SOL-BA(P)

First year-
2 -semester
nd

Subject-
history of india
(300-1200)
Medium – English

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Question- Describe the characteristics of Gupta period.

Gupta Period is called Golden or Classical age of India partially due to the unprecedented

activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture, painting and literature. The

rock cut architecture reached at its zenith in Gupta era and a new beginning of free standing

temple architecture began

The Gupta Empire stretched across northern, central and parts of southern India between c.

320 and 550 CE. The period is noted for its achievements in the arts, architecture,

sciences, religion, and philosophy. Chandragupta I (320 – 335 CE) started a rapid expansion

of the Gupta Empire and soon established himself as the first sovereign ruler of the empire. It

marked the end of 500 hundred years of domination of the provincial powers and resulting

disquiet that began with the fall of the Mauryas. Even more importantly, it began a period of

overall prosperity and growth that continued for the next two and half centuries which came

to be known as a “Golden Age” in India’s history.

Gupta Period – Early Days to the Zenith-

The travelogues of Fa Hien (Faxian, circa 337 – 422 CE), Hiuen Tsang (Xuanzang, 602 – 664

CE) and Yijing (I Tsing, 635 – 713 CE) prove to be invaluable in this respect. The Gupta

Empire during the rule of Srigupta (circa 240 – 280 CE) comprised only Magadha and

probably a part of Bengal too. Like the Mauryas and other Magadha kings who preceded him,

Srigupta ruled from Pataliputra, close to modern day Patna. Srigupta was succeeded to the

throne by his son Ghatotkacha (circa 280 – 319 CE).

Chandragupta I
From the Kushans, the Gupta kings learned the benefit of maintaining a cavalry and Chandragupta I,
son of Ghatotkacha, made effective use of his strong army. Through his marriage with Licchhavi
Princess Kumaradevi, Chandragupta I received the ownership of rich mines full of iron ore adjacent
to his kingdom. Metallurgy was already at an advanced stage and forged iron was not only used to
meet the internal demands, but also became a valuable trade commodity. The territorial heads
ruling over various parts of India could not counter the superior armed forces of Chandragupta I and
had to surrender before him. It is conjectured that at the end of his reign, the boundary of the Gupta
Empire already extended to Allahabad. .

Samudragupta

Samudragupta (circa 335 – 375 CE), Chandragupta I’s son who ascended the throne next,
was a military genius and he continued the growth of the kingdom. After conquering the
remainder of North India, Samudragupta turned his eyes to South India and added a portion
of it to his empire by the end of his Southern Campaign. It is generally believed that during
his time the Gupta Empire spanned from the Himalayas in north to the mouth of Krishna and
Godavari rivers in the South, from Balkh, Afghanistan in the west to the Brahmaputra River
in the east.

Samudragupta was very attentive to rajdharma (duties of a king) and took special care to

follow Kautilya’s (350 – 275 BCE) Arthashastra (an economic, social and political treatise

that has clear instructions about how a monarchy should be governed) closely. He donated

large sums of money for various philanthropic purposes, including the promotion of

education. Besides being a courageous king and able administrator, he was a poet and

musician. The large number of gold coins circulated by him showcases his multifaceted

talent. An inscription, probably commissioned by subsequent Gupta kings, known as the

Allahabad Pillar is most eloquent about his humane qualities. Samudragupta also believed in

promoting goodwill among various religious communities. He gave, for example,

Meghavarna, king of Ceylon, permission and support for the construction of a monastery in

Bodh Gaya.

Chandragupta II (circa 380 – 414 CE)

Like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II (circa 380 – 414 CE) was a benevolent king, able leader

and skilled administrator. By defeating the satrap of Saurashtra, he further expanded his

kingdom to the coastline of the Arabian Sea. His courageous pursuits earned him the title of
Vikramaditya. To rule the vast empire more efficiently, Chandragupta II founded his second capital in
Ujjain. He also took care to strengthen the navy. The seaports of Tamralipta and Sopara
consequently became busy hubs of maritime trade. He was a great patron of art and culture too.
Some of the greatest scholars of the day including the navaratna (nine gems) graced his court.
Numerous charitable institutions, orphanages and hospitals benefitted from his generosity. Rest
houses for travellers were set up by the road side. The Gupta Empire reached its pinnacle during this
time and unprecedented progress marked all areas of life.

Feature of Guptas period

The Salient Features of the Administrative System of the Guptas are as follows:

Contemporary inscriptions and literary sources throw light on the polity and administrative

system of the Gupta period. Land and land relations acquired central stage in the economic

life of the period and flourishing trade of the post Mauryan- pre-Gupta period declined

sharply in this period. The period was also marked by the growing significance of land grants

which led to decentralization of political authority of the king and finally gave birth to

feudalism in Indian history.

The law of the primogeniture was not firmly established, and sometimes elder sons were

passed over in favour of younger sons. The king appointed ministers, commanders, governors

etc. He received the obeisance of his vassals and princes. His pompous titles Paramesvara,

Maharajadhiraja, Paramabhattaraka indicate the existence of lesser princes and chiefs with

whom he had to come to terms in his empire.

The maintenance of the Varnasrama Dharma appear as an important royal duty in Gupta

inscription imposed upon the king, who is described as the giver of thousands of gold coins.

The second change noticeable in the Gupta kingship is not qualitative but quantitative and

relates to its divine associations. They are compared to Vishnu as regards their function of

preserving and protecting the people, and Laxmi, wife of Vishnu and goddess of prosperity

appears on many Gupta coins.

Question- Describe the main features of Gupta temple architecture.

Architecture Temple

The best example of gupta age architecture is temples. In fact, we find the remains of the
temple from this period. some of the common features of the Gupta age temples are as
follows-

1. The Gupta temples were usually built on high a high platform, to climb on which
stairs were made from all four sides.
2. The roofs of the early temples were flattened, later peaks were also built.
3. A square shape room was built inside the temple, in which the idol was made. This
was the most important part of temple, which was called the sanctum.
4. The sanctum was surrounded by walls on three sides. while there was a gateway on
one side.
5. Earlier the walls of the sanctum were simple, but later on they were decorated with
idols and other decorations.
6. The pradakshina path covered with the top was built around the sanctum.
7. On the doorway of the sanctum, the figures of Makarvahini
Ganga and Kurmavahini yamuna are engraved, which is its specialty of Gupta art. In
the upper Shirappatta and the lateral part also the sacred Manglik signs and symbols
like Hans-Mithun, Swastik, Shrivriksha, Mangalakalash, Shankh, Padma etc. have
also been marked. Varahamihira’s opinion regarding the decoration of the gate, that in
the fourth part of the door branch is mentioned the pratihari (gatekeeper) and in the rest
the marking of Mangal Vihaga, Shrivriksha, Swastik, Ghat, Mithun, Patravalli etc.
8. Earlier a pavilion with a pillar was built in front of the sanctum, but later it was built
around the sanctum. The gate columns were ornate, in which the shape of Purnakalash
remained. Flowers are seen coming out of the urn.
9. Sculptures of four lions are built on the back of the square pillars of the temple with
their backs to each other.
10. Only the idol was installed in the sanctum. There was no place for worshipers to
gather there.
11. Most temples of Gupta period are stone-built. Only the temples of bheetargaon and
Sirpur are built with bricks.

Question- Describe the main features of Gupta art and architecture.

Discuss the salient Features of Gupta Architecture
Gupta Period is called Golden or Classical age of India partially due to the unprecedented
activities and development in the arts, architecture, sculpture, painting and literature. The
rock cut architecture reached at its zenith in Gupta era and a new beginning of free standing
temple architecture began.
Gupta architecture among temples are Dasavatara temple of Deogarh, Bhitargaon temple,
Vishnu Temple of Tigawa Jabalpur, Shiva Temple of Bhumara, Parvati Temple of Nachria
Kathura, Mukund Darra Temple of Kota, Lakshaman Temple of Raipur, Shiva Temple of
Koh and Bhitari Temple at Ghazipur. Among stupas, the Dhamekh stupa is the most
prominent masterpiece of Gupta architecture. Gupta Temple Architecture Most prominent
architectural marvels of Gupta period are temples. Most of the temples built in the Gupta era
were carved

Gupta Period: Temple, Sculpture & Art .

The Gupta period may be described as ‘classic’ in the sense of the degree of perfection it
achieved—something that was never achieved before and has seldom been achieved since—
and in the perfect balance and harmony of ail elements in style and iconography.

The Guptas were Brahmanical by religion with special devotion to Vishnu, but they showed
exemplary tolerance for both Buddhism and Jainism.

The art of the Gupta period is marked by a deep spiritual quality and a vision which tries to
record the higher and deeper truths of life. While the early Gupta period shows an emphasis
on Hindu art, the climax of Buddhist art, with all the previous tendencies combined into a
classical statement, comes during the later period
Hindu art seems to have flourished in the Vidisha region during the reign of Chandra Gupta
II. While there were some striking cave architectural pieces (e.g. Udayagiri), the Gupta
period is specially marked for the development of new temple styles.
The Gupta temples were of five main types:

(i) Square building with flat roof and shallow pillared porch; as the Kankali Devi temple at
Tigawa and the Vishnu and Varaha temples at Eran. The nucleus of a temple—the sanctum or
cella (garbagriha)—with a single entrance and a porch (mandapa) appears for the first time
here.

(ii) An elaboration of the first type with the addition of an ambulatory (pradakshina) around
the sanctum and sometimes a second storey; examples being the Shiva temple at Bhumara
(Madhya Pradesh) and the Ladh-Khan at Aihole.

(iii) Square temple with a low and squat tower (shikhara) above; notable examples are the
Dasavatara temple (built in stone at Deogarh, Jhansi district) and the brick temple at
Bhitargaon (Kanpur district). A high platform at the base and the tower add to the elevation
of the composition. [The second and third types—storeyed and shikara—underwent further
developments to crystallise into two distinctive styles in the south and the north respectively.]

(iv) Rectangular temple with an apsidal back and barrel- vaulted roof above, such as the
Kapoteswara temple at Cezarla (Krishna district).
(v) Circular temple with shallow rectangular projections at the four cardinal faces; the only
monument exemplifying the style is the Maniyar Matha shrine at Rajgir, Bihar. [The fourth
and fifth types appear to be survivals/adaptations of the earlier forms and do not appear to
have much influenced subsequent development].

At Eran (mentioned as ‘Airakina’ in Gupta and Huna inscriptions), a Vaishnavite site near
Vidisha, a great complex of temples and accompanying sculptures were produced during the
Gupta period.

Inscriptions found at Eran document artistic activity there from the reign of Samudra Gupta
to the period of the Hun invasion around the beginning of the sixth century. A large sculpture
of Varaha from Eran suggests sculptural ties with artistic developments at nearby Udayagiri
during the early fifth century. The power of the deity is expressed in the full, heavy form of
the body and the solidity of his pose.

Questions-- What were the reasons for rise and fall of Gupta period

The Gupta Empire, founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, was an ancient Indian realm that covered
much of the Indian Subcontinent from approximately 320-550 CE. Gupta rule, while
solidified by territorial expansion through war, began a period of peace and prosperity
marked by advancements in science, technology, engineering, art, dialectics, literature, logic,
mathematics, astronomy, religion, and philosophy.

Gupta Empire Origins

The Gupta Empire was believed to be a dynasty of the Vaishya caste, the third of the four
Hindu castes representing merchants and farmers. Founded by Sri Gupta c. 240-280 CE, there
are contradictory theories regarding the original homeland of the Guptas. Historians believe
Sri Gupta and his son may have been Kushan vassals, or rulers who swore allegiance to the
Kushan Empire. Sri Gupta’s son and successor, Ghatotkacha, ruled from c. 280-319 CE,
while his son, Chandragupta, ascended the throne around 319 and ruled until 335 CE.

Gupta Empire Expansion(risen)

Samudragupta succeeded his father, Chandragupta I, in 335 CE, and ruled for about 45 years.
He conquered the kingdoms of Ahichchhatra and Padmavati early in his reign, then attacked
neighboring tribes, including the Malwas, Yaudheyas, Arjunayanas, Maduras, and Abhiras.
By his death in 380 CE, Samudragupta had incorporated over 20 kingdoms into his realm,
and extended the Gupta Empire from the Himalayas to the Narmada River in central India,
and from the Brahmaputra River that cuts through four modern Asian nations to the
Yamuna— the longest tributary of the Ganges River in northern India. After gaining power,
Chandragupta II expanded the Gupta Empire through conquest and political marriages until the end
of his reign in 413 CE. By 395 CE, his control over India extended coast to-coast. At the high point of
his rule, Chandragupta II established a second capital at Ujjain, the largest city in the modern state of
Madhya Pradesh in central India. Ujjain, on the eastern bank of the Kshipra River, remained an
important political, commercial, and cultural hub

Certain Factors that led to the Rise and fall of the Gupta Empire are as follows:

The Gupta dynasty came into its own with the accession of Chandra Gupta I, who made his

kingdom more than a mere principality. Chandra Gupta married a Lichchhavi princess.

The Lichchhavis were an old established tribe and marrying into their royal family doubtless

set a seal of acceptability to the Gupta dynasty. This was obviously a political advance for the

Guptas. Samudra Gupta took advantages of the fragmented powers of North India and

adopted a sound policy of war and diplomacy to make a powerful empire. Its northern

extremities touched the Himalayas while its southern boundaries reached up to the Narmada.

But the Deccan and many other neighboring states acknowledged his suzerainty and regarded

him as their over-lord.

After Skandgupta (455-467) all his successors were weak and impotent and they were quite

incompetent to maintain the great empire of their ancestors. The Gupta monarchs did not

follow any definite law of succession and after the death of almost every monarch there was a

war of succession. The Gupta monarchs began to neglect the defense of their frontiers.

The result of this negligence was that the foreign invaders and especially the Huns began to

enter India without any check. Because of the continuous wars which Kumargupta and his

son Skandgupta had to fight against Pusyamitra tribe and the Huns, the treasury became quite

empty and it became very difficult for them to carry on the day-to- day administration. Under

such financial bankruptcy the machinery of the Guptas eased to function and the Gupta

Empire had to see the evil days.

Question-Discuss briefly about the role of Samantas in the polity of the early medieval
 period.
Samanta was a title and position used by the army people of kings in the history of the
Indian subcontinent. The institution of Samanta finds mention for the first time in epigraphs
of northern India dating to the 6th century. The institution is considered to and is closely
associated with the origin and growth of feudalism in India.
However, the institution is known to have existed prior to the Gupta period, though details on
them are vague. A Pallava inscription dating to the time of Santivarman (AD 455 - 470) uses
the term Samanta-Chudamanayah (best feudatories). The Samanta in South India was used to
mean a vassal to an emperor. In North India, the earliest use of the term in a similar sense
was in Bengal in the Barabar Hill Cave Inscription of the Maukhari Chief, Anantavarman
(dating to the 6th century AD) in which his father is described as the Samanta-
Chudamanih (best among feudatories) of the imperial Guptas.

Types of Samanta
Banabhatta describes several types of Samantas in his work, Harsha Charita. Bana's
Harshacharitra is the only work from which we know of various categories of
Samantas. Bana mentions a large number of conquered enemy Maha-Samantas in the royal
camp who were probably waiting to be assigned their new duties.
Some types of Samantas mentioned by Banabhatta are:

• Samanta: which signified the lowest and ordinary type of vassal.

• Mahasamantha (Maha-Samanta): a step higher than a Samanta.
• Shatrumahasamanta (Shatru-Maha-Samanta): a conquered enemy chief.
• Aptasamanta (Apta-Samanta): those who willingly accepted vassalage and the
emperor as their overlord.
• Pradhanamahasamanta (Pradhana-Maha-Samanta): who were most trusted hands of
the emperor and never disregarded their advice.
• Pratisamanta (Prati-Saamanta): who were opposed to the king and meant a hostile
vassal. Though hostile, all Samantas had military obligations. If they did not fulfill their
obligations, the king could seize their territory and appoint a new Samanta. Despite this,
some Samantas would keep trying to throw off their allegiance to the king and assert their
own independent rule.
Banabhatta uses the term Anuraktamahasamanta (Anurakta-Mahasamanta) only once and it
possibly meant those especially attached to their overlord.

Obligations of the Samanta

From the Harshacharitra, we understand that the Samanta had five duties. They are:

• Paying yearly tributes to the emperor.

• Paying homage to the emperor in person.
• Defeated Samantas had to offer their sons and minor princes to the Emperor so that
they are groomed in the imperial traditions and grow to be loyal to the emperor.
• Render military aid to the emperor.
• Perform administrative and judicial functions in times of peace.
In the nature of rendering military aid, paying tributes and performing administrative and
judicial functions, the office of the Samanta is comparable to the office of the Nayaka which
was followed by the Vijayanagar Empire.
The Samanta system was followed by several kingdoms across north and south India.

The Samanta vassal provided military support to the monarch and governed over a portion of
territory.

Question- Explain the tripartite struggle of Rashtrakuta, Pal and Pratihara.

During the 8th century AD, a struggle for control over the Kannauj took place among three
major empires of India namely the Palas, the Pratiharas and the Rastrakutas. The Palas ruled
the eastern parts of India while the Pratiharas controlled the western India (Avanti-Jalaor
region). The Rastrakutas ruled over the deccan region of India. The struggle for control over
Kannuj among these three dynasties is known as the Tripartite struggle in Indian history.
Both Dharmpala, the Pala king and Pratihara king, Vatsaraja clashed against each other for
Kannauj. The latter emerged victorious but was defeated by Rashtrakuta King Dhruva I.
However, the moment the Rashtrakuta King returned to his kingdom in south, Pala king
Dharmapala took the advantage of the situation and captured Kannuj. But his control over
Kannauj was temporary.

The tripartite struggle thus started, lasted for two centuries and made all three dynasties weak
in the long run. This resulted into the political disintegration of the country and benefited the
Islamic invaders from Middle-east.

The significance of Kannauj

Kannauj was located on the Ganga trade route and was connected to the Silk route. It made
Kannauj strategically and commercially very important. It was also the erstwhile capital of
Harshvardhana's empire in north India.so

The object of political ambition at that time was to conquer and hold the city of Kanauj,

which had become a symbol of imperial power perhaps owing to its connection with Harsha

and with Yashovarman, who maintained this status for the city. It became a bone of

contention between these three powers and much of their military activity of these powers

was directed towards its conquest.

Control of Kanauj also implied control of the upper Gangetic valley and its rich resources in

trade and agriculture. In addition, the palas and the Pratiharas clashed with each other for the

control of the area extending from Benaras to south Bihar which again had rich resources and
well developed traditions. The Pratiharas clashed with the Rashtrakutas also. Gujarat and Malwa was
the bone of contention between them.

The Gurjara Pratihara Empire extended from the foothills of the Himalyas to Ujjain in the

south and from Gujarat in the west to Mongyr in the east. Bhoja, the real founder of the

Gurjara Pratihara Empire, tried to extend his sway in the east, but he was defeated and

checkmated by the Pala ruler, Devapala.

He then turned towards central India and the Deccan and Gujarat. This led to the revival of

the struggle with the Rashtrakutas. In a battle on the bank of the Narmada, Bhoja was able to

retain his control over considerable parts of Malwa, and some parts of Gujarat. The continued

conflict over the possession of Kanauj diverted attention from their feudatories, who

succeeded in making themselves independent. The subordination of feudatories and invasion

from the north -west and the south destroyed what little had remained of political unity of

northern India.

On the periphery of what had been the three major kingdoms, there had arisen a number of

small states. The most prominent among them were the Chauhans of Sakambari, the

Paramaras of Malwa and the Chalukyas of Gujarat. These in turn had many feudatories which

sometimes helped their overlords but more often aspired to become independent.

Question- How did the Gurjara Pratiharas establish their rule in North India?
The Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty was an imperial power during the Late Classical period on
the Indian subcontinent, that ruled much of Northern India from the mid-8th to the 11th
century. They ruled first at Ujjain and later at Kannauj.
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus
River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Caliphate
campaigns in India. Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful
dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly
before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his
successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By
the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the Gupta
Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and from
the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south. The expansion triggered
a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian
Subcontinent. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title
of Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (Great King of Kings of India).
Gurjara-Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style
temples. The greatest development of their style of temple building was at Khajuraho, now
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The power of the Pratiharas was weakened by dynastic strife. It was further diminished as a
result of a great raid led by the Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III who, in about 916, sacked Kannauj.
Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the Pratiharas never regained their former
influence. Their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their
allegiance until, by the end of the 10th century, the Pratiharas controlled little more than the
Gangetic Doab. Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud
of Ghazni in 1018.

Rise of the Gurjara-Pratiharas

The Gurjaras are variously seen as a foreign people gradually assimilated into Indian society,
or as the local people who belonged to the land called Gurjara (Gurjaradesha or Gurjaratra),
or as being a tribal group. The Pratiharas, who derived their name from the
word pratihara (Sanskrit: “doorkeeper”) are seen as a tribal group or a clan of the Gurjaras.
In the epic Ramayana, Prince Lakshmana acted once as a doorkeeper to his elder brother
King Rama. Since Lakshmana was regarded as their ancestor, the Pratiharas adopted this
title. Various other Gurjara families started out as local officials and eventually set up small
principalities to the south and east of the area of Jodhpur in modern-day Rajasthan state.

The Pratiharas rose to fame in the late 8th century CE after successfully resisting Arab
invaders. Besides inscriptions, the sculpture created and monuments built during their reign
provide valuable evidence of their times and rule. Primary literary sources include the
accounts of Arab merchants who visited India in this period like Suleiman (c. 9th century CE)
who visited India in the 9th century CE and left behind an account of his travels, and al-
Masudi (c. 10th century CE), who visited Gujarat in 915-16 CE. All these writers refer to the
Paratihara Kingdom as al-Juzr (derived from the Sanskrit Gurjara) and attest “to the great
power and prestige of the Pratihara rulers and the vastness of their empire”

Decline

After Bhoja, the military power of the Pratiharas declined, and they suffered defeat after
defeat under successive kings. The Rashtrakutas dealt severe blows in the early 10th century
CE when Indra III (915-928 CE) defeated Mahipala and completely devastated Kanyakubja
and when Krishna III (939-967 CE) invaded again in 963 CE.
The Rajput feudatories of the Pratiharas were another threat as “the descendants of Mihira
Bhoja had little of Gurjaradesha left in their hands, for every one of the feudatories was
seeking greater power for himself at the cost of his suzerain” (Munshi, 151). Owing to the
political fabric in India at the time, nearly every king when subdued would accept to be a
vassal of the conqueror, but would ceaselessly try to gain independence and go for it at the
slightest opportunity. The Pratiharas were no exception. The weakening of the central power
and attacks on the capital made their feudatories and provincial governors assertive and dying
to declare independence. As a result, the empire disintegrated and was reduced to a kingdom
covering only the area around Kanyakubja.

The Pratihara kingdom continued its existence in a subdued fashion till the early 11th century
CE when it was finally conquered by the Ghaznavid Turks. Their control was however
temporary and this area was taken over by Indian rulers, most notably of the Gahadavala
Dynasty (c. 1080-1194 CE).

Question - What was the peak period of Pratihara dynasty?

Or

Explain about the pratihara dynasty and their achievements

The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus
River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under Junaid and Tamin during the Caliphate
campaigns in India. Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful
dynasty in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly
before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja and his
successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By
the time of Mahendrapala, the extent of its territory rivalled that of the Gupta
Empire stretching from the border of Sindh in the west to Bengal in the east and from
the Himalayas in the north to areas past the Narmada in the south.The expansion triggered
a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian
Subcontinent. During this period, Imperial Pratihara took the title
of Maharajadhiraja of Āryāvarta (Great King of Kings of India).

Gurjara-Pratihara are known for their sculptures, carved panels and open pavilion style
temples. The greatest development of their style of temple building was at Khajuraho, now
a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

The power of the Pratiharas was weakened by dynastic strife. It was further diminished as a
result of a great raid led by the Rashtrakuta ruler Indra III who, in about 916, sacked Kannauj.
Under a succession of rather obscure rulers, the Pratiharas never regained their former
influence. Their feudatories became more and more powerful, one by one throwing off their
allegiance until, by the end of the 10th century, the Pratiharas controlled little more than the
Gangetic Doab. Their last important king, Rajyapala, was driven from Kannauj by Mahmud
of Ghazni in 1018.
Gurjara-Pratihara art- There are notable examples of architecture from the Gurjara-Pratihara
era, including sculptures and carved panels.[29] Their temples, constructed in an open
pavilion style. One of the most notable Gurjara-Pratihara style of architecture was Khajuraho,
built by their vassals, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand.[5]

Māru-Gurjara architecture-Māru-Gurjara architecture was developed during Gurjara Pratihara

Empire.

Bateshwar Hindu temples complex-Bateshwar Hindu temples, Madhya Pradesh was

constructed during the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire between 8th to 11th century.[30]

Baroli temples complex-Baroli temples complex are eight temples, built by the Gurjara-
Pratiharas, is situated within a walled enclosure.

Question- What were the reasons for the Gurjara Pratiharas collapse?
Decline
Bhoja II (910–912) was overthrown by Mahipala I (912–944). Several feudatories of the
empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare their
independence, notably the Paramaras of Malwa, the Chandelas of Bundelkhand,
the Kalachuris of Mahakoshal, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Chahamanas of
Shakambhari. The south Indian Emperor Indra III (c. 914–928) of the Rashtrakuta dynasty
briefly captured Kannauj in 916, and although the Pratiharas regained the city, their position
continued to weaken in the 10th century, partly as a result of the drain of simultaneously
fighting off Turkic attacks from the west, the attacks from the Rashtrakuta dynasty from the
south and the Pala advances in the east. The Gurjara-Pratiharas lost control of Rajasthan to
their feudatories, and the Chandelas captured the strategic fortress of Gwalior in central India
around 950. By the end of the 10th century the Gurjara-Pratihara domains had dwindled to a
small state centered on Kannauj.
Mahmud of Ghazni captured Kannauj in 1018, and the Pratihara ruler Rajapala fled. He was
subsequently captured and killed by the Chandela ruler Vidyadhara.[26][27] The Chandela ruler
then placed Rajapala's son Trilochanpala on the throne as a proxy. Jasapala, the last Gurjara-
Pratihara ruler of Kannauj, died in 1036.
 Question- Question Explain various theories of mythological origin of Rajputs?

or

Question --Explain various theories of origin of Rajputs?

Rajputs are the descendants of the ancient Brahamana or Kshatriya families and it is only
because of certain circumstances that they have been called the Rajputs.

Earliest and much debated opinion concerning the origin of the Rajputs is that all Rajput
families were the descendants of the Gurjaras and the Guijaras were of foreign origin.
Therefore, all Rajput families were of foreign origin and only, later on, were placed among
Indian Kshatriyas and were called the Rajputs. The adherents of this view argue that we find
references to the Guijaras only after the 6th century when foreigners had penetrated in India

So, they were not of Indian origin but foreigners. Cunningham described them as the
descendants of the Kushanas.

A part of Rajputana was called Gurjara-Pradesh in the 9th century while, in the 10th century,
Gujarat was referred to as Gurjara. Therefore, some scholars have described that the Gurjaras
entered India through Afghanistan, settled themselves in different parts of India and were the
ancestors of the Rajputs. A stone-inscription at Rajora of 959 A.D. describes Mathandeo, a
feudal Chief of Vijaypala as Gurjara-Pratihara.

It led to the conclusion that the Pratiharas were also a branch of the Gurjaras. The Chalukyas
gave the name of Gujarat to that particular territory. It meant that the Chalukyas were also the
Gurjaras. Prithviraja Raso also described that the Pratiharas, the Chalukyas, the Parmaras and
the Chauhanas originated out of a sacrificial fire-pit which supported the theory of foreign
origin of the Rajputs.

Therefore, several scholars described that all thirty-two Kulas of the Rajputs originated from
the Gurjaras who were foreigners and, thus, all Rajputs were foreigners and were provided
the status of the Kshatriyas only afterwards.

However, this view has not been accepted by the majority of modern historians. It is not
certain that the Khajaras were called the Gurjaras. Except the Parmaras, rest of the three
Rajput Kulas refused to accept their origin out of sacrificial fire-pit. There is no proof that
these four Rajput clans had blood relations On the contrary, it has been regarded more
reliable that the Parmaras and the Chaulukvas had no relation, whatsoever, within the
Gurjaras.

No early Muslim record has mentioned that the Gurjaras were a clan. Rather a particular
territory has been referred to as Gurjara. In India, several families were named on the name of
the territory’ which they inhabited. Therefore, it is more logical to accept that the Pratihara
was that clan which occupied Gurjara-Pradesh.

Arab scholars, Sulaimana and Abu Jaid described Jurj as a state and they used the word jurj
for Gurjara-Pradesh. Therefore, modern historians refused to accept this view that all Rajput
Kulas were the descendants of the Guijaras and as the Guijaras were foreigners so all Rajputs
had a foreign origin.

Tod, in his Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan, declared that the Rajputs were of Scythian
origin. He drew parallels between the customs of foreigners like Sakas, Kushanas and Hunas,
etc. and the Rajputs. He expressed that customs like Aswamedha-Yajna, worship of horse and
arms and the status of women in society were similar among these foreigners and the Rajputs
and therefore, declared that the Rajputs were the descendants of these foreigners.

William Brook supported the view of Tod. He contended that many family names of the
Rajputs could be traced back only to the period of invasion of these foreigners and
particularly those of the Hunas and thus justifies the theory of their origin from foreigners.

He said that even the Gurjaras were foreigners who came to India at the time of the invasions
of the Hunas, accepted Hinduism, entered into marriage relations with Indians and, thus, gave
birth to many Rajput families. Afterwards, they tried to establish their lineage from the
ancient Solar or Lunar Kshatriya dynasties.

Dr Iswari Prasad and Dr Bhandarkar have also accepted this theory of foreign origin of the
Rajputs. Dr Iswari Prasad does not regard the Rajputs as low-born Kshatriyas. However, he
accepts that the absorption of foreign invaders within the Hindu society brought about the
origin of the Rajputs.

Certain popular beliefs, particularly that of Chand Bardai, the court-poet of Prithviraj
Chauhan, state that the Rajputs originated from a sacrificial fire-pit. According to them when
Parasuram destroyed all the Kshatriyas then the ancient sages did a Yajna on Mount Abu to
safeguard the Vedic religion.
Out of that Yajna fire four heroes were born and the descendants of these heroes w ere the
four Rajput families, viz., the Chauhan, the Solanki or Chalukaya, the Paramara and the
Pratihara. This also supports the view of the foreign origin of Rajputs.

But Pandit Gauri Sankar Ojha has refuted the above viewpoint in his book The History of
Rajputana. He states that parallels drawn by Colonel Tod between the customs of foreigners
who settled in India and the Rajputs do not justify the view that the Rajputs are foreigners.
Most of these customs had grown up before the coming of these foreign invaders.
Therefore, the Rajputs did not pursue these customs because of their foreign origin. On the
contrary, these foreigners accepted these Indian customs in the process of their being
Indianized. He further states that the Rajputs cannot be accepted to be of foreign origin on the
basis of race or physical features. Therefore, he regards the Rajputs as descendants of ancient
Kshatriya families. Dr Chintamani also supports this view.

A few modern historians like Dr R.C. Majumdar. Dr Hariram and Dr Dashratha Sharma state
that most Rajput families are the descendants of ancient Kshatriya or Brahamana families
though, of course, the lineage of a few families is doubtful. Dr R.C. Majumdar contends that
the Rajputs cannot be accepted to be of foreign origin on the basis of certain parallel customs
of the foreigners of their race.

Of course, foreigners were accepted within the Hindu society and accorded the status of
lower Kshatriyas but the facts do not permit us to accept the view that political power of
India had passed into the hands of these new converts to Hinduism. After the death of Harsha,
most of the ruling dynasties belonged to ancient Kshatriya families.

The Puranas and even the Harsha- charita of Banabhatta use the words Rajputra for the sons
of Kshatriya-kings. Afterwards, the distortion of the word Rajputra became Rajput.
Therefore, the Rajputs were the descendants of the Hindu Kshatriya families. However, all
those Kshatriya princes, who established their independent kingdoms after the death of
Harsha, called themselves Rajputs.

Of course, certain foreigners also established their independent kingdoms in the North-West
and the Western part of India and when they were accepted within the Hindu society they,
being rulers, also called themselves Rajputs and were accepted as such. Therefore, there is no
doubt that while most of the Rajput families are of Indian origin, a few of them have their
origin from among the foreigners. Dr R.C. Majumdar does not accept the theory of the origin
of the Rajputs out of sacrificial fire-pit as an historical fact.
He maintains that mostly the Rajputs are the descendants of Hindu Kshatriya or Brahamana
families. He writes that Bappa Rawal, the real founder ruler of the Guhilot Rajput family of
Mewar was a Brahamana, Harisena, the founder of Gurjara-Pratihar dynasty, was a
Brahamana whose one wife was Kshatriya and the other one a Brahamana, the Chandella-
Rajputs are the descendants of the sage Chandratreya who was born of the moon; the
Parmara-Rajputs claim their origin from the Kshatriya Rashtrakuta-family; and the Chalukyas
of Badami were Kshatriyas.

Dr Dashratha Sharma has supported the view of Dr Majumdar in his book Early
Chauhan Dynasties. On the basis of ancient inscriptions and coins, he has rightly rejected the
story of sacrificial-pit and also the view of the foreign origin of the Rajputs as expressed by
Tod. V.A. Smith, Bhandarkar. etc. He maintains that the founders of all important dynasties
of the Rajputs like the Chauhans, the Guhilots, the Pallavas, the Kadambas, the Pratiharas and
the Parmaras were Brahamanas.
After the fall of the empire of Harsha, India passed through a disturbed and unstable state of
affairs. At that very time it was further endangered by the attacks of the Arabs and the Turks.
Therefore, as had happened many times in ancient India the Brahamanas took up arms for the
defence of their culture and religion and were called Kshatriya-Rajputs and ultimately
Rajputs.

Thus, the view that the Rajputs mostly belonged to foreign races does not hold at present. Of
course, the origin of a few families can be traced from foreigners but most of the Rajputs
have descended from the aborigines of India and were either Brahamanas or Kshatriyas.

Question -Explain Contribution of Rajputs towards the Culture of India?

During the post-Harsha period and the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate extremely wide
ranging source material comprising epigraphic and literary is available to reconstruct the
society of the period in general and that of the Rajputs in particular.
Among the literary works, Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, Prahandhachintamani of Merutunga,
Soudhala’s Udayasundarikatha and Adipurana of jinasena, the ‘Dohas’ of Siddhas and many
more are useful for reconstructing the social matrix of India.

Though it is generally agreed that this society was based on Vamasrama model, the social
relations underwent changes due to the changing material base and the emergence of new
social groups, vying for space in hierarchical order.
We have to take cognizance of the fact that no Varna seemed to have remained homogenous
but underwent fragmentation on account of territorial affiliation, purity of ‘Gotras’ and
pursuance of specific crafts, professions and vocations.

In Gujarat and Rajasthan, the Brahmins were identified in terms of their Mula or original
place of habitation and divided into Madha, Udichya, Nagara, etc., while intermediary Varnas
of the Kshatriyas and the Vaisyas were absent in Bengal and in South India.

The ranks of Kshatriyas multiplied during this period in North India. Many literary works and
bardic recitations provide varying lists of 36 clans of Rajputs in North India and it is agreed
upon that they arose out of different strata of population of tribal’s, foreign invaders,
Kshatriyas and Brahmans.

It appears that some among the captured respectable men were enrolled as the Shekhawat and
the Wadhela tribes of Rajputs, while the lower categories were constituted to the castes of
Kolis, Khantas and Mers. The political annals of the Rajput dynasties such as the
Chahamanas of Rajasthan and the Paramaras of Southern Rajasthan, Gujarat and Malwa offer
examples of the clan-based distribution of political authority.

The bardic chronicles of Marwar testify to the fact that Dharanivaraha of the Paramara
dynasty of Abu first made himself the master of the Navakot Marwar which he afterwards
divided between his nine brothers. We have besides the Paramaras of Malwa, the Paramaras
of Abu, Bhinmal, Jalor and Vagoda.

We have Chahamanas of Bhroach as well that of Pratapgarh. Further Chahamanas of

Shakambhari were divided into Chahamanas of Nadol, Jalor, Satyapura and Abu. Likewise,
the Chapas ruled over small areas like Bhillamala, Vadhiyar in Kathiawad and Anhilapataka
in Gujarat. Thus, the new clans and subdivision of earlier clans were drawn into the Rajput
political network in a variety of ways.

We also notice the process of caste proliferation among the Vaishyas and the Sudras. The
Vaishyas were also identified with regional variations and they are called Shrimals, Palliwals,
Nagars and Disawats among others. We also witness the crystallization of the professions of
artisans into castes.
Economy:
During this period more and more land was brought under cultivation and relations in society
revolved around land grants. It also means the use of advanced agricultural techniques of
plough cultivation and irrigation. Institutional management of agricultural process sometime,
led to social tensions in rural set-up.

However, regional variations and ecological factors are to be taken into consideration before
we assess the impact of expansion of agriculture. Land grant system began in western Indian
regions of Gujarat and Rajasthan between the 5th and the 7th centuries AD. In Rajasthan
water-lifting devices such as Araghatta and big ploughs were in use. As Rajasthan and
Gujarat were having less rainfall, the agriculturists must have depended on age-old practice
of depending on wells.

Trade and commerce also flourished. Nagarams or markets in those days were located on
trade routes at points of exchange. In Rajasthan, where the exchange centres were located on
the basis of agrarian production, the rural settlements clustered. These also acted as centres of
traffic of varying origins.

We also witness a certain measure of hierarchy among merchant families of the 11th and the
12th centuries. The important merchant families based on the origin of place are Osawal
(Osia) Shrimalis (Bhinmal), Palliwalas and Khandelwalas.

These merchant families integrated the resource bases or rural production centres, the main
routes for the flow or resources or urban centres and centres of exchange; or Nagarams.
Rajasthan provided the necessary commercial links between Gujarat, Central India and the
valley of Ganges. The traders maintained links through towns like Pali between the coast and
towns like Dwaraka and Brigukachcha or Broach with central and north India. Bayana in
Rajasthan was such a crucial market junction.

Culture:
The Rajput rulers patronized arts and literature. Paramara rulers Munja and Bhoja are well-
known scholars of great repute. The following are the works of Bhoja – Ayurvedasarvasva,
Rajamriganka, Vyavaharasamuchchaya, Sabdanusasana and Yuktikalpataru. Bhoja
patronized literary giants such as Padmagupta, Dhanika, Halayudha, Dhananjaya and
Amitragati. Rajasekhara, the author of the drama of Karpuramanjari in Prakrit was patronized
by Mahendrapala of Kanauj.
Jayadeva, the author of Gita Govinda was patronized by King Lakshmana Sena of Bengal.
Kalhana, the author of Rajtarangini, Somadevasuri, the author of Kathasaritsagara, Chand
Bardai, the author Prithiviraj Raso and Brihatkathamanjari, belonged to this period.
Vernacular literature also made a beginning in this period. Hemachanda Suri, a great Jain
poet deserves to be remembered for his services.

The Rajputs were also great builders. Art historians divide their period into two halves, the
first part from AD 600-900 and the second part from AD 900-1200. We notice more of
ornamentation in the second period. Their important specimens of secular art are the
fortresses located at Chittorgarh, Ranathanbhor and Kumbalgarh in Rajasthan along with
Mandu, Gwalior, Chandai and Asirgarh in Madhya Pradesh.

The palaces in Rajasthan are also beautiful examples of art and architecture they fostered.
The Rajputs also constructed a number of temples. The Khajuraho group of temples
numbering 80, built by the Chandella rulers stand in good testimony to the artistic excellence
of the Rajput artists and craftsmen, where each temple exhibits individual architectural
character. These temples are famous for elegant proportions, graceful contours and rich
surface treatment. The Sikharas of these temples are most refined and elegant. We have both
Brahmanical and Jaina temples.

The Jaina complex at Mount Abu is very remarkable for its marble halls, a central dome of 11
concentric rings and richly carved vaulted ceiling and pillars. They also built Siva temples at
Nemavar and Udaipur. It is said that Rudramala temple is one of the largest and most
decorated religious monuments in India.

The Rajputs by their individual courage, valour and spirit of liberty played the role of
defenders of Indian culture from the inroads of ruthless invaders like Ghajni and Ghori,
leading to the postponement for the establishment of Muslim power in India. But, the Rajputs
failed in preventing the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate by their narrow and clannish
outlook, lack of foresight and failure to realize the impending danger knocking at their gates
and importance of burying mutual jealousies for a common good.

Question-Medieval India: Characteristics, social, economic and culture development

Main Characteristics of Medieval India age:

• The period between ancient and modern ages is generally called medieval India
period.
 • In the Medieval Period, the growth of Human development was pushed up to a great
extent.
• The authority of Pope and Church Increased.
• The Religious Teaching was blindly followed.There was no importance to reasoning
in comparison to blind faith.
• Independent thinking was suppressed.
• The Religious wars between Christians and Muslims Called Crusades changed the
course of European History.
• The Contact with the Arabs and the Influence of Islam resulted in changes in
Literature and science.
• There was no strong centralized political authority in Europe.
• On account of the invasion of barbaric tribes, anarchy spread over Europe.
• Later, Renaissance was started in Europe

Above all are the characteristics of the medieval age of India

Social Development:

• With the coming of Muslims, the people of different places and different faiths were
mixed with the Indian people.
• The Society was divided into higher, middle and lower classes.
• The Bhakti and Sufi movements influenced the social-religious life of the people.
• The Workship of one God, Bhajans and Prayers became popular.

Economic Development in Medieval India:

• Agriculture was well developed.

• The Major share of agriculture yield was enjoyed by kings and landlords.
• Jagir system was prevalent.
• The Middlemen controlled the sale of products.

Culture Development in Medieval India:

• The Sanskrit Language was perfected

• Shad Darshanas were compiled.
• The Sanskrit Books like Ramayana, Mahabharata, and Panchatantra were translated
into many languages during Akbar’s reign.
• Quran was translated into Persian Language.
• Kings Encouraged Music and So Instrumental Music was also developed.
• Amir Khusrau, Baz Bahadur, and his wife Rupamathi were famous Musicians.
• A new art Known as Indo-Islamic art was born.
 Question -Discuss the contribution of Cultural contributions of Pallavas and Chalukyas.

After the decline of the Sangam Age in the Tamil country, the Kalabhra rule lasted for about
250 years. Thereafter, the Pallavas established their kingdom in Tondaimandalam with its
capital at Kanchipuram. Their rule continued till Tondaimandalam was captured and annexed
by the Imperial Cholas in the beginning of the tenth century A.D.

Origin of the Pallavas

There are different views on the origin of the Pallavas. They were equated with the Parthians,
the foreigners who ruled western India. Another view was that the Pallavas were a branch of
the Brahmin royal dynasty of the Vakatakas of the Deccan. The third view relates the
Pallavas with the descendents of the Chola prince and a Naga princess whose native was the
island of Manipallavam. But these theories on the origin of the Pallavas were not supported
by adequate evidences.

Political History

The early Pallava rulers from 250 A.D. to 350 A.D. issued their charters in Prakrit. Important
among them were Sivaskandavarman and Vijayaskandavarman. The second line of Pallava
rulers who ruled between 350 A.D. and 550 A.D. issued their charters in Sanskrit. The most
important ruler of this line was Vishnugopa who was defeated by Samudragupta during his
South Indian expedition. The rulers of the third line who ruled from 575 A.D. to their
ultimate fall in the ninth century issued their charters both in Sanskrit and Tamil.
Simhavishnu was the first ruler of this line. He destroyed the Kalabhras and firmly
established the Pallava rule in Tondaimandalam. He also defeated the Cholas and extended
the Pallava territory up to the river Kaveri. Other great Pallava rulers of this line were
Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I, and Narasimhavarman II.

Mahendravarman I (600 – 630 A.D.)

The long-drawn Pallava – Chalukya Conflict began during his period. Pulakesin II marched
against the Pallavas and captured the northern part of their kingdom. Although a Pallava
inscription refers to the victory of Mahendravarman I at Pullalur, he was not able to recover
the lost territory. Mahendravarman I was a follower of Jainism in the early part of his career.
He was converted to Saivism by the influence of the Saiva saint, Thirunavukkarasar alias
Appar. He built a Siva temple at Tiruvadi. He assumed a number of titles like Gunabhara,
Satyasandha, Chettakari (builder of temples) Chitrakarapuli, Vichitrachitta and Mattavilasa.
He was a great builder of cave temples. The Mandagappattu inscription hails him as
Vichitrachitta who constructed a temple for Brahma, Vishnu and Siva without the use of
bricks, timber, metal and mortar. His rock-cut temples are found in a number of places like
Vallam, Mahendravadi, Dalavanur, Pallavaram, Mandagappattu and Tiruchirappalli. He had
also authored the Sanskrit work Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His title Chitrakarapuli reveals his
talents in painting. He is also regarded as an expert in music. The music inscription at
Kudumianmalai is ascribed to him.

Narasimhavarman I (630-668 A.D.)

Narasimhavarman I was also known as Mamalla, which means ‘great wrestler’. He wanted to
take avenge the defeat of his father at the hands of Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin II. His victory
over Pulakesin II in the Battle of Manimangalam near Kanchi is mentioned in Kuram copper
plates. The Pallava army under General Paranjothi pursued the retreating Chalukya army,
entered Chalukya territory, captured and destroyed the capital city of Vatapi.
Narasimhavarman I assumed the title ‘Vatapikonda’. He regained the lost territory. Another
notable achievement of Narasimhavarman I was his naval expedition to Sri Lanka. He
restored the throne to his friend and Sri Lankan prince Manavarma. During his reign, Hiuen
Tsang visited the Pallava capital Kanchipuram. His description of Kanchi is vivid. He calls it
a big and beautiful city, six miles in circumference. It had 100 Buddhist monasteries in which
about 10,000 Buddhist monks lived. According to his account the people of Kanchi esteemed
great learning and the Ghatika at Kanchi served as a great centre of learning.
Narasimhavarman I was the founder of Mamallapuram and the monolithic rathas were
erected during his reign.

Narasimhavarman II or Rajasimha (695 -722 A.D.)

Narasimhavarman I was succeeded by Mahendravarman II and Parameswarvarman I and the

Pallava – Chalukya conflict continued during their reign. Thereafter, Narasimhavarman II
became the ruler of the Pallava kingdom. He was also known as Rajasimha. His regime was
peaceful and he evinced more interest in developing the art and architecture. The Shore
temple at Mamallapuram and the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchipuram were built in this
period. He was also a great patron of art and letters. The famous Sanskrit scholar Dandin is
said to have adorned his court. He sent embassies to China and the maritime trade flourished
during his reign. Rajasimha assumed titles like Sankarabhakta, Vadhyavidyadhara and
Agamapriya. He was succeeded by Parameswaravarman II and Nandivarman II. The Pallava
rule lasted till the end of the ninth century A.D. The Chola king Aditya I defeated the last
Pallava ruler Aparajita and seized the Kanchi region. With this, the rule of Pallava dynasty
came to an end.

Administration of the Pallavas

The Pallavas had a well organized administrative system. The Pallava state was divided into
Kottams. The Kottam was administered by officers appointed by the king. The king was at
the centre of administration in which he was assisted by able ministers. He was the fountain
of justice. He maintained a well-trained army. He provided land-grants to the temples known
as Devadhana and also to the Brahmans known as Brahmadeya. It was also the responsibility
of the central government to provide irrigation facilities to the lands. A number of irrigation
tanks were dug by the Pallava kings. The irrigation tanks at Mahendravadi and Mamandoor
were dug during the reign of Mahendravarman I. Detailed information on the tax system
could also be traced from the Pallava inscriptions. Land tax was the primary source of the
government revenue. The Brahmadeya and Devadhana lands were exempted from tax.
Traders and artisans such as carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-men, oil-pressers and weavers
paid taxes to the government. The Pallava inscriptions throw much light on the village
assemblies called sabhas and their committees. They maintained records of all village lands,
looked after local affairs and managed temples.

Society under the Pallavas

The Tamil society witnessed a great change during the Pallava period. The caste system
became rigid. The Brahmins occupied a high place in the society. They were given land-
grants by the kings and nobles. They were also given the responsibility of looking after the
temples. The Pallava period also witnessed the rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism and also the
decline of Buddhism and Jainism. The Saiva Nayanmars and the Vaishnava Alwars
contributed to the growth of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This is known as the Bakthi
Movement. They composed their hymns in the Tamil language. These hymns revealed the
importance of devotion or Bakthi. The construction of temples by the Pallava kings paved the
way for the spread of these two religions.

Education and Literature

The Pallavas were great patrons of learning. Their capital Kanchi was an ancient centre of
learning. The Ghatika at Kanchi was popular and it attracted students from all parts of India
and abroad. The founder of the Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman studied Vedas at Kanchi.
Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer came to study at Kanchi. Dharmapala, who later became the
Head of the Nalanada University, belonged to Kanchi. Bharavi, the great Sanskrit scholar
lived in the time of Simhavishnu. Dandin, another Sanskrit writer adorned the court of
Narasimhavarman II. Mahendravaraman I composed the Sanskrit play
Mattavilasaprahasanam. Tamil literature had also developed.

Pallava Art and Architecture

It was a great age of temple building. The Pallavas introduced the art of excavating temples
from the rock. In fact, the Dravidian style of temple architecture began with the Pallava rule.
It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to monolithic rathas and culminated
in structural temples. The development of temple architecture under the Pallavas can be seen
in four stages. Mahendravarman I introduced the rock-cut temples. This style of Pallava
temples are seen at places like Mandagappattu, Mahendravadi, Mamandur, Dalavanur,
Tiruchirappalli, Vallam, Siyamangalam and Tirukalukkunram. The second stage of Pallava
architecture is represented by the monolithic rathas and Mandapas found at Mamallapuram.
Narasimhavarman I took the credit for these wonderful architectural monuments

Fine Arts

Music, dance and painting had also developed under the patronage of the Pallavas. The
Mamandur inscription contains a note on the notation of vocal music. The Kudumianmalai
inscription referred to musical notes and instruments. The Alwars and Nayanmars composed
their hymns in various musical notes. Dance and drama also developed during this period.
The sculptures of this period depict many dancing postures. The Sittannavasal paintings
belonged to this period. The commentary called Dakshinchitra was compiled during the reign
of Mahendravarman I, who had the title Chittirakkarapuli.

Question -Discuss the Chalukyas dynasty.

(i) Question -Discuss the developments in scientific knowledge during the rule of
Pallavas and Chalukyas.
(ii) Discuss the Cultural contributions of Pallavas and Chalukyas.
(iii)

or

Question -Discuss the Cultural contributions of Chalukyas

The Pallavas
The Pallavas were a dynasty of South India. They ruled for a very long time, for as
many as six centuries from third century CE onwards. Initially they were a small power in
what is now northern Tamil Nadu, with their capital at Kanchipuram. From the sixth century
they figure as a major regional power, dominating a large territory that included the domains
of several small rulers, and defending it in an almost continuous series of wars against the
Pandyas of Madurai (southern Tamil Nadu) and the Chalukyas. Their power began to wane
from about mid-eighth century.

The Chalukyas
The Chalukyas emerged as rulers of northern Karnataka and adjoining areas of
Maharashtra in the western Deccan in the beginning of the sixth century CE. They rapidly
made themselves overlords of an extensive empire, ruling from their capital Vatapi (modern
Badami). The Chalukyas of Badami were dislodged about mid-eighth century by the
 Rashtrakutas, their erstwhile subordinates. A junior branch of theirs, called Eastern
Chalukyas, ruled in the Andhra delta region from 631 CE for about five centuries. There were
other branches of the Chalukyas also in Indian history, but we shall here not be concerned
with the Chalukya dynasties that ruled after the mid-eighth century. These three empires well
represented the three major divisions of India – North India (Vardhanas), the Deccan
(Chalukyas), and South India (Pallavas)– they did not span over the same range of time in
Indian history. The Vardhanas ruled for the shortest period, the Chalukyas ruled both before
and after them, and the chronologies of both formed a subset of the Pallava period, which was
the longest of all. Since our chief interest lies in the changes that historians have identified in
the transition to the early medieval period in Indian history, we shall focus on the two
centuries from circa 550 to 750 CE. The transitional aspects of the periods outside this time -
bracket are usually discussed in the lessons on the preceding and succeeding periods of early
Indian history, with special reference to the Guptas and the Palas-Pratiharas-Rashtrakutas-
Cholas respectively. The focus on the transition also requires that we take into account other
realms than those of the Vardhanas, Chalukyas and Pallavas.

Cultural contributions of Pallavas and Chalukyas

Literature: The Chalukyas of Kalyana followed the great tradition of the Chalukyas of
Badami and made rich contributions to the culture of Karnataka, espectially in literature, art
and architecture. Kannada and Sanskrit literature developed during this period. The famous
Kannada poet Ranna was the court poet of Satyashraya. He wrote Sahasabhimavijaya
(Gadhayuddha) and Ajithanatha purana. He was bestowed upon with the title
‘Kavichakravarlhi’ and was honoured in the court of Tailapa II

Art and Architecture:

Art and Architecture-In stone architecture, there were two major forms: rock-cut and
structural. Rock architecture, as you probably already know, refers to the creation of
architectural forms in living rock. These rock-cut temples and monasteries usually look like
artificial caves in hills and cliffs. These were distinct from ‘structural’ architecture, which
refers to building freestanding structures with dressed-stone (or brick) masonry. Occasionally
these two forms could be combined, but normally they remained separate, and have different
chronological spans. Rock architecture, which over its long career was a virtually pan-South
Asian phenomenon, goes back to the Mauryan period, but it is from about mid- fifth century
(beginning at Ajanta and Ellora) that it entered its most active phase. By the end of this
period the great age of rock architecture in Indian art history was by and large drawing to a
close, even though its greatest achievement – the Kailasanatha temple at Ellora – comes just
after it. It was during these centuries that construction of structural buildings in stone and
brick got under way in an important way, but the really magnificent and classic phase of
structural temples begins after the age of rock architecture was over. Generally speaking,
there was an overlap between the two types of construction during this period, except in the
south under the Pallavas, where the structural phase begins in the eighth century only after
the rock-cut phase comes to an end in the seventh.
Mathematics and Astronomy
In the scientific field, Brahmagupta is the most outstanding figure in this period. He
made a number of seminal contributions in mathematics. He was the first mathematician in
 the world to recognize negative numbers, which he presented as ‘debts’ in contrast to
positive numbers, which he called ‘fortunes’. In many other ways he was ahead of the
mathematicians of the time. For instance, one of his methods for proving Pythagoras’
theorem remained unknown to the western world till the seventeenth century. Astronomy was
closely linked to mathematics, the word for the mathematician – ganaka
– being also the term for the astronomer. Like his equally eminent predecessor Aryabhata,
Brahmagupta was thus an astronomer also. He headed a major observatory, and grappled
with such questions as lunar and solar eclipses, conjunctions of the moving planets with each
other as well as with fixed stars, etc.
Medicine
In medicine, Vagbhata claimed, or was claimed, to have become the leading authority
for his age, rendering superfluous the previous masters. There are two Vagbhatas, the first of
whom wrote a treatise called the Ashtanga-sangraha, and who flourished in the seventh
century just before the visit of the Chinese pilgrim Yijing. Scholars place the other Vagbhata,
the author of Ashtanga-hrdaya-samhita, about a century later. Both were Buddhists, and thus
bear witness to the close links of Buddhism with the medical tradition; medicine was avidly
studied in the monasteries of Nalanda and Vikramashila.
Linguistic Developments
There were a number of significant linguistic developments. First, there was the onset
and growth of the third stage of Middle Indo-Aryan languages, i.e. the Prakrits (Old Indo-
Aryan languages include Classical and Vedic Sanskrit), from about 600 CE. This third stage
of the Middle Indo-Aryan languages is termed Apabhramsha by the linguists,
out of which the New or Modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi and Marathi
began to evolve from the tenth century CE. Second, the predominance of Sanskrit continued
to grow as the official language of the states and one used for trans-provincial communication
throughout the culture region of South and South-east Asia, apart from as a language of
literature and religion;

Religion

In the field of religion, the Puranic temple based Brahmanical sects, about the nature
and rise of which you have already read in the previous lessons, continued to be in the
ascendant. Of these the Vaishnava and Shaiva sects were the most important. Taking the
evidence of royal patronage as an indicator, the various Shaiva sects appear to have been
moving ahead of the Vaishnava ones during this period.

Question -Bhakti movement in South India

Bhakti movement was a revolution started by the Hindu saints to bring religious reforms by
adopting the method of devotion to achieve salvation.
This movement resulted in various rites by practising rituals of devotion among the Hindus,
Muslims and Sikhs in the Indian subcontinent.
Their method of expression was to sing devotional compositions in the temples, Gurudwaras
and Masjids.
History of Bhakti movement
The wave of Bhakti movement started from south India, by Alvaras-the devotees of Lord
Vishnu and Nayanars-devotees of Shiva.
They travelled to various places singing hymns in Tamil in praise of their gods.
Later, many temples were built that became the sacred places for pilgrimage.
The compositions by the poets- saints became part of temple rituals in these shrines.
Some historians also believed that the Alvaras and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest
against the caste system and the dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the
system.
AYANARS AND ALVARS - DEFINITION
In South India 7th to 9th centuries saw the emergence of new religious movements. It was led
by the Nayanars (saints devoted to Shiva) and Alvars (saints devoted to Vishnu). They came
from all castes. There were 63 Nayanars and 12 Alvars. In the thirteenth century, Chakradhar
Swami founded the Mahanubhav Panth in Maharashtra. This sect preaches devotion to Krishna.
Shri Govind Prabhu was the Guru of Chakradhar Swami. The followers of Chakradhara included
men and women belonging to all castes and creeds. He supported equality. He travelled to all parts
of Maharashtra preaching in Marathi. He preferred Marathi instead of Sanskrit. This led to the
development of the Marathi language.
5 Causes of the rise of the Bhakti movement
1. Influence of Vaishnavism
2. Evil practices of the Hindus
3. Fear of spread of Islam
4. Influence of Sufi sects
5. The emergence of great reformers
Influences made by the Bhakti movement in the society
Religious effects
1. Saked Hinduism
2. Lowered the prestige of the Brahmins
3. Checked the propagation of Islam
4. Emergence of Sikhism
5. Setback to Buddhism
Social impact
1. Improvement in the social relation between the Hindus and Muslims
2. The better social status of lower casts
3. Promotion of social service
4. Development of composite art in the society
5. Enrichment of literature.

Question -The dark period of Indian history

Question-How does the Indian Feudalism model characterize the early medieval period?
The early medieval period coincides with the phase when the Gupta Empire had
declined and the Delhi Sultanate was yet to be established. It is the period of transition from
the ancient period to the medieval period and thus is termed early medieval. Earlier,

scholars called it the dark period of Indian history as there was no centralized pan-
Indian political structure. However, later researches show that significant changes were
 taking place during this period also. There were a number of states which emerged
during this period like that of the Pratiharas, the Palas, the Cholas, the Chahamanas,
Chandelas, Rashtrakutas and others in different parts of the Indian sub-continent. Some states
survived for long with extensive areas under their possession while the others had control
over smaller areasEarly medieval India was marked by a lack of political unity, and hence the
reason for the emergence of so many kingdoms in the country. It has been argued that this
was the reason for the Arab and Turkish rulers to easily defeat the Indian powers, as the
conditions were conducive for their invasion. Recent studies have focussed on the political
processes which in turn led to such a fragmented history for this period Scholars like D.D.
Kosambi, R.S. Sharma, B.N.S. Yadava and others following their contention found feudalism
as the prominent socio-economic system that moulded developments in India during the
period between the decline of Harshavardhana’s empire and the emergence the Delhi
Sultanate. D.D. Kosambi was the first to suggest about the two-stage development of the
political formation namely, ‘feudalism from above’ and ‘feudalism from below’. According
to R.S. Sharma, the roots of the feudal elements in early medieval northern India can be
traced to the practice of land grants made to Brahmanas, temples and monasteries. Although
the epigraphic evidence for the same is datable to an earlier period, it increases with Gupta
period with references to grant of villages along with their fields and inhabitants. It is
important to note that now the fiscal, administrative and judicial rights over the donated land
were also given to the religious beneficiaries. These grants were not confined to the priests
but later extended to the warrior class, and the officials such as governors, judges, military
commanders and other related state personnel were also assigned land in lieu of salaries in
cash.
According to the scholars who support the aforementioned opinion regarding the feudal
formation, religious and secular grants became increasingly popular with the emergence
of local and self-sufficient economies marked by lack of commercial intercourse, decline
of urban life and paucity of coins.The economic essence of Indian feudalism as argued by
R.S. Sharma lay in the rise of the landed intermediaries which in turn led to the
enserfment of the peasantry as there were restrictions on their mobility and freedom.

Question -Discuss The Chola dynasty

The Chola dynasty was one of the longest ruling dynasties in Indian history. Under
Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola
and Kulottunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South
Asia and South-East Asia. Chola rule led to cultural contact
between India, China and South-East Asia. The Frequent Chola merchant ships in Bay of
Bengal led scholars to rename Bay of Bengal as “Chola Lake”.
The history of the Cholas falls into four periods: (i)the Early Cholas of the Sangam
literature (3rd century BCE-2nd Century CE) (i)The interregnum between the fall of the
Sangam Cholas( 2-8thCentury)(i)The rise of the Imperial Cholas under Vijayalaya (848-
1070)(i) The Later Chola dynasty of Kulottunga Chola I (1070-1122)
Chola State and Administration The Chola state and administration had always
been a matter of scholarly debate as we find powerful kings along with autonomous local
governing bodies. Land grants in Kaveri valley led to the rise of land-owning class often
called landed magnates and they played a very crucial role in Chola administrative structure.
Nature of Chola State
 Historians like Nilakantha Sastri have interpreted Chola state as a centralised State
more like the Byzantine polity. The later researches highlighted the role of Nadus and local
self-government under Cholas. Burton Stein has developed the ‘Segmentary State’ model to
to explain Chola polity. Stein’s understanding of Chola polity as a ritual polity has been
criticised by scholars as he overlooked the role played by local assemblies and Brahmana
villages. Researches of scholars like R. Champakalakshmi, Y. Subbarayalu, Noboru
Karashima, James Heitzman and Kesavan Veluthat have highlighted the role of Bhakti
movement, Urbanisation, temples, trade, merchant Guilds, land grants and village assemblies
to bring out a strong official hierarchy in Chola administration In the age of the Cholas, the
whole of South India was for the first time brought under a single government. The most
striking feature of the administrative system of the Cholas was their autonomous village and
town administration. Emperor at the apex of administration was a crucial feature of Chola
administrative structure. Worship of the dead rulers, and construction of temples as tributes
to dead kings were a special feature of the Chola period. Such practices indicate the power
and influence of Chola kings.
Central Administration
The Chola system of government was monarchical, as in the Sangam age. Aside from
the early capital at Thanjavur and the later on at Gangaikonda Cholapuram,
Kanchipuram and Madurai were considered to be regional capitals in which
occasional courts were held. King was the supreme leader and a benevolent
authoritarian. His administrative role consisted of issuing commands to responsible
officers when representations were made to him. Due to the lack of a legislature or a
legislative system in the modern sense, the fairness of king’s orders dependent on his
morality and belief in Dharma. The Chola kings, built temples and endowed them
with great wealth.
Provincial Administration
Provincial administration involved division of empire into principalities (under vassal
chiefs) and Mandalams (provinces under viceroys who were mostly royal princes).
Provinces were further divided into Valanadus (divisions), Nadus (districts) and
Kurmas (villages). The Chola Empire was divided into several provinces called
Mandalams which were further divided into Valanadus and these Valanadus were
sub-divided into units called Kottams or Kutrams
Military-The Chola kings had a professional military, of which the king was the
supreme commander. It had four elements, comprising the cavalry, the elephant corps,
several divisions of infantry and a navy. There were regiments of bowmen and
swordsmen while the swordsmen were the most permanent and dependable troops.
The elephants played a major role in the army and kings had numerous war elephants.
The Chola navy was the best of ancient Indian sea power
Economy - Land revenue and trade tax were the main source of income. The Chola rulers
issued their coins in gold, silver and copper. Chola economy was based on three tiers at
the local level, agricultural settlements formed the foundation to commercial towns
nagaram. The Chola rulers actively encouraged the weaving industry and derived revenue
from it. The most important weaving communities in early medieval times were the
Saliyar and Kaikolar. During the Chola period silk weaving attained a high degree and
Kanchipuram became one of the main centres for silk.
 Agricultural- The prosperity of an agricultural country depends to a large extent on
the facilities provided for irrigation. Apart from sinking wells and excavating tanks, the
Chola rulers made mighty stone dams across Kaveri and other rivers and cut out channels to
distribute water over large tracts of land. Rajendra Chola dug an artificial lake near his
capital. The various irrigation measures undertaken by Chola kings greatly added to the
material prosperity of the society.
Trade
The Chola state excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending their
influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. Towards the end of the 9th century, southern
India had developed extensive maritime and commercial activity. The south Indian guilds
played a major role in interregional and overseas trade. The Song dynasty of China, the
Srivijaya empire under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid Khilafat at Baghdad were the main
trading partners.
conclusion
In the conclusion we can say that Chola state provided stability to south for several
centuries when north Indian polities were disturbed by invasions. The nadu administration,
overseas trade and massive temple complexes speak of the complex structure of Chola polity.
The researches on Chola history have changed our understanding of the structure and the
processes of evolution of Chola state and early medieval centuries in south.

Question-Explain Chola Art and Architecture

Chola kings are known not only for their military exploits but also made major
contributions in the field of art and architecture.
Temples
A prominent feature of early medieval urbanisation is the development of vast temple
complexes into major temple cities. A new type of urban development began under the
Pallava dynasty (sixth-ninth centuries), centred especially in the capital city of Kanchipuram.
The developments originating in the Pallava period came to fruition during the subsequent
reigns of the Chola kings, when many areas of Tamilnadu experienced growth of urban
centres around the temples. The central place in the Kaveri River delta was the town of
Kudamukku (present Kumbakonam). During the Chola period Kudamukku was a major site
in the urban complex attached to Palaiyaru, a Chola capital, which spread over a large area to
its south and west. Kudamukku functioned as the sacred centre having a number of temples.
The twin cities were located on an important trade route and famous for bulk transactions in
two items, areca nuts and betel nuts. There was also a concentration of metal workers in the
area. These temples usually dominated the urban landscape. Though Thanjavur had already
existed prior to the rise of the Cholas, its heydays began with the accession of Rajaraja I in
late tenth century. At the very centre of Thanjavur stood the monumental temple,
Brihadeeshvara. Around the temple was located the quarter for the political and priestly
classes, forming the uppermost crust of the elites and thus occupying the urban space closest
to the shrine. After this came the residential area housing other groups, including the
residence of the merchants. By the time temple
Temple architecture, particularly the dravida or south Indian style of architecture was
 developed by the Cholas.The chief feature of a Chola temple is the vimana or the
storey, which was later eclipsed by the richly ornamented gopuram or gateway. Under the
Cholas, temples became the centre of life. The village assembly invariably held its meetings
in the temple mandapa (pavillion), which became an additional feature of the Chola temple
architecture.
Sculpture and Painting
The Chola period also witnessed great strides in the field of sculpture. The three main
categories of Chola sculpture are portraits, icons and decorative sculpture. There are three
well -preserved and nearly life-size portraits on the walls of the Kuranganatha temple at
Srinivasanallur and several others in the Nagesvarasvami temple at Kumbhakonam. The Siva
temple at Tiruvalisvaram is a veritable museum of superb early

Chola iconography. The walls of the Brihadeeshvara temples at Tanjore and Gangaikonda
cholapuram contain numerous icons of large size and fine execution. The Chola sculptors
started bronze-casting sometime around the middle of the 9th century. The Cholas are
particularly known for their Nataraja bronzes (bronze statues of Nataraja or the dancing Siva)
which are masterpieces of this art. The best example is the Nataraja image in the Nagesvara
temple at Kumbhakonam. Decorative sculpture is exhibited in many forms— architectural
motifs, floral and vegetal patterns, friezes of animals, birds, dancing figures and legendary
and Puranic stories.
Chola wall paintings are found on the walls of the Vijayalaya Cholesvara and
Rajarajesvara temples. On the walls of the Vijayalaya Cholesvara temple, large painted
figures of Mahakala, Devi and Shiva are still visible. In the Rajarajesvara temple, scenes
representing lord Shiva in his abode at Kailasa, as Nataraja and Tripurantaka are painted
on the walls in large size

Question- Explain Reasons for Arab Invasion on Sind ?

or
Write a short note on Dahir’s battle with the Arabs.

The Arabs had been the carriers of Indian trade to Europe for centuries. After conversion to
Islam, they cast their covetous eyes on the fabulous wealth of India as well as they were
eager to propagate their new religion in India.

However, the opportunity to invade Sind came to the Arabians in the beginning of the eighth
century.

With the passage of time, the History of India, after the occupation of Sind had entered into
its medieval phase.

The widespread political instability in India after the death of Harshavardhan, the last
independent Hindu King had inspired the foreign elements once again to attack and enter
India. The Arabs were no exception to it. After the rise of Islam, the Arabs having
successfully implanting it in Syria, Palestine, Egypt and Persia had cast a covetous eye on
Sind. In 712 A.D. they were successful in occupying Sind.

Causes:
Several factors were responsible for the Arab invasion on Sind.

They are as follows:

(i) Propagation of Islam:
Propagation of Islam was one of the key factors behind the Arab invasion of Sind. After the
spread of Islam in Egypt and Syria, the Caliph Walid 1 of Damascus had permitted the Arabs
to go ahead with their Indian mission. Further the followers of Islam were dead against
idolatry practice of the Hindus of India. So they thought the spoliation of the idolaters would
be a means of earning.

(ii) Fabulous Wealth of India:

India was known to the world for her fabulous wealth and splendor. So like other invaders of
the past, it had tempted the Arabs to grab her wealth.

(iii) Political Condition of India:

The then Political condition of India was also a major factor behind the Arab invasion of
Sind. There was mutual rivalry and wars among the kings of petty provinces of India. Dahir,
the ruler of Sind was unpopular and not liked by many. The Arabs took full advantage of it.

(iv) The Immediate Cause:

The immediate cause of the Arab invasion of Sind was the looting of the eight Arab ships
which carried the gifts and treasures sent by the king of Ceylon to the Caliph, at the port of
Debal near Sind. Some Historians have opined that the ships were also carrying some
beautiful women as well as valuable articles for the khalifa. This unlawful act of piracy was
strongly protested by Hajaj, the governor of Iraq.

He demanded compensation from Dahir, the king of Sind. But Dahir refuted Hajaj’s demands
by saying that he had no control over pirates. This infuriated Hajaj who decided to send
military expeditions to Sind. He also obtained permission from the Caliph in this regard.

However, the first two expeditions sent by Hajaj against Sind were beaten back by Dahir.
Enraged at the repeated failures, Hajaj sent his nephew and Son-in-law Imaduddin
Muhammad- bin-Qasim at the head of a huge army to Sind. Muhammad-bin- Qasim was an
able and young commander-in-chief.

Invasion of Sind by Muhammad-bin-Qasim:

Muhammad-bin-Qasim was a young man of hardly seventeen years when he was entrusted
with the work of invading Sind. He was very bold, courageous and ambitious. The story of
his adventures, “Writes Stanley Lame-poole,” is one of the romances of history. Reflecting of
his rise to power, his achievements and his fall, Ishwari Prasad writes, “His blooming youth,
his dash and heroism, his noble deportment throughout the expedition and his tragic fall have
invested his career with the halo of martyrdom.”

However towards the end of 711 A.D. Muhammad-bin-Qasim at the head of a huge army
consisting of three thousand infantry, six thousand cavalry and six thousand Iraqian
camelmen appeared at the north western border near Makran.

Capture of Debal:
Muhammad-bin-Qasim led his army towards Debal, a famous seaport, where the Arab’s ships
were looted by some pirates. The port town Debal was well protected by strong fortifications,
and it was not easy on the part of the Qasim’s army to penetrate into it so easily. A nephew of
Dahir was the governor of Debal. Though he had an army of very small size with him, he
tried to resist Qasim. But it became futile, when a treacherous Brahmin deserted the fortress
and gave Qasim all the information’s regarding the secrets of its defence.

He also came to know from the Brahman that the strength of the Sind army lay in the massive
Hindu temple inside the fort of Debal and as long as the red flag fluttered atop the temple, he
could not defeat the Hindus. The temple was also garrisoned by 4000 Rajput’s and 3000
Brahmins serving at the temple. However, after a fierce battle Qasim brought down the red
flag and the Arabian army resorted to a massacre. Despite a bold fight, the Hindus of Debal
were defeated by the Arabs.

The nephew of Dahir who was the governor fled away. Debal was captured and a huge booty
with a large number of women fell into the hands of the Arabs. The people were given the
option of accepting Islam or death. Many thousands of Hindus including Brahmans were
mercilessly killed on their refusal to embrace Islam. The massacre continued for three days. It
was very unfortunate that Dahir who had prior information of the Arabian attack, did not care
at all.
Fall of Nirun:
Flushed with success, Muhammad-bin-Qasim marched towards Nirun, which was under the
charge of Dahir’s Son Jai Sindh. With the approach of the Arabs, Jai Sindh fled away after
handing over the fort to a priest. Qasim captured it without a fight. It is said Nirun fell
because of the treachery of some Buddhist citizens. Whatever may be the fact; Dahir had
taken the matter lightly and did not attempt to check the further advances of the Arabs.

Fall of Sehwan:
After capturing Debal & Nirun, Muhammad-bin- Qasim marched against Sehwan, a town
which was under the charge of the cousin of Dahir named Bajhra? The town was mostly
inhabited by the merchant class and the priests. Bajhra could not defend the town in the face
of the Arabian attack and fled away with panic. After his flight, the people of Sehwan
surrendered to Muhammad-bin-Qasim. Sehwan fell because of poor defence.

Fall of Sisam and Victory over the Jats:

Sisam also met the same fate as had happened to Sehwan. It was the capital of the Jats of
Budhiya and was ruled by Kaka, a jat king. Kaka had given shelter to Bajhra after his flight
from Sehwan. Muhammad-bin-Qasim defeated the Jats who in turn surrendered to the Arabs.
But during the encounter, Bajhra and his followers were killed. When so much had happened,
yet Dahir did not raise his little finger to check the invader. Muhammad-bin-Qasim then
reached the river Mihran where he was detained for some months because most of his horses
of his army died of scurvy and he had to wait for fresh re-inforcement from home.

Dahir could have taken the full advantage of this opportunity to attack and destroy the Arabs.
But he remained inactive. He also did not check the Arabs when they crossed the river
Mihran. Probably, Dahir was confident to defeat his enemy in a Single encounter and that’s
why he was waiting for it at Rawar on the bank of the Indus.

The Battle of Rawar:

Dahir, the powerful king of Sind was waiting for the Arab invader with a huge army of
50,000 sword men, horsemen and elephantry at a place called Rawar. He was determined to
finish the enemy once for all. He did not know that the Arab army led by Muhammad-bin-
Qasim was also equally strong to face any Challenge.

After waiting for some days, both the armies started fighting on 20th June, 712 A.D. It was a
serious and severe battle. Dahir was a great warrior. He was fighting with a great spirit and
was leading his army from the front. By riding on an elephant he was at the front and was
attacking the opponent with great courage and valour.

In the mean while an arrow attached with burning cotton struck Dahir’s ‘howdah’ and set it
flame. At this the elephant got frightened and rushed towards the river Indus. This made
Dahir very much disturbed at the mid of the war. He became restless, inconsistent and
inattentive. At this moment he was injured by an arrow and fell from his elephant.

Although the elephant was brought to control, Dahir did not wait for it. He immediately rode
a horse and resumed fighting. But as he was not seen on the back of his elephant, his soldiers
became panicky and fled away from the field of battle. However, Dahir gave a heroic fight
and laid down his life after two days of his bloody battle. His widow Queen Ranibai refused
to surrender the fort of Rawar and fought the invader to the bitter end.

She performed jouhar along with some besieged ladies of the fort. Muhammad-bin-Qasim
became victorious. Nevertheless he took about eight months to acquire control over Sind
because his army had to face tough resistance by the local people of many other towns and
palaces including Alor and Brahmanabad.

Occupation of Multan:
After conquering Sind, Muhammad-bin-Qasim marched towards Multan, a major city
situated in the upper Indus basin. On the way he had to encounter tough resistance by the
local people but over powered them. On reaching Multan he found the city strongly fortified
and people in full revolt. But at Multan he was also fortunate to get the help of a traitor who
gave him the information regarding the source of water supply to the city.

Muhammad-bin-Qasim cut-off the source. The people of Multan surrendered at last after
fighting bravely against the Arabs. Thus the city fell into the hands of the invader in 713 A.D.
The Arabs massacred and plundered the city. Women and children were made captives and a
large quantity of gold was collected by the Arabs. He obtained so much gold that they named
the city as the ‘city of gold’.

After completing his mission in Sind and Multan, Muhammad-bin- Qasim was planning to
proceed more into the interior of India. In the mean while there came a tragic end to his life.
He was put to death by an order of Calipha, the religious head of the Islamic world.

Death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim:
The Death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim has been put to debate as there are two divergent views
by different Historians. Historian Mir Massum in his “Tarik Sind’ has described an
interesting story about the death of Muhammad-bin- Qasim. Muhammad- bin-Qasim during
his campaign of Brahamanbad had captured the two virgin daughters of Dahir. They were
Surya Devi and Parimal Devi. They were sent to the Calipha as gifts from Muhammad-bin-
Qasim.

These two girls were determined to take revenge on Muhammad-bin-Qasim. So when they
reached Calipha, they told him that they had been used and dishonored by Muhammad-bin-
Qasim before they were sent to him. This made the Calipha so much angry that he at once
ordered that Muhammad-bin-Qasim should be put to death and his body, being sewn up in
the raw hide of an ox, should be despatched to him.

His order was immediately carried out. When Muhammad-bin-Qasim’s coffin was opened
before the calipha, the two girls were delighted at having avenged on the enemy and killer of
their father. Their mission was completed and so they declared that Qasim was innocent. This
made the Calipha furious. At his order, the two sisters were tied to the tails of horses and
were dragged to death.

But the other view regarding the death of Muhammad-bin- Qasim has been ascribed to a
political cause. Some modern historians believe that Muhammad had become a victim of the
court intrigues of the Calipha. Calipha Walid died in 715 A.D. and was succeeded by his
brother Sulaiman who had enmity with Hajaj, the governor of Iraq and father-in-law of
Muhammad-bin-Qasim.

He could not tolerate the importance of Hajaj as a result of Muhammad’s victorious

campaigns in India. To bring an end to this Calipha might have ordered to kill Muhammad-
bin-Qasim. Whatever may be the fact? Mohammad-bin-Kasim got a tragic end of his life.

Causes of Arab Success in Sind:

Many factors have been ascribed to the success the Arabs in Sind and Multan. Sind had a
heterogeneous population consisting of the Hindus, the Buddhists, the Jains, the Jats, the
Meds etc. There was no good relation among them as the subjects of Dahir lack unity at
social level. Instead there prevailed hatred among them. So at the time of Arab invasion of
Sind, they could not be united for the cause of their motherland. Some historians have opined
that it was due to lack of social solidarity among the people of Sind; the country had to face
the rath of the Arabs.
Unpopularity of Dahir:
Dahir was not liked by some sections of his subjects as he was proud and arrogant and mainly
as a son of an usurper. Dahir’s father was a minister who had murdered his king and married
the widow queen. Thus Dahir, being the son of an usurper, was not liked by the people.

Besides Dahir had enimity with his cousin brothers for the throne which had led the kingdom
to a stage of civil war. Further Dahir’s governors were almost semi-independent princes and
did not co-operate him at the time of crises. Because of his personal nature he was also not
liked by his subjects who were mostly non-Hindus. Owing to his unpopularity he did not get
the support of the people of his own kingdom at the time of foreign invasion.

Betrayal and Treachery:

It was the betrayal and treachery of some Indian citizens that had contributed a lot for the
success of the Arabs. Debal fell because of a Brahmin traitor who exposed secrecy of the
Temple and flag which was inside fort of Debal. At Nirun the Buddhists played treacherous
role by joining hands with the invader. At Multan, a traitor informed the invador the source of
water supply to the city. Some historians have viewed this as the role of the Fifth column in
bringing about the fall of their own country.

Poverty and Backwardness:

Sind was a poor, backward kingdom with a space population and limited resources. So it was
not possible on the part of the Dahir to finance for a large army or to wage a protracted war.
This also had tempted the Arabs to invade Sind.
Isolation of Sind:
Isolation of Sind from the rest of India was also a factor for the Arab’s success in Sind.
Though there were powerful dynasties like the Pratiharas of Malwa and Kanauj they did not
come to the help of Sind. None of them bothered or cared for this incident which marked the
beginning of Muslim rule in India.

Religious Enthusiasm of Arabs:

The Arabs were inspired by a new religion and had become fanatic. They thought that they
were the forces of God and were engaged in a mission to destroy the faiths of the infidel and
spared the blessings of Islam. The Arabs had also a great sense of patriotic feelings. The
Indians on the other hand had no such religious enthusiasm or patriotism. Rather they had an
indifferent, tolerant and cosmopolitan attitude towards other faiths and other people.
Undoubtedly this had resulted, the Arab’s success in Sind.
Strong Army:
The Arab army under the leadership of Muhammad-bin-Qasim was superior to that of Sind of
Dahir in strength and technique. They were also well-equipped. Dahir’s army only at Rawar
was nearly on par in number with that of the invader. But they were very poorly equipped as
the majority of them were hastily recruited on the eve of the war and had not sufficient
military training. This had caused the defeat of Dahir.
Responsibility of Dahir:
Dahir was largely responsible for the success of the Arabs owing to his initial lethargy and
foolishness. He had remained inactive while Muhammad-bin-Qasim was conquering Debal,
Nirun and Sehwan one after another. Even he had remained inactive when Muhammad
crossed the Mihran to enter into Rawar. It was foolishness on the part of Dahir to hope that he
would finish the enemy in a Single stroke at Rawar. At Rawar also Dahir committed a
blunder by not commanding the army as its leader. Instead of commanding the army, he
fought like a soldier and died.

Effect of the Arab Conquest:

The Arab conquest of Sind had little effect so far as political factors were concerned.
According to Stanley Lane-poole, “The Arab conquest of Sind was only an episode in the
history of India and of Islam—a triumph without results.” Many scholars have shared their
views with Lane-poole.

Wolsely Haig writes, “It was a mere episode in the history of India and affected only a small
portion of the fringe of that vast country.” After the death of Muhammad-bin-Qasim, the
Arabs were liable to penetrate more into India. Their rule which continued to last only one
and half centuries was confined to Sind only.

But the task of the foundation of Muslim rule in India was done by the Turk Muslims much
later. According to Prof. Habibullah, “The Arab was not destined to raise Islam to be a
political force in India, politically the Sind affair led to a dead end. The Indian powers also
did almost nothing to drive them out of Sind. Hence the Arab invasion of Sind is regarded as
an episode.
Question-Briefly discuss the main objectives of Mahmud Ghazni’s for invading India.

or

Why did Mohammad Ghuri turn towards India rather than Central Asia?

Ghazni was the capital of a large Turkish kingdom. Aptigin, a Turkish slave rose to become
the ruler of Ghazni.

After his death in 963, his slave and son-in-law Subaktigin seized power and conquered many
regions around Ghazni.

After his death in 997 his son Mahmud ascended the throne.

His swift and decisive conquests of Khorasan, Sistan and Ghur made him the most
formidable power in that region. He now turned his attention on India. He is usually
associated with 17 invasions in 25 years. His first invasion directed against the frontier towns
was in the years 1000 and his last and most important was at Somnath Temple in 1025.

Usually four reasons are assigned to Mahmud’s invasions:

(1) He wanted to establish the glory of Islam by destroying the images of the Hindu gods and
spreading Islam.

(2) He wanted to loot the wealth of India for he loved wealth.

(3) He wanted wealth also to meet the cost of the army and warfare for he wanted the
expansion of his empire.

(4) He wanted to satisfy his ego as one of the greatest conquerors of the world.

Important Invasions of Mahmud:

First invasion: Capture of frontier forts (1000 A.D.):
During his first invasion, Mahmud captured a few forts and towns of Khyber. He appointed
his own governors and went back.

Second invasion: Victory over Jaipal of Hindushahi kingdom (1001):

A fierce battle near Peshawar was fought in which the invaders became victorious. Mahmud
got 2, 50,000 ‘dinars’ and 50 elephants. Lane Poole states, “Jaipal refused to survive his
disgrace. Preferring death to dis-honour, he cast himself upon a funeral pyre.”

Third invasion: attack at Bhera (1005):

The ruler Bijai Rai offered stiff resistance but was defeated. Finding himself helpless, the
ruler committed suicide. Mahmud looted the kingdom and killed people mercilessly.

Fourth invasion at Multan (1006):

Mahmud invaded Multan which was under an Arab ruler and after seven days he conquered
it.

Fifth invasion at Multan (1007 A.D.):

A grandson of Jaipal who had embraced Islam had been appointed the governor of Multan
with a Muslim name. He renounced Islam and declared himself as an independent ruler.
Mahmud invaded and defeated him.

Sixth invasion: Defeat of Anand Pal and his allies (1008-1009 A.D.):
Anand Pal was able to organise a confederacy of the rulers of Ujjain, Gwalior, Kalinjar,
Ajmer etc. According to contemporary historians, “Hindu women sold their jewels and sent
the money from distant parts to be used against the invaders.” Regarding the fate of the war
Lane-poole states, “Anand Pal’s elephant took fright, the rumour ran that the ‘raja’ was flying
from the field, vague suspicion and distrust spread about, and a general stampede ensued.
Mahmud found himself pursuing a panic stricken crowd. For two days, invaders slew,
captured and despoiled to their hearts’ content”.

Seventh invasion: Conquest of Nagarkot—Kangra (1009 A.D.):

After his victory, Mahmud returned to Ghazni with such a vast collection of riches and jewels
which “far exceeded the treasures of the mightiest king of the world.”

Mahmud’s invasion at Mathura (1018):

The city of Mathura was a beautiful city and a sacred place of the Hindus having about 1,000
temples. Mahmud wrote about this city. “If anyone should undertake to build a fabric like
this, he would spend thereon one lakh packets of a thousand ‘dinar’ and would not complete
in 200 years and with the assistance of the most ingenious architects”. As usual, Mahmud
looted and broke down all the idols and destroyed temples.
Mahmud’s invasion at Somnath temple (1025):
Expedition of the Somnath temple made Mahmud a great hero of Islam. According to Lane
Poole, “The attack of Somnath has made Mahmud of Ghazni, a champion of the faith in the
eyes of Muslims for nearly two centuries, and the feat, has been embellished with fantastic
legends.”

The temple’s importance and wealth can be gauzed from the fact that lakhs of visitors offered
prayers and made huge offerings daily and also the temple had a permanent income from the
revenue of ten thousand villages attached to it. The loot of the temple was worth 20 lakh
dinars’. The idol of Shiva was broken into pieces.

Effects of Mahmud’s Invasions:

Important effects of Mahmud’s invasion were as under:
1. Punjab became a part of the empire of Ghazni.

2. Weakness of the Rajput’s was exposed.

3. Mahmud’s conquests paved the way for the Muslim conquest of India.

4. India’s enormous wealth was plundered and taken away to Ghazni.

5. The invasions gave a severe blow to the art of India as several important temples were
destroyed by the invaders.

6. Mahmud’s invasion played an important role in the spread of Islam in India.

7. The frequent invasions further weakened the political stability.

8. In every invasion India lost thousands of soldiers.

 Question-- Explain the causes and consequences of the Battle of Tarain.
The real founder of the Muslim Empire in India was Muiz-ud-din Muhammad bin Sam,
popularly known as Shihabud Din Muhammad Ghori or Muhammad of Ghur.

It. is true that Muhammad bin Qasim was the first Muslim invader of India but he failed to
carve out a Muslim empire in India on account of his premature death.

Mahmud of Ghazni also failed to set up a Muslim empire in India and the only permanent
effect of his invasions was the annexation of the Punjab. It was left to Muhammad Ghori to
build up a Muslim empire in India on a secure footing. In 1173 A.D.

Shihabuddin Muhammad ascended the throne at Ghazni. Proceeding byway of the Gomal
Pass, Muhammad bin Sam also known as Muhammad Ghori conquered Multan and Uchch in
1175 A.D. In 1178 A.D. he tried to penetrate into Gujarat but was defeated and completely
routed by the Chalukyan King Mularaj II near Mount Abu.

After that Muhammad Ghori attacked Punjab using Khyber Pass. By 1190 A.D. Muizuddin
Muhammad conquered Peshawar, Lahore and Sialkot. By 1182 A.D. the whole of Sindh was
captured. His conquest of Punjab and further inroads into northern India led to inevitable
contest between him and the Rajput’s.

While Muhammad was over-running Multan and Uchch, Prithviraj III known as Prithviraj
Chauhan ascended the throne of Aimer at the age of 14. He was very powerful and made
several conquests. He invaded Bundelkhand and defeated the Chandellas in the battle at
Mahoba.

The conflict between Prithviraj and Muhammad Ghori started for the fort of Tarabhinda
(Bhatinda). The enemies met each other in the battlefield at Tarain known as the First Battle
of Tarain in 1191 A.D. Muhammad was defeated in the battle and his forces were severely
routed. Little attempt was made by Prithviraj to oust the Ghurids from the Punjab.

This gave Muhammad Ghori time to re-group his forces and make another bid for India the
following year. He met Prithviraj for the second time in the battle field of Tarain in 1192
A.D. Prithviraj was decisively defeated this time.

Though the numerical strength of Prithviraj’s army was more, the superior organization and
skill of the Turkish cavalry decided the issue. Soon after Prithviraj was captured and put to
death. The second battle of Tarain paved the way for the ascendancy of the Turks. From this
point Rajput power entered a phase of irreversible decay. Thus the area of Delhi and eastern
Rajasthan passed under the Turkish rule. Muhammad came back to India in 1194 A.D. This
time his target was the kingdom of Kannauj.

Jayachandra the ruler of Kannauj and Muhammad fought a battle at Chandawar. Rajputs were
defeated and Jaychandra was killed in the war. Muhammad proceeded as far as Banaras and
captured all the important places of the kingdom of Kannauj. The battle of Chandawar laid
the foundation of Turkish rule in northern India.

Causes of Ghorian Invasions:

1. The perpetual conflict of the Ghurids with the Seljukids and the Turkish tribes across the
Oxus impelled the Ghurids towards India.

2. The rising power of the Khwarizmi Empire severely limited the Central Asian ambitions of
the Ghurids. Khorasan, which was the bone of contention between the two, after being
conquered by the Khwarizmi Shah left no option for the Ghurids but to look for expansion
towards India.

3. The imperilistic ambitions of the Ghurids was one of the main cause for their Indian
invasion.

Consequences of Ghorian Invasions:

1. The Turkish conquest of India paved the way for the liquidation of the multi-state system
in India as the political ideal of the Turkish sultan was a centralised political organization
under the monarch.

2. The institution of iqtas served their purpose of breaking the feudal traditions of the various
areas and for linking up the various parts of the empire to one centre.

3. The Turks also gave India a centralised administration by which trade received a new
impetus.

4. The intimate contact between India and the outer Asiatic world was restored by the
Ghorian conquest.

Question -State the importance of the First And second battle of Tarain in 1192.
The first battle at Tarain (1191):
Prithviraj was the ruler of Delhi and Ajmer when Ghori was marching towards Delhi after
conquering several parts of Punjab. Prithviraj was able to unite some Rajput states to present
a united front against the common enemy.

However Jai Chand, the ruler of Kanauj did not join the confederation of some Rajput states
headed by Prithviraj, on account of his personal animosity. A fierce battle between Ghori and
Prithviraj took place at Tarain.

Ghori was wounded and defeated. He was carried away from the battle-field by a Khalji
soldier. His army fled. True to Indian traditions, the Rajputs did not follow the fleeing
enemy—a blunder which India had to repent for centuries.

The second battle of Tarain (1192):

Muhammad Ghori was determined to establish his authority over India. He was not
disheartened over his defeat. He wanted to avenge his humiliation. He reorganised and
strengthened his army. With a large cavalry of unrivalled marks-men, he again descended the
plains of Tarain in 119.

Prithviraj again formed a confederation of the north Indian Kings. Nevertheless, Jai Chand of
Kanauj, not only kept himself aloof from the battle but is also said to have helped
Muhammad Ghori in order to wreck his vengeance on Prithviraj. Conflicting accounts of the
defeat and ultimate fate of Prithviraj as well as Muhammad Ghori are given.

The numerical strength of the Rajput forces was far greater than Ghori’s army which,
however, was better organised. The fighting quality of the Turkish cavalry decided the issue.
A large number of Indian soldiers lost their lives. Prithviraj was captured and slain.
Chandbardai, the court poet of Prithviraj has another version to tell.

According to him Prithviraj was taken to Ghori as a prisoner. In a show of exhibiting his skill
as an archer, the blind Prithviraj shot a sound-guided arrow at Muhammad Ghori killing him
instantly. Prithviraj later committed suicide. Col-Todd, the well known historian of the
Rajput period, does not attach credence to this version of Chandbardai.

Results of the Second Battle of Tarain:

The crux of the defeat of Prithviraj is that the sovereignty of a considerable part of India
passed into the hands of the foreigners. The sovereignty of the Rajputs ended to a great
extent. In the words of V.S. Smith, “The second battle of Tarain in 1192, may be regarded as
the decisive contest which ensured the ultimate success of the Mohammadan attack on
Hindustan.”

The victory of Ghori settled the future course of Indian history and as Dr. D.C. Ganguly
writes, “The defeat of Prithviraj in the second battle of Tarain not only destroyed the imperial
power of the Chauhans, but also brought disaster on the whole of Hindustan.” S. Lanepoole
has said, “The result of this victory was the annexation of Ajmer, Hansi and Sirsuti, ruthless
slaughter and a general destruction of temples and idols and building of mosques.”

Importance of the First And second battle of Tarain

(1). First Battle of Tarain 1191 AD-

(A). Tarain is located in Karnal district of Haryana.

(B). This war took place between Prithviraj Chauhan and Mohammad Gauri, in which
Prithviraj Chauhan wins.

(C). In this war Prithviraj Chauhan’s Saina was led by Govindraj, the Governor of Delhi.

(D). In 1191 AD, Prithviraj Chauhan’s failure to attack the army of Muhammed Gauri by
Prithviraj Chauhan was a great political mistake.

(2). Second War of Tarain 1192 AD-

(A). This war takes place between Prithviraj Chauhan and Mohammad Gauri. In which
Mohammad Gauri wins.

(B). Even in this war Prithviraj Chauhan’s Sainapati was the Governor of Delhi, Govindaraj.

(C). Sainapati of Mohammad Ghori was Qutubuddin Aibak.

(D). Prithviraj Chauhan was imprisoned in this war.

(E). According to Prithviraj Raso / Chandravaradayi, Prithviraj Chauhan was taken to
Ghazni. Where Prithviraj Chauhan and Mohammed Gauri were killed by running the word
arrow.

(F). Prithviraj Chauhan was murdered in Sirsa, Haryana.

(G). After Prithviraj Chauhan, Ajmer was succeeded by his son Govindaraja. And his uncle
Hariraj expelled Govindaraj from Ajmer.

(H). Govindraj founded the Chauhan dynasty at Ranthambhor in 1194 AD.

(I). Prithviraj Chauhan’s tomb is in Afghanistan. And Prithviraj Chauhan’s Smark is in the
Taragarh fort.

(J). In 1192, Sufi Saint Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti came to India with Mohammad Gauri.

(K). At the time of Prithviraj Chauhan, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti established his khanqah
(place of worship / place of worship) in Ajmer.

(L). During the time of Prithviraj Chauhan, teaching work was done in 85 subjects in Sanskrit
Kantabharan Vidyalaya.

Question- What were Causes of the Turkish Success and Failure of the Rajputs

The victory of the Turkish invaders over the leading Rajput states of North India is a
phenomenon which requires explanation. This is particularly so, because, many of the Rajput
principalities of the time were superior, both in terms of size, population and revenue
resources, to the Ghurids and the Ghaznavids. Except for a few fertile regions such as
Khurasan, Transoxiana, Khwarizm, much of the terrain in the region was mountainous or arid
and inhospitable. Moreover, it had been thoroughly plundered for long by the Ghuzz tribes
across the Oxus. On the other hand, the tracts under the control of Rajputs, outside Rajasthan
and Bundelkhand, were very fertile and productive. In terms of human resources or
population, too, the Rajput-held areas were in an advantages position. This explains why in
any battle the number of soldiers on the side of the Rajput kings were far larger than those of
the Turks.
The overriding element in the Turkish victory was their advanced military technology
 and tactics. Unlike the Rajput armies, the reinforcements of good Central Asian
horses provided a better livestock for the Turkish cavalry, which were used excellently in
battles. The Indian army had always suffered from an inferior breed of horses and was wary
of using the cavalry. The heavily armored horsemen and mounted archer, using iron stirrups,
had completely changed the mode of warfare in Europe and Central Asia, from the tenth
century onwards. The Turks had become adept in this new style of warfare, which allowed
greater ability to manoeuvre and which emphasized swiftness and light equipment. The iron
stirrup made it possible for the cavalry men to advance and even retreat with rapidity,
shooting spears or lances and bows from the saddle, without halting or dismounting and
without being thrown off the horse as a result of the impact.
The Indian military strategy, on the other hand, gave greater importance to weight
than to mobility. The Rajput forces, dependent on the elephant and infantry, were a heavy
slow-moving mass. They believed in crushing rather than moving rapidly and striking.
They proved immobile when pitted against the swift moving cavalry, which could attack the
flanks and rear of the enemy forces. Also, the Turks tended to increasingly concentrate on
capturing forts which had a strategic advantage and the Rajput army was therefore forced into
defensive positions in hilly terrains. Guerrilla warfare could have been an effective means of
harassing the Turkish armies, particularly when they were on the march, but this was not used
effectively.
There was a basic lack of consciousness among the Indian rulers of the need to defend the
north western passes. This lack of strategic consciousness is also explained by the absence of
a dominant power in North India. After the fall of the Gurjara-Pratihara Empire there arose
small independent powers like Gahadvalas in Kanauj, Parmaras in Malwa Chalukyas in
Gujarat, Chauhans in Ajmer, Tomars in Delhi, Chandellas in Bundelkhand etc. These states
were involved in endless battles and campaign against each other which exhausted their
resources and energy.
The Rajput states were unable or unwilling to join hands to expel the Ghaznavids
from the Punjab despite the rapid decline of the Ghaznavid power in West and Central Asia
following the death of Mahmud Ghazni. On the other hand, the successors of Mahmud
remained tactically on the offensive and continued to make raids into Indian territories in
Rajasthan up to Ajmer and beyond and the Gangetic areas upto Kannauj and Varanasi.