MODULE I

INTRODUCTION
Lesson 1
Definition, Scope, Importance and
Interdisciplinary Nature of
Environmental Science

Lesson 2
Seven Environmental Laws of Ecology
and Principles of Sustainability

Lesson 3
The Nature of Ecosystems, Biotic and
Abiotic Components

Lesson 4
Biogeochemical Cycles
Types of Biomes
Interactions in the Ecosystem

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Lesson 4 
Biogeochemical Cycles, Types
 of Biomes, and Interactions in
the Ecosystem

Learning Objectives for Lesson 4

1. Examine the various biogeochemical cycles and describe and explain

how they affect nature overall
2. Distinguish the among types of biomes in terms of major physical
characteristics and flora and fauna
3. Describe and cite examples around you of different
interactions/relationships in the ecosystem

The reading passage on this lesson intertwines biology, geology and

chemistry in it! When you look at everything on Earth on a deeper plane,
everything is interconnected and interrelated. And one way to learn about
this interesting relationship between the biotic and abiotic components in
an ecosystem is through the biogeochemical cycle.

Contrasting to the one-way flow of energy, matter is recycled between and

within ecosystems. Chemical compounds, elements, and other forms of
matter are passed from one organism to another and from one part of the
biosphere to another through cycles that connect living things to the Earth.

Biogeochemical Cycle

1. The biogeochemical cycle pertains to the flow of elements and

compounds moving continuously between Earth and its organisms.
2. The biogeochemical cycle consist of the movement of elements and
compounds among four major systems:
o land and soil (lithosphere)
o organisms (biosphere)
o air (atmosphere) and
o ocean (hydrosphere).

Biogeochemical cycles link living things to the Earth. Four chemicals make
up 95% of the living things, these are hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and
nitrogen that are constantly being cycled through living and non-living
organic matter.

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Biogeochemical Cycles within the Ecosystem

1. Energy flows through an ecosystem and nutrients cycle within an

ecosystem. Nutrients are substances such as water, carbon, and
nitrogen, necessary for the survival of living things.
Scientists create models to represent natural interactions in the
environment to make predictions about how a particular event
might affect an ecosystem without exposing the real ecosystem to
that event. For example, how might the loss of trees, and
therefore transpiration, affect rainfall in a particular ecosystem?
2. In an Ecosystem, the Three Primary Nutrient Cycles are:
A. The Water Cycle
B. The Carbon Cycle
C. The Nitrogen Cycle

A. Water (Hydrologic) Cycle -the movement of water between different

reservoirs on the Earth, underground and in the atmosphere.

1. To a large degree, the availability of water determines the diversity

of organisms in an ecosystem. Water is crucial to life. Cells contain 70 -
90 % water, and water provides the aqueous environment in which most
of life's reactions occur.

2. The availability of water is one of the critical factors that regulate

the productivity of terrestrial (land) ecosystems.

3. Bodies of water such as oceans, streams, lakes, and rivers, carry a

substantial percentage of the Earth's water. The atmosphere also holds
water in the form of:
 water vapor
 some water found below ground known as groundwater.

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4. Processes of the Water Cycle:

A. Evaporation: It is the primary pathway that water moves from

the liquid state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water
vapor (lakes, rivers, and oceans)
B. Transpiration: The uptake of water at the roots, transport of
water through plant tissues, and release of vapor by leaves
(plants and trees)
C. Condensation: process in which water vapor (gas) changes to
liquid water when it comes in contact with a colder surface to
form water droplets (cloud formation)
D. Precipitation: This process is the primary connection in the
water cycle that provides water from the atmosphere back to the
Earth. (falls in the form of Rain, Snow, Sleet, Hail)
E. Run-offs. The precipitation that did not get absorbed in the
soil nor evaporate. It made the ground surface into places for
water collection.

B. The Carbon Cycle

1. The process of cellular respiration and photosynthesis form the

basis of the carbon cycle. Carbon is a component of the significant
macromolecules (carbohydrates, nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids)
necessary for all biotic systems.

2. The atmosphere of Earth contains carbon in the form of carbon

dioxide (CO2). There are five significant reservoirs of carbon:
o oceans
o atmosphere
o terrestrial biosphere
o ocean sediments, and
o Earth's interior.
3. Processes of the Carbon Cycle:

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o Photosynthesis: During photosynthesis, autotrophs make use of

CO2, water, and solar energy to build organic molecules
(carbohydrates), storing the carbon.

o Cellular Respiration: Both autotrophs and heterotrophs utilize

oxygen during cellular respiration to break down
carbohydrates. Consumers eat plants and animals to obtain
energy-rich molecules that contain carbon.

o Volcanic Eruptions and geothermal vents: Deep within the

Earth's interior, carbon is taken back to the surface during
explosions of steam, lava, and gases.

o Decomposition: Carbon is passed to the environment through

decomposers, and breathing releases CO2 back to the
atmosphere through cellular respiration.

o Combustion: When fossil fuels are burned, the chemical

reaction releases carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere

o Deposition: Coal, petroleum, and calcium carbonate rock are

deposited in sediment and underground. Calcium carbonate
deposits are eroded by water to form carbon dioxide. Large
amounts of carbon are tied up in wood, only returning to the
atmosphere when the wood is burned.

C. The Nitrogen Cycle

1. All organisms require nitrogen, an essential nutrient, to make

proteins and nucleic acids.

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2. 80% of the atmosphere (80%)contains nitrogen in the form of N2,

and most living things cannot use it. All organisms rely on the efforts
of bacteria that can transform nitrogen gas into a usable form.

3. Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (Cyanobacteria and Rhizobium) play a

crucial role in the nitrogen cycle. They live in the soil and the roots
of some kinds of leguminous plants, such as beans, peas, clover, and
alfalfa. They have enzymes that can break the atmospheric nitrogen
bonds. Nitrogen atoms are then available to bond with hydrogen
atoms to form Ammonia (NH3), a usable form.

4. Processes of the Nitrogen Cycle:

A. Nitrogen Fixation - conversion of nitrogen (N/N2) gas to ammonia

(NH3); Ammonia (NH3) are then absorbed by plants from the soil used
to make proteins which enters the food web for consumers.

B. Assimilation - consumers obtain nitrogen from the plants and

animals they eat by digesting the food's proteins and using it to make
their proteins

C. Ammonification - decomposers return the Nitrogen from the

remains of fallen plants and animals return to the earth. Nitrogen
returns from animal and plant decay by decomposers (dung, urine,
leaves, and bark) through the process of ammonification. The
nitrogen that would be lost is recycled back into the ecosystem.

D. Denitrification - occurs when anaerobic bacteria

(chemoautotrophs) break down nitrates and release nitrogen gas back
into the atmosphere.

E. Nitrification - happens when bacteria convert ammonia into

nitrogen compounds that plants can utilize more easily

Autotrophs (plants) are dependent on nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and all

other organisms are dependent on autotrophs.

Types of Biomes

A biome is the space on the planet classified according to the plants

and animals that live in it. Temperature, soil, and the amount of light
and water help determine what life exists in a biome. Each biome is
defined by climate, the same biome can occur in geographically
distinct areas with similar climates

A biome is a geographically vast type of ecosystem. A biome is

different from an ecosystem. A biome is a particular geographic area
notable for the species living there. Biome is made up of many
ecosystems. A specific biome occurs wherever environmental
conditions are suitable for its development, anywhere in the world.

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Biomes are characterized by their dominant organisms' life forms and

not solely on particular species.

On land, biomes are generally identified by their mature or older-

growth vegetation. In contrast, aquatic biomes are usually
distinguished by their dominant animals.

A. Terrestrial Biomes
There are eight major terrestrial biomes:
1. tropical rainforests
o most biodiverse terrestrial biome found in equatorials
regions
o characterized by vegetation of plants with broad leaves and
spreading roots that falls off throughout the year
o have dry and wet seasonal variations
o high net primary productivity
o cascading vertical layer of vegetation from decaying forest
floor, shrubby foliage on the understory, closed upper
canopy, and some trees dwelling on top of the canopies.
2. Savannas
o Prominent on North Australia, South America, and Africa
o Found in hot, tropical areas with an annual temperatures of
24oC –29oC with sparse trees, grasses, and forbs
o Have extensive dry season and consequent fires
o Fire is an important disturbance for root development and
re-sprouting
3. subtropical deserts
o located at the center of Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of
Capricorn (between 15o and 30o north and south latitude)
o frequently found at the downwind side of mountain ranges
o very dry due to high-pressure and dry air
o evaporation exceeds precipitation with low annual
precipitation
o very low species diversity

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o lacks perennial plants, have annuals that grow and

reproduce when rainfall occurs
o 60oC during daytime and 0oC at night time
o With cold desert (Gobi Desert, Taklimakan Desert,
Turkestan Desert, Great Basin Desert) experience freezing
temperatures in winter and precipitation in the form of
snow
4. Chaparral
o Known as scrub forest dominated by shrubs adaptive to
periodic fires
o Fire is a natural part of maintenance, ash provides nutrients
for the plants
o Rain falls majority in winter
o Summers are very dry, chaparral plants are dormant during
summer
5. temperate grassland
o also known as prairies (North America) and steppes
(Eurasia)
o with pronounced fluctuations in temperature with cold
winters and hot summers
o with few trees except along streams
o grass in the dominant vegetation
o treeless condition is maintained by low precipitation,
grazing, and frequent fires.

6. temperate forests
o have defined growing seasons: spring, summer, and early
fall
o dominant plant is deciduous tree with few evergreen
conifers
o minimal to no photosynthesis during dormant season
(winter)
o soils are rich in inorganic and organic due to turning over of
season with thick leaf litter
7. boreal forests
o known as coniferous forest or taiga
o a biome with cold and dry winters and wet, cool, and short
summer
o minimal evaporation due to cool air
o dominated by long winters and predominance of cold-
tolerant needle-shaped cone-bearing plants such as firs,
spruces, pines
o low net primary productivity of boreal forest
8. Arctic tundra
o Average winter temperature of –34°C and an average
summer temperature of 3°C–12°C
o Plants have a span of only 50-60 days for growing season on
times when there is almost 24 hours of daylight
o Plants dominated by shrubs, lichens, grasses, and small
flowering plants

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o Little species diversity

o Low net productivity
o Soils are perennially frozen (permafrost)

B. Marine and Freshwater Biomes

Similar to terrestrial biomes, aquatic biomes are highly influenced by
abiotic factors specifically its medium – water which have different
properties from air. Light also plays a crucial role in both marine and
freshwater ecosystems. Stratifications, thermal properties and
currents are also major factors. The ocean is categorized into zones:

o benthic zone – extends along ocean from shoreline to the

deepest ocean bottom
o pelagic zone – refers to all of the ocean’s open water
o photic zone – within the realm of pelagic zone that can
penetrate light (200m deep)
o aphotic zone – region that lacks light for photosynthesis
(more than 200m deep)

The average depth in the ocean is around 4, 267 m. The Challenger

Deep along Mariana Trench has the deepest part of the ocean that
has a depth of 11, 000 m.

Marine Biome is divided into: Ocean, Coral Reefs, and Estuaries

Freshwater Biomes is divided into: lakes and ponds, rivers and
streams, and wetlands

Marine Biome

1. Ocean – largest marine biome

o categorized into various zones according to the
concentration of light bearing distinct species adapted to
abiotic and biotic conditions particular to their zones
o intertidal zones – zone between low tide and high tide,
closest to land. The beach can be sandy, muddy, or rocky
o neritic zone – extends to the edge of continental shelf from
the intertidal zone, approximately 200m deep, capable of
photosynthesis, water is well-oxygenated with low pressure
and stable temperature. Area dominated by phytoplanktons
and Sargassum
o oceanic zone – open area beyond neritic zone with thermal
stratification, cold and warm water mixes due to ocean
currents
o abyssal zone – deepest part of the ocean with a depth of
4000m of greater characterized by high pressure, high
oxygen content, extremely low temperature, and low
nutrient content. Abyssal zone does not have plants but
have chemosynthtic bacteria near hydrothermal vents
o benthic zone – located beneath the water made up of silt,
sans, and decaying organisms and is considered as nutrient-

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rich layer with diverse sponges, anemones, worms, fishes,

and stars.

2. Coral Reefs
o characterized by high biodiversity of invertebrates
o teeming with coral organisms (Cnidarians) secreting calcium
carbonates
o corals in shallow waters are symbiotic with photosynthetic
algae

3. Estuaries
o where the ocean meets freshwater
o estuaries link the vicinity of ocean and freshwater resulting
to brachisk saltwater
o forms protective area for mollusks, fishes, and crutaceans
o plant organisms in the estuaries are called halophytes
capable of tolerating salty conditions

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Freshwater Biomes

Humans rely on freshwater for the purpose of irrigation, sanitation,

potable water, and industries which offers ecosystem services.

1. lakes and ponds

o thermal stratification haooens during summer such that
warm water does not mix with deep cool water
o phytoplanktons (cyanpbacteria, and algae) float in the
water and are consumed by zooplanktins (rotifers, small
crustaceans)
o phosphorous and nitrogen are limiting nutrients, large
inputs of such cause algal blooms that reduces light
penetration
2. rivers and streams
o continuously moving bodies
o streams begins with a point of origin known as source water
o currents are faster at narrower streams
o photosynthesis is attributed on algae thriving in rocks
3. wetlands
o environment where soil is periodically or permanently
saturated with water
o swamps, bogs, marshes, and mudflats

Interactions in the Ecosystem

The ecological interactions that take place within a specific area are
generally classified into four levels: populations, communities,
ecosystems and the biosphere.

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Community Interaction

Community is the biotic part consisting of populations of diverse species

existing and interacting together in the same area. The interactions among
the communities are essential biotic factors for natural selection by shaping
the evolution of the interacting species. There are three types of
community interactions: predation, competition, and symbiosis.

1. Predation and Herbivory

Predation is a relationship where members of one species (the predator)

consume other species (the prey). Predator-prey relations account for most
energy shifts in food webs and food chains.

Types of Predators

o True predation involves the predator killing its prey. True

predators such as lions, catch large prey and then dismember
and crush them before eating it. Others catch small prey and
swallow it whole. An example of the latter statement is snakes
that swallow mice whole.
o Grazer, a predator, feeds on its prey but rarely kills it. They
only graze but do not entirely kill their prey.
o For plants, deer graze on plants but do not usually kill them.
Animals may also be ―grazed‖ upon. For animals, female
mosquitoes engulf little amounts of blood from animals but do
not harm them.

Predation and Populations

o The role of true predators help control the size of prey
populations, chiefly when a predator preys on just one species.
Generally, the predator-prey relationship keeps the population
size of both species in balance.
o Most predators are known as keystone species. Manipulation
through the introduction or removal of a keystone species has
a severe effect on the prey population. Which then affects
populations of other species in the community.
o Humans greatly influence the introduction of predators into an
area to control pests called biological pest control, also known
as species versus species.

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o Three types of biological pest control strategies include

classical biological control or importation of species,
augmentation, and finally, conservation.

Adaptations to Predation
o Predator adaptations help them capture prey. Prey adaptations
help them avoid predators.
1. Camouflage is a typical adaptation in both predator and
prey species using masks to blend in with the background.
2. Mimicry is another way of using camouflage to look like a
different, more dangerous animal.
3. Opposite camouflage is the adaptation with noticeable traits
that warn their predators to stay away. Most butterflies that
are colorful are poisonous to birds, so birds have learned to
avoid eating them. By being so vivid, the butterflies are more
likely to be noticed—and avoided—by their predators.

2. Competition

Competition is a relationship within organisms striving for the same limited

resources. The resources might be territory, food, and nesting sites.

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Two different types of competition:

1. Intraspecific competition happens between members of the
same species. It is a necessary factor for natural selection that
leads to adaptive changes in species through time.
For example, multiple male birds of the same species might
compete for female mates in the same territory.
2. Interspecific competition happens between members of
different species. It usually takes place in communities of
interacting species. For example, two predator species might
compete for the same prey.
Interspecific Competition and Extinction
o When populations of different species in a given community
rely on the same resources, resources may become scarce. If
one species has a disadvantage, such as more predators, the
species may get less necessary resources and are less likely to
survive. They will ultimately have a higher death rate than the
other species.
o Interspecific competition has often lead to the extinction of
species.

Interspecific Competition and Specialization

o A possible result of the interspecific competition is the
evolution of traits that create distinct differences among the
competing species during natural selection. Competing species
can become more specialized to allow them to live together
without competing for the same resources.

3. Symbiotic Relationship

Symbiosis is an intimate relationship between two species in which one or

more species benefits, and the outcome of the may be positive, negative, or
neutral for other species. The three basic types of symbiotic relationships
are mutualism, commensalism, and parasitism.

a. Mutualism

o Mutualism is a symbiotic bond in which both species profit.

o For example, lichen is not a single organism but a fungus and
an alga. The fungus receives water from air and minerals from
rock or soil, whereas the alga uses the water and minerals to
make food for itself and the fungus. Each species gain from
this mutualistic relationship.
o Co-evolution frequently occurs in species associated with
mutualistic relationships. Flowering plants and the species that
pollinate flowers are an example of this relationship. Plants
have evolved flowers with traits that aid pollination by
particular species. In turn, pollinator species have evolved
features like longer beaks to help them obtain pollen or nectar
from certain species of flowers.

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b. Commensalism

o Commensalism - a symbiotic relationship where species

benefits while the other species are not affected. In this
relationship, one animal typically uses another for a purpose
other than food. For example, mites cling to larger insects to
get free ride and hermit crabs to use shells of dead snails for
shelter.

o Co-evolution explains some commensal relationships. An

example is the humans and some bacteria that live inside
humans such as the gut microbiota. Through natural selection,
many species of bacteria evolve to live inside the human body
without harming it.

c. Parasitism

o Parasitism is a symbiotic relationship in which species (the

parasite) benefits while the other species (the host) is harmed.
Parasites either live on the surface of their hosts or inside their
hosts.

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o Some parasites kill their host, but most parasites do not.

Successful way parasitisms is one in which the host is not
killed. Species in parasitic relationships are likely to undergo
co-evolution.

Lesson Exercise:
A. Multiple Choices. Select the best answer to the following questions.
1. Secondary consumers would eat which one following?
A. Producers B. Plants C. Herbivores D. Carnivores

2. If you are concerned about bio magnification of toxins, which one

of the following would you most want to avoid eating?
A. Tuna (tertiary consumer) B. Seaweed (producer)
C. Urchin (primary consumer) D. Sculpin (secondary consumer)

3. Which one of the following is not a biogeochemical cycle?

A. Energy cycle B. Carbon cycle
C. Phosphorus cycle D. Water cycle

4. Which one of the ff. would not increase the amount of water in
the atmosphere?
A. Evaporation B. Transpiration C. Sublimation
D. Infiltration E. Evapotranspiration

5. What do deserts and chaparral have in common?

A. Dry and hot summers
B. Dominated by abundant evergreen shrubs
C. Both can exist as either the hot or cold variety
D. Very small amounts of rainfall consistently throughout the year
E. Very low biodiversity

B. Describe the evolutionary effects of intraspecific and interspecific

competition.

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 MODULE SUMMARY

Lesson I defines environmental science as a bridging discipline,

explaining its multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary aspect and
briefing students with the various types of environment. It also
discusses the vital importance and the need for public awareness

Lesson II
Lesson II spreads awareness and roles of people as stewards of nature
by inculcating the seven laws of nature. Also, it calls for the core
concern for transformation through sustainability among the need to
(a) hamper environmental degradation, (b) the need not to cripple
cominge generations and the need for quality of life and equity.

Lesson III
In lesson III, the nature of ecosystems, biotic, and abiotic components
are explained. In addition, structures and functions are enumerated.
In the middle of the context, it also shows the various flows of energy
transferred through trophic levels.

Lesson IV
Organisms are diverse and so is their niche. They occupy different
biomes. Aside from this, mineral nutrients are discussed as to their
cycles through ecosystems and their environment. Of particular
importance are water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur
cycles that have major impacts on ecosystem structure and function.

References:

Biotic factors. (2002). In Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved from

http://www.encyclopedia.com/earth-and-
environment/ecology-and-environmentalism/environmental-
studies/biotic-factor

Brite, K. (Updated April 25, 2017). Five different types of

abiotic factors. Retrieved from http://sciencing.com/five-
different-types-abiotic-factors-7762257.html
Buclet, Nicolas & Lazarevic, David. (2015). Principles for
sustainability.

Hicks, Christina & Fitzsimmons, Clare & Polunin, Nicholas. (2010).

Interdisciplinarity in the Environmental Sciences: Barriers and

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Frontiers. Environmental Conservation. 37. 464-477.

10.1017/S0376892910000822.

Khoiyangbam, R. S. (2005). Introduction to Environmental Sciences.

The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI).

Miller, G. T., & Spoolman, S. (2011). Essentials of ecology. Cengage

Learning.

Prasad, Jagadamba & Khoiyangbam, R & Gupta, Navindu. (2015).

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES: SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE.

Web sources

1. Bruckner, M. 2018. The Gulf of Mexico Dead Zone. [Website]

https://serc.carleton.edu/microbelife/topics/deadzone/index.html
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nciples
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example/
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ecosystem/
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ecosystem-with-diagram/6740
9. https://www.ugc.ac.in/oldpdf/modelcurriculum/Chapter3.pdf
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12. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/biome/

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