Corrosion

and
Cathodic Protection Theory

by
James B. Bushman, P.E.
Principal Corrosion Engineer
Bushman & Associates, Inc
Medina, Ohio USA

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Page 2 of 10 ©Bushman & Associates, Inc.

 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory
By James B. Bushman, P.E.
Bushman & Associates, Inc. – P.O. Box 425 – Medina, Ohio 44256 USA
Phone: (330) 769-3694 – Fax: (330) 769-2197

I. Introduction
DC railways and other machinery often
Nature has endowed each metallic substance generate direct current. When this current
with a certain natural energy level or flows through the soil indiscriminately, it is
potential. referred to as "stray" DC. The current may
contact and follow a buried metallic
GALVANIC ENERGY SERIES structure such as a pipeline, but wherever it
ENERGY LEVEL IN VOLTS VS Cu-CuSO4 ELECTRODE
leaves that structure to return to it's origin,
METAL
corrosion will occur.
-1.7
e l MAGNESIUM

lev
ALUMINUM -1.1
Cathodic protection is an electrical method
rgy
ZINC -1.1

ne
STEEL
STEEL IN CONCRETE WITH Cl -
-0.6
of preventing corrosion on metallic
e -0.5

i ng STEEL IN CONCRETE WITHOUT Cl- -0.1 structures which are in electrolytes such as
re as COPPER -0.1
soil or water. It has had widespread
Inc
CARBON +0.4
SILVER
PLATINUM
+0.5
+0.9
application on underground pipelines, and
GOLD +1.2 ever increasing use as the most effective
corrosion control method for numerous
other underground and underwater structures
When two metals having different energy such as lead cables, water storage tanks,
levels or potentials are coupled together, lock gates and dams, steel pilings,
current will flow. The direction of positive underground storage tanks, well casings,
current flow will be from the metal with the ship hulls and interiors, water treatment
more negative potential through the soil to equipment, trash racks and screens. It is a
that which is more positive. Corrosion will scientific method which combats corrosion
occur at the point where positive current by use of the same laws which cause the
leaves the metal surface. A dry cell battery corrosion process.
is one example of a corrosion cell.
COMMON DRY CELL BATTERY II. Corrosion Mechanism
CONVENTIONAL CURRENT
There are two basic mechanisms by which
CARBON e- WIRE metals in electrolytes corrode
•
ROD (CONDUCTOR)
(CATHODE)
Electrolytic Corrosion
•
Zn++
Galvanic Corrosion
H+
ZINC
CASE Electrolytic corrosion is a result of direct
(ANODE) - - e-
OH OH current from outside sources entering and
then leaving a particular metallic structure
by way of the electrolyte. Where current
MOIST
PASTE e-
(ELECTROLYTE)

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 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory by James B. Bushman

nters the structure, that part is usually

unaffected or is provided with some degree Current will be generated when two
of protection. Where current leaves the dissimilar metals are electrically connected
structure, corrosion occurs. In underground and immersed in an electrolyte. One of the
work, this type of corrosion is often referred metals will corrode. The path of the current
to as stray current corrosion and results from will be from the corroding metal, through
currents entering the soil from sources of the electrolyte (soil) to the non-corroding
DC such as electric railway systems or DC metal and then back through the connection
machinery. (conductor) between the two metals. The
corroding metal is the one where the current
STRAY DIRECT CURRENT CORROSION leaves to enter the electrolyte and is called
an anode. The metal that receives the current
is called the cathode.
TRANSIT POWER LINE

+ The same metallic structure, when placed in

AC to DC
Conversion
Substation
an electrolyte (e.g. soil) can develop dif-
- ferences in potential as a result of metal
EARTH

grain composition, milling imperfections,

ANODIC CATHODIC
AREA AREA scratches, threads, etc., being exposed.
CORROSION Steel PASSIVATION Those portions will usually be, anodic to the
Pipe

Galvanic corrosion is self-generated activity remainder of the surface and will corrode.
METALLIC

e-
PATH
METAL ELECTROLYTE
STRUCTURE -
Fe+++ 2OH --> Fe(OH) 2
ANODIC

e- AREA
(CORRODES)

NEGATIVE e -

e-
- CURRENT FLOW
OH
++
Fe POSITIVE e- +
CURRENT OH- H
COPPER FLOW

STEEL H+ H CATHODE
ANODE CATHODIC
AREA
(PROTECTED) +
H + le- -->
H

ELECTROLYTE
GALVANIC CORROSION OF A SINGE METAL.
resulting from differences in energy levels
or potentials which develop when metal is Corrosion can occur due to differences in
placed in an electrolyte. These differences the electrolyte. These differences may be in
can arise from the coupling of dissimilar the soil resistivity, oxygen concentrations,
metals, variations in the electrolyte, moisture content and various ion
non-homogeneity of the metal, or a concentrations. The variations produce
combination of the above. current flow from one location, through the
electrolyte, to another portion of the same
BI-METALLIC CORROSION
metallic structure.

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 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory by James B. Bushman

magnitude to polarize all the cathodic areas

OXYGEN CONCENTRATION CORROSION up to the open circuit potential of the anodic
areas, corrosion is arrested.

Electrolytic corrosion and galvanic The theoretical considerations indicate that

corrosion are similar in that corrosion the basis for cathodic protection is relatively
always occurs at the anodic areas. The simple not difficult to understand. However,
PAVEMENT practical designs for various applications
can vary considerably based on the type of
Oxygen
Rich
Corrosion Current structure to be protected and the conditions
caused by difference in
Sand
Backfill
Oxygen Concentrations encountered.
PIPE
III. Corrosion Control Mechanism
CORROSION
Cathodic protection is an electrical method
OXYGEN STARVED COMPACTED CLAY SOIL of preventing corrosion on metallic
essential difference between the two is that structures situated in electrolytes. In
in the case of electrolytic corrosion, the practical applications, the structures most
external man-made current generates the commonly provided with protection are
corrosion; in galvanic corrosion, the natural constructed of iron or steel (including
process of corrosion generates the current. stainless steel) and the electrolytes are most
There is also a difference in polarity. In an often soil and water. Other metals
electrolytic cell, the anode is the positive commonly provided with cathodic
electrode; in a galvanic cell, the anode is the protection include, lead sheathed cables,
negative electrode. copper and aluminum piping, galvanized
steel, and cast iron. Cathodic protection has
CORROSION CAUSED BY DISSIMILAR SOILS also been used successfully in unusual
electrolytes such as concrete, calcium
chloride and caustic soda. However, the vast
No High No
Chlorides
Chlorides
majority of cathodic protection systems are
Chlorides
used to prevent corrosion on steel structures
PIPE PIPE in soil and water. Cathodic protection has
become a standard procedure for many
HI pH LOW pH structures such as underground storage
HI pH tanks, pipelines, water storage tanks, ship
hulls and interiors, lock gates and dams,
water treatment facilities, well casings, trash
It has been established that electric current racks and screens, bridge decks, and steel
can generate corrosion, corrosion, in turn pilings.
can generate electric current. As indicated
by these phenomena, it is then possible to As far back as the Bronze Age, it was
prevent corrosion by use of electrical observed that metals were not very stable
current. This, then, is the basis for cathodic when subjected to their natural
protection. When direct current is applied environments such as soil and sea water.
with a polarity which opposes the natural About 1780, a physiologist, Luigi Galvani,
corrosion mechanisms, and with sufficient reported on his experiments with metallic

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 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory by James B. Bushman

arcs of dissimilar metals. He was studying IMPRESSED CURRENT CATHODIC

the muscular structure of the frog. He PROTECTION
noticed that when the frogs were suspended (POWER SUPPLY) AC INPUT

on an iron rack by copper hooks, there was a TRANSFORMER

RECTIFIER DC OUTPUT

twitching in their leg muscles. One of the AC INPUT

A

foremost physicists of the period,

SHUNT
Alessandro Volta, was able to demonstrate V + TO ANODE
that the phenomenon was caused by - TO PIPE

electricity produced by the dissimilarity of

the metals in contact with the biological
specimens.
BURIED ANODES

In 1824, Sir Humphry Davy, on contract to The second method of protection makes use
the royal Navy, discovered the principle of of galvanic anodes which have a higher
cathodic protection for the mitigation of energy level or potential with respect to the
natural corrosion processes. He was structure to be protected. These anodes are
searching for a method to prevent corrosion made of materials, such as magnesium or
of the copper-clad wooden hulls of English zinc, which are naturally anodic with respect
ships. He attached billets of zinc to the to steel structures and are connected directly
copper and observed that the zinc would to these structures.
corrode to save the copper. Today, over one
and one-half centuries later, corrosion
engineers are still using this same method of SACRIFICIAL ANODE CATHODIC
preventing corrosion damage by applying PROTECTION
this same zinc anode cathodic protection to
steel ships around the world. WIRE

IV. Methods of Application

Current Flow
There are basically two methods of applying
Pipe

ZINC OR
cathodic protection. One of these methods
MAGNESIUM
makes use of anodes which are energized by
an external DC power source. In this type of ANODE
cathodic protection system, anodes are
installed in the electrolyte and are connected
to the positive terminal of a DC power
source and the structure which is to be
protected is connected to the negative
terminal of that source. Because the power In most cases, the rectifier type system is
source is almost always a rectifier unit, this designed to deliver relatively large currents
type of system is often referred to as a from a limited number of anodes, and the
rectifier or impressed current type system. galvanic anode type system is designed to
deliver relatively small currents from a large
number of anodes. Each method of applying

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 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory by James B. Bushman

cathodic protection has characteristics that because there are very large differences in
make it more applicable to a particular the design of cathodic protection systems.
problem than the other. A comparison of These differences result from the infinite
those characteristics is as follows: variety of structures that are to be protected
and from the large assortment of
COMPARISON OF CP SYSTEM environments in which those structures are
CHARACTERISTICS located. Because of the large differences in
the designs of systems necessary to achieve
Galvanic Rectifier protection, it is often necessary for existing
NO External Power External Power structures that each system be custom
required Required designed for a given location.
Fixed driving Adjustable Voltage
voltage In order to prevent corrosion using cathodic
Fixed Current Adjustable Current protection, current must flow from the
Limited Current (10 Unlimited Current electrolyte onto the structure at all locations.
to 50 Milli-amperes (10 to 100 Amperes If a portion of the structure does not receive
Typical) Typical) current, the normal corrosion activity will
Usually used in Can be Used in continue at that point. If any of the cathodic
lower resistivity almost Any protection current picked up by the structure
electrolytes Resistivity leaves that structure to flow back into the
Environment electrolyte, corrosion will be accelerated at
Usually used with Can be Used on the location where the current is discharged.
small or very well Any Size Structure As an example, when mechanically coupled
coated structures piping is used, this can be discontinuous
Low $/Unit Cost High $/Unit Cost from one pipe section to the next. If a
High $/Sq. Ft. of Low $/Sq. Ft. of galvanic anode type system is used for
Metal Protected Metal Protected protection, it may be necessary to install an
Low Maintenance Higher anode on each pipe length or to electrically
Maintenance bond across each joint. If one length of pipe
Does NOT cause Stray DC Currents is neglected, that length will receive no
Stray Current Can be Generated cathodic protection and the normal corrosion
Corrosion activity will continue. When a rectifier type
system is installed on an underground
storage tank system, it is even more
Regardless of the type of system used,
important that the tank and lines be
current flows from the cathodic protection
electrically continuous. If there are
anode through the soil to the structure to be
non-continuous joints, it is possible for the
protected. Where this current flows onto a
cathodic protection current to leave the pipe
structure from the surrounding electrolyte
or tank to flow around the electrically
(soil), the potential of the structure is made
discontinuous joint causing corrosion at
more negative. Cathodic protection is
each point where the current leaves the pipe
achieved when this change in potential is
surface. Similarly, if cathodic protection
sufficient to arrest corrosion.
current is applied to one structure in an area,
It would appear that cathodic protection can
it is possible for other structures in the
be achieved merely by the application of
neighborhood to be exposed to damage
current of sufficient magnitude. Although
unless proper steps are taken. Potential
this statement is true, it is deceptively simple

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 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory by James B. Bushman

measurements are used to determine useful for cathodic protection. Some of the
whether such damaging exposure exists. Just metal is consumed in self-corrosion. Zinc is
as protection is indicated when the potential approximately 90% efficient and magnesium
of a structure is made more negative, stray is approximately 50% efficient. Therefore,
current corrosion is indicated when the the actual pounds consumed per ampere year
potential of a structure is made less negative of protective current are 26 and 17 lbs. for
as a result of the application of cathodic zinc and magnesium respectively.
protection current.
In underground applications, these anodes
V. Anode Materials are normally surrounded with a special
backfill. The backfill is usually a mixture of
Galvanic Anodes gypsum, Bentonite and sodium sulfate. This
special backfill serves a number of purposes.
Protective current generated by galvanic First, it provides a uniform environment for
anodes depends upon the inherent potential the anode, thereby making the corrosion of
difference between the anodes and the the anode uniform; second, the backfill
structure to be protected. Thus, if the decreases the anode-to earth resistance;
structure is made of iron or steel, any metal third, it retains moisture and thereby
that is more active in the electromotive force maintains a lower resistance; and fourth, it
series can theoretically be used as anode acts as a depolarizing agent.
material. In practice, the materials generally
used for galvanic anodes are zinc and Impressed Current Anodes
magnesium. Although aluminum is also a
material which is more active than iron, it When a rectifier type system is used, the
has not yet proved to be an effective current is derived from an outside source
galvanic anode material for underground use and is not generated by the corrosion of a
because of the polarization films which particular metal as is the case with galvanic
build up on the aluminum surface as it anodes. However, materials used as
corrodes, thereby ceasing the generation of energized anodes do corrode. Thus, junk
protective current. In recent years, some pipe and steel rails that were at one time
alloys of aluminum have been used used extensively as anode materials in
successfully in seawater applications and rectifier type systems, corrode at the rate of
work is progressing on alloys that may 20 lbs. per ampere year. Even a relatively
prove to be effective in other applications. small rectifier system, with a capacity of
only 10 amperes, would consume 2000 lbs.
It should be noted that galvanic anodes of steel in 10 years. Therefore, longer life
consume themselves in the process of anode materials were sought. The materials
generating protective currents. The rate of that are used almost universally today are
consumption is dependent upon the graphite, high silicon cast iron and precious
magnitude of current generated as well as metal oxide coated titanium. In underground
the material from which the anode is made. work, special coke breeze backfills are
For example, the theoretical consumption usually used for the purpose of providing a
rate of zinc is 23.5 lbs. per ampere year and uniform environment around the anode and
that of magnesium is 8.7 lbs. per ampere for lowering the anode-to-earth resistance.
year. In actual practice, not all of the metal
is consumed in generating current that is

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 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory by James B. Bushman

VI. Examples of current can provide complete cathodic

protection for tanks and their associated
Underground Coated Structures piping.

The economics favoring cathodic protection Although protection of cross country

of cross country pipelines are so pipelines and existing rural tank farms is
overwhelming, particularly on high pressure usually provided with the rectifier type
gas and oil lines, that practically every new systems, the use of such systems in
line of consequence is provided with congested areas is often very difficult
cathodic protection almost immediately after because of the many interference problems
completion. The Department of Trans- created on nearby structures. Therefore, in
portation has passed Federal legislation congested areas, sacrificial anode type
requiring that all oil, gas and gas products systems are more often used.
pipelines be cathodically protected and that
the level of protection meets designated One example was of a well coated 10,000
standards and regulations. gallon underground storage tank located in
Detroit, Michigan. It was amply protected
New structures are generally provided with a with one anode installed on one end of the
good, high resistivity coating that is applied tank with a total current output of less than
with techniques that leave almost negligible 10 milli-amperes of current. The fact that
amounts of the surface exposed to the soil. sacrificial anodes have been installed on
However, it is recognized that a coating, no over 200,000 well-coated underground
matter how good or how well applied, is storage tanks without a single corrosion
never perfect. related product discharge is a testament to
the effectiveness of this approach.
The corrosion protection afforded by the
coating must be supplemented with cathodic In many instances, spacing of anodes can be
protection in order to achieve complete extended to 100 - 500 feet or more on small
mitigation of corrosion. It is important to diameter buried piping depending on the
understand that coated structures develop quality of the coating and environmental
leaks within a shorter period of time than do conditions. As a consequence, many
uncoated structures. This is true even though companies in recent years have established
the total metal loss on a coated structure is programs in which magnesium anodes are
appreciably less than on a bare structure. All installed on pre-selected spacings as the
of the corrosion activity is concentrated at well-coated piping is laid.
the holidays or breaks in the coating rather
than evenly dispersed over the entire Underground Bare Structures
surface, thus accelerating the corrosion rate
at the holiday locations. The problems presented in attempting to
provide cathodic protection for existing bare
Fortunately for the structure owner, coating structures are much more difficult than those
and cathodic protection work very well on coated structures. The major difficulty
together. When a tank or pipe is coated with arises because of the much greater
one of the high quality materials and closely magnitude of current required. On a well-
controlled application techniques that are coated underground storage tank, it is not
available today, a relatively small magnitude unusual to be able to provide protection with

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 Corrosion and Cathodic Protection Theory by James B. Bushman

one or two galvanic anodes while it is not control. If magnesium anodes were selected
uncommon to have several rectifier units in for use, over 60 anodes would be required.
a large complex tank farm.
VII. Conclusion
Because of the much greater current Cathodic protection is a highly adaptable
requirement, interference problems can be and effective means of preventing corrosion
created on other nearby underground utility on a variety of underground or underwater
systems. On systems using sacrificial structures. There are basically two types of
anodes, the number of anodes required is systems: namely, galvanic and impressed
similarly much greater on bare structures current. Each has characteristics which make
than on coated. it more adaptable' under given
We have seen one example where one anode circumstances. Cathodic protection designs
was sufficient to provide protection for a can differ considerably depending upon the
coated 10,000 gallon tank. On the other coating, the configuration of the structure,
hand, a poorly coated or bare 10,000 gallon the environment and the presence of
tank can require in excess of 1.5 amps to neighboring structures. When a system is
achieve effective corrosion control. For one designed, installed and maintained properly,
bare UST piping system in Ohio consisting cathodic protection is one of the most
of 1,200 feet of 3" diameter pipe, 2 amperes effective and economical methods of
of current was required for full corrosion preventing corrosion.

Page 10 of 10 ©Bushman & Associates, Inc.