metal,
rapidly producing a narrow weld with joint efficiency and minimal distortion.
➢ Laser is used for cutting. Cutting with a laser is achieved by heating the metal to its
melting point while, at the same time, applying a jet of gas through a nozzle located
coaxially with the path of the laser beam. This gas removes the vaporized and molten
metal from the bottom of the cut.
➢ Laser is used for drilling. To drill with a laser, a short pulse of a laser light energy is used.
This pulseheats the surface so rapidly that vaporization takes place. Resultant gases and
vapor pressures generated blow away the vaporized and molten material. Hence holes
with high precision, holes in hardest materials, and holes in difficult to reach areas and at
different angles can be drilled using laser drilling.
(ii) In Medical field:
➢ Laser is used in eye surgery, used to treat patients suffering from myopia.
➢ Laser is used to breakup gallstone and kidney stone.
➢ Lasers can be used to destroy cancerous cells.
➢ Laser is used in surgery. The major advantages of laser surgery are
(i) it is a non-contact process
(ii) itcan be focused to micro-size spot,
(iii) it is almost a bloodless surgery,
(iv) there is an apparent reduction inpost operative pain.
➢ Laser are used in endoscopy.
(iii) In communication field:
➢ Laser used in fiber optic communication.
➢ Laser used to transmit radio and television programs.
➢ Lasers can be used for establishing underwater communication between submarines.
➢ Laser used in satellite communication.
(iv) In computers:

41
 ➢ Laser is used in computer printer, compact discs, optical memory cards etc.
(v) In defence:
➢ Laser used to find distance of targets.
➢ Laser used to guide missiles.
➢ Lasers can be used to destroy war planes.
(vi) In holography:
➢ Laser is used in 3D photography called holography.

42
 CHAPTER FOUR

INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR OPTICS

Nonlinear optics is the study of phenomena that occur as a consequence of the modification of
the optical properties of a material system by the presence of light. Typically, only laser light is
sufficiently intense to modify the optical properties of a material system.

Nonlinear optics is the result of laser beam interaction with materials and started with the advent
of lasers in the early 60's. It has already reached the level of maturity and has been proven to be
an exciting field, that is growing dramatically every day and is playing a major role in the
emerging photonic technology. Nonlinear optics led to countless optical devices that have
become indispensable in our daily lives. Nonlinear optics played a major role in many of the
optical applications such as optical signal processing, optical computers, ultrafast switches, ultra-
short pulsed lasers, sensors, laser amplifiers, and many others.

In NLO we are concerned with the effects that the light itself induces as it propagates through the
medium. In linear optics the light is deflected or delayed but its frequency (wavelength) is
unchanged. We should remark that in order to observe nonlinear phenomena we need very
intense light, that explains way nonlinear phenomena's where after the laser invention.

4.1.Theoretical explanation of nonlinear optics

Nonlinear optics is concerned with the alterations in frequency, phase or other physical
properties of intense applied electromagnetic fields on interaction with various materials. The
interaction of intense electromagnetic field with a nonlinear optical material will cause the
material properties to change and the next photon that arrives will see a different material. The
propagation of a wave through a material causes changes in the spatial distribution of electric
charges as the charged species in the material (ions or electrons) interact with the electric field of
the wave. In a nonlinear optical material, strong interactions can exist among the various fields.
The main effect of these interactions is the displacement of the valence electrons from their
normal orbits. This perturbation develops electric dipoles whose macroscopic manifestation is
the polarization. The displacement of the electron density away from the nucleus results in a

43
charge separation which produces induced dipoles with moment μ. This results in new fields,
created by oscillating dipoles within the materials.

At moderate field strength the displacement of charge from the equilibrium position is
proportional to the electric field and a linear relationship of the induced polarization with the
applied field is observed.

Polarization, P = 𝜀0 𝒳Ε

Where 𝒳the linear polarizability of the material, E is the electric field component of the
incident light and 𝜀0 is the permittivity of free space.

When sufficiently intense fields such as electric fields from pulsed laser beams approach
the magnitude of typical internal fields in crystals, polarization becomes independent of the field
and a nonlinear optical phenomenon is observed. Therefore, this nonlinear response is expressed
by writing the induced polarization as a power series in the field.

P =∑𝜀0 𝒳 (𝑛) 𝛦 (𝑛) (1.6)

(1) (2) (3)

P = 𝜀0 (𝒳𝑖𝑗 𝛦𝑗 +𝒳𝑖𝑗𝑘 𝛦𝑗 𝛦𝑘 +𝒳𝑖𝑗𝑘𝑙 𝛦𝑗 𝛦𝑘 𝛦𝑙 +···)

Where𝒳 (2) , 𝒳 (3 ) are the nonlinear susceptibilities of the medium, 𝒳 (1) is the linear term
responsible for material’s linear optical properties like refractive index, dispersion and
absorption.𝒳 (2) is the quadratic term which describes second harmonic generation in
noncentrosymmetrc materials.𝒳 (3) is the cubic term responsible for third harmonic generation.
Hence the induced polarization is capable of multiplying the fundamental frequency to second,
third and even higher harmonics.

4.2.Phenomenon of NLO
4.2.1. Second Harmonic Generation

Second harmonic generation was the first nonlinear-optical phenomena whose discovery relied
on the invention of the laser.

Second harmonic generation (SHG) is a nonlinear optical process in which photons

interacting with nonlinear optical materials are effectively combined to form new photons with

44
 twice the energy and therefore, twice the frequency and half the wavelength of the initial
photons.Geometry of second harmonic generation and Energy level diagram describing second
harmonic generationis shown in Fig.

(a)

Fig. (a) Geometry of second harmonic generation(b) Energy level diagram describing second harmonic
generation

4.2.2. Third harmonic generation

Third harmonic generation is generation of light with a tripled frequency (one-third the
wavelength), three photons are destroyed creating a single photon at three times the
frequency.Geometry of third harmonic generation and Energy level diagram describing third
harmonic generationis shown in Fig.

(a)(b)

Fig. (a) Geometry of third harmonic generation (b) Energy level diagram describing third harmonic
generation

45
 4.2.3. High harmonic generation

High harmonic generationis generation of light with frequencies much greater than the
original (typically 100 to 1000 times greater). High Harmonic Generation is an extreme
nonlinear optical process which occurs in the strong field regime.

a) Sum frequency generation

Sum frequency generation is the mixing of two incident light waves of frequencies ω1
andω2 creating a wave of ω3 =ω1 +ω2 . Geometry of sum frequency generation and Energy level
diagram describing sum frequency generationis shown in Fig. It combines two low energy (or
low frequency) photons into a high energy photon. For example:

1064nm+1064nm→532nm

(a) (b)

Fig. (a) Geometry of sum frequency generation (b) Energy level diagram describing sum frequency
generation

b) Differential-frequency generation

Deference frequency generation (DFG) is treated as the interaction of two input beams of
frequenciesω3 and ω1 resulting in an optical field with the frequency ω2 =ω3 − ω1. Geometry of
differential-frequencygeneration and Energy level diagram describing differential-frequency
generationis shown in Fig. It combines two high energy photons into a low energy photon. For
example:

532nm-810nm→1550nm

46
 (a) (b)

Fig.1.7. (a) Geometry of differential frequency generation (b) Energy level diagram shows
differential frequency generation [31]

47
References

➢ Shimoda, K. (1986). The Coherence of Light. In: Introduction to Laser Physics. Springer
Series in Optical Sciences, vol 44. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
➢ "Principles of lasers" , Orazio Svelto,"Engineering applications of lasers and
holography" ,Winston E. Kock , 1975.

➢ "Optics and lasers : including fibers and optical waveguides" / Matt Young. Berlin ; New
York : Springer-Verlag, 1992. 4th rev. ed.

➢ "Principles of lasers" / Orazio Svelto ; and edited by David C. Hanna. New York :
Plenum, 1989. 3rd ed.

➢ "Understanding lasers : an entry-level guide" / Jeff Hecht. New York : IEEE Press,
1994. 2nd ed.

➢ "Engineering applications of lasers and holography" / Winston E. Kock. New York :

Plenum Press, 1975. Edition for 1969 published under title: Lasers and holography.

➢ "Fundamentals of laser optics" / Kenichi Iga ; technical editor, Richard B. Miles. New
York : Plenum Press, 1994.

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