Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

CHAPTER 14: LYMPHATIC SYSTEM COMPONENTS

& IMMUNITY  Lymph
FUNCTION o fluid that enters lymphatic
 Fluid balance capillaries composed of water
and some solutes.
 Fat Absorption
 Lymphocytes
 Defense
 Lymphatic vessels
 Lymph nodes
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND LYMPH
 Tonsils
DRAINAGE
 Spleen
 Thymus gland

______________________________________

LYMPHATIC CAPPILIARIES
 Carries fluid in one direction from
tissues to circulatory system.
 Fluid moves from blood capillaries into
tissue spaces.
CHARACTERISTICS
 tiny, closed-ended vessels
 fluid moves easily into
 in most tissues
 join to form lymphatic vessels
______________________________________

LYMPHATIC VESSELS
 resemble small veins
 where lymphatic capillaries join
 one-way valves

RIGHT LYMPHATIC DUCT

 where lymphatic vessels from right
upper limb and right head, neck, chest
empty
 empties into right subclavian vein
THORACIC DUCT
 rest of body empties from lymphatic
vessels
 empties into left subclavian vein
______________________________________

LYMPHATIC FORMATION AND MOVEMENT

Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

STEPS // PROCESS

 Fluid moves from blood capillaries into

tissues and from tissues into lymphatic
capillaries to form lymph.
 The overlap of epithelial cells of the
lymphatic capillary allows fluid to enter
easily but prevents it from moving back
into the tissue. Valves, located farther
along in lymphatic vessels, also ensure
one-way flow of lymph.

______________________________________
SPLEEN
 size of clenched fist
LYMPHATIC ORGANS  located in abdomen
 filters blood
TONSILS  detect and respond to foreign
 palatine tonsils on each side of oral substances
cavity  destroy old red blood cells
 pharyngeal tonsils near internal  blood reservoir
opening of nasal cavity (adenoid)
 lingual tonsils posterior surface of white pulp
tongue  lymphatic tissue surrounding arteries
 form a protective ring of lymphatic tissue red pulp
around nasal and oral cavities  contains macrophages and red blood
cells that connect to veins

THYMUS GLAND
 bilobed gland
 located in mediastinum behind the
sternum
 stops growing at age 1
 at age 60 decreases in size
LYMPH NODES  produces and matures lymphocytes
 rounded structures that vary in size
 located near lymphatic vessels groin,
armpit, neck
 lymph passes through lymph nodes
before entering blood
 lymph moves through and immune
system is activated (lymphocytes
produced) if foreign substances are
detected removal of microbes by
macrophages
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

OVERVIEW OF THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM INNATE IMMUNITY

1. Lymphatic capillaries and vessels  present at birth
remove fluid from tissues.  defense against any pathogen
2. Specialized lymphatic vessels called  accomplished by physical barriers,
lacteals absorb lipids at the small chemical mediators, cells, inflammatory
intestine. The lymph in these vessels is response
referred to as chyle due to the high lipid
content. PHYSICAL BARRIERS
3. Lymph nodes filter lymph removing  First line of defense
pathogens and debris as the lymph  Skin and mucous membranes to act as
flows toward the thoracic cavity. barriers
4. Lymph passes into larger vessels, such  Tears, saliva, urine wash away
as the thoracic duct, and then enters the pathogens
blood.
5. The spleen filters blood and is a site CHEMICAL MEDIATORS
where lymphocytes respond to  Chemical mediators are chemicals that
infections. can kill microbes and prevent their entry
6. Pre-T cells are produced in red bone into cells
marrow and migrate to the thymus, Lysozyme
where they mature to become T cells.  found in tears and saliva to kill bacteria
7. B cells, which are produced and mature Mucous membranes
in the red bone marrow, and T cells from  prevent entry of microbes
the thymus circulate to, and populate, Histamine
other lymphatic tissues.  promote inflammation by causing
vasodilation
Interferons
 proteins that protect against viral
infections by stimulating surrounding
cells to produce antiviral proteins
______________________________________

CELLS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

White Blood Cells

 produce in red bone marrow and
lymphatic tissue that fight foreign
substances
Phagocytic Cells
 ingest and destroy foreign substances
 Example—neutrophils and
macrophages
____ ____________
Neutrophils
IMMUNITY  first to respond to infection but die
 Immunity is the ability to resist damage quickly
from foreign substances. Eosinophils
 Immunity can protect against microbes,  produced in red bone marrow
toxins, and cancer cells.  release chemicals to reduce
inflammation
TYPES Basophils
 innate  made in red bone marrow
 adaptive  leave blood and enter infected tissues
______________________________________  can release histamine
Macrophages
 initially were monocytes
 leave blood and enter tissues
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

 can ingest more than neutrophils ______________________________________

 protect lymph in lymph nodes and blood
in spleen and liver ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
 given specific names for certain areas of  Adaptive immunity is defense that
body (Kupffer cells in liver) involves specific recognition to a specific
Mast Cells antigen.
 made in red bone marrow  is acquired after birth
 found in skin, lungs, gastrointestinal  reacts when innate defenses
tract, urogenital tract don’t work
 can release leukotrienes  slower than innate immunity
Natural Killer Cells  has memory
 type of lymphocyte  uses lymphocytes (B and T
 produce in red bone marrow cells)
 recognize classes of cells such as tumor  2 types antibody-mediated and
cells or virus infected cells cell-mediated
 release chemicals to lysis cells
TERMS RELATED TO ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
INFLAMMATORY RESPONSE Antigen
 involves chemical and cells due to injury  substance that stimulates an immune
 signaled by presence of foreign response
substance  Example—bacteria, virus, pollen,
 stimulates release of chemical food, drugs
mediators Self-Antigen
 molecule produced by the person’s body
that stimulates an immune system
response
Antibody
 proteins the body produces in response
to an antigen

ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF

LYMPHOCYTES
Stem cells
 red bone marrow
 give rise to all blood cells
 give rise to some pre-T cells and pre-B
cells
______________________________________

LYMPHOCYTES
 type of white blood cell
 involved in adaptive immunity
 develop from stem cells
 differentiate into specific lymphocytes
such as B or T- cells

B - Cells
 type of lymphocytes
 involved in antibody-mediated immunity
 originate from stem cells
 mature in red bone marrow
 move to lymphatic tissue after mature
 lead to production of antibodies
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

T-Cells CYTOKINES
 type of lymphocyte  proteins secreted by a cell that regulates
 involved in cell-mediated immunity neighboring cells
primarily and antibody-mediated  Example—interleukin 1 released by
immunity macrophages stimulates helper T
 mature in thymus gland cells
 move to lymphatic tissue after mature
 4 Types PROLIFERATION OF HELPER T-CELLS

ORIGIN AND PROCESSING OF B – CELLS &

T – CELLS

Both B cells and T cells originate from stem cells 1. An antigen-presenting cell, such as a
in red bone marrow. B cells are processed from macrophage, phagocytizes, processes,
pre-B cells in the red bone marrow, whereas T and displays an antigen on its cell
cells are processed from pre-T cells in the membrane on a MHC class II molecule.
thymus. Both B cells and T cells circulate to 2. A helper T cell interacts with the
other lymphatic tissues, such as lymph nodes. macrophage through its T-cell receptor.
3. Costimulation (described in more detail
ANTIGEN RECOGNITION below) occurs through other chemical
 Lymphocytes have antigen receptors on signaling, such as interleukins secreted
their surface by the macrophage and CD4
 Called B-cell receptors on B cells and T- glycoproteins of the helper T cell.
cell receptors on T cells 4. The helper T cell is activated and
 Each receptor only binds with a specific stimulated to divide through the actions
antigen of interleukin-2 (described below),
 When antigen receptors combine with producing daughter cells.
the antigen, the lymphocyte is activated 5. The newly formed “daughter” helper T
and adaptive immunity begins cells can be stimulated to divide as well.
These helper T cells can also stimulate
MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
MOLECULE (MHC) 6. Some daughter cells will become
 contain binding sites for antigens memory T cells. Memory helper T cells
 specific for certain antigens become active in future encounters with
 hold and present a processed antigen the same antigen.
on the surface of the cell membrane
 bind to antigen receptor on B or T cells
and stimulate response
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

LYMPHOCYTE PROLIFERATION ANTIBODY STRUCTURE

 After antigen is processed and present  Letter Y Shape
to helper T cells, helper T cell produces
interleukin-2 and interleukin 2-receptors Variable Region
 Interleukin-2 binds to receptors and  V of Y
stimulates more helper T cells  bind to epitopes of antigen using
production antigen- binding site
 Helper T cells are needed to produce B Constant Region
cells  stem of Y
 B cells produce antibodies  each class of immunoglobulin has same
structure
PROLIFERATION OF B-CELLS
1. B-cell proliferation begins when a B cell
takes in the same kind of antigen that
stimulated the helper T cell.
2. The antigen is processed by the B cell
and presented on the B-cell surface by
an MHC class II molecule.
3. A helper T cell is stimulated when it
binds to the MHC class II/antigen
complex. There is also costimulation
involving CD4 and interleukins.
4. As a result, the B cell divides into two
“daughter” cells.
5. One of these daughter cells
differentiates into a plasma cell Play,
which produces antibodies.
6. The division process continues,
increasing the number of cells capable
of producing antibodies and resulting in
sufficient antibodies to destroy all the
antigen.
7. Daughter cells that do not become
plasma cells, reduce in size and become The Y-shaped antibody has two “arms.” Each
memory B cells. Memory B cells arm has a variable region that functions as an
become active in future encounters with antigen-binding site. The constant region can
the same antigen. activate complement or bind to other immune
system cells, such as macrophages, basophils,
DUAL NATURE OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM or mast cells.
 Lymphocytes give rise to 2 types of
immune responses: antibody-mediated Antigen-Binding Site
and cell-mediated  site on antibody where antigen binds
 Antigens can trigger both types of Valence
responses  number of antigen-binding sites on
 Both types are able to recognize self- antibody
versus non-self, use specificity, and
have memory

ANTIBODY MEDIATED IMMUNITY

 effective against antigens in body fluids
(blood and lymph)
 effective against bacteria, viruses, toxins
 uses B cells to produce antibodies
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

5 classes of immunoglobulins used to EFFECTS OF ANTIBODIES

destroy antigens  Inactivate antigen
 Bind antigens together
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, IgD  Active complement cascades
 Initiate release of inflammatory
chemicals
 Facilitate phagocytosis

ANTIBODIES

IgG
 80 to 85% in serum
 activates compliment and increases
phagocytosis
 can cross the placenta and provide
protection to the fetus
 responsible for Rh reactions, such as
hemolytic disease of the newborn
IgM
 5 to 10% in serum
 activates compliment
 acts as an antigen binding receptor on
the surface of B cells
 responsible for transfusion reactions in
the ABO blood system
 often the first antibody produced in
response to an antigen
IgA
 15% in serum
 secreted into saliva, into tears, and onto
mucous membranes
 protects body surfaces Antibodies directly affect antigens by inactivating
 found in colostrum and milk to provide the antigens or by binding the antigens together.
immune protection to the newborn Antibodies indirectly affect antigens by activating
IgE other mechanisms through the constant region
 0.002% in serum of the antibody. Indirect mechanisms include
 binds to mast cells and basophils and activation of complement, increased
stimulates the inflammatory response inflammation resulting from the release of
IgD inflammatory chemicals from mast cells or
 2% in serum basophils, and increased phagocytosis resulting
 functions as an antigen-binding receptor from antibody attachment to macrophages.
on B cells
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

ANTIBODY PRODUCTION produced a primary response. When

exposed to the antigen, the memory B
Primary Response cells quickly divide to form plasma cells,
 1st exposure of B cell to antigen which rapidly produce antibodies. The
 B cell undergoes division and forms secondary response provides better
plasma cell and memory cells protection than the primary response for
Plasma Cells two reasons: (1) The time required to
 produce antibodies start producing antibodies is less (hours
 3 to 14 days to by effective against to a few days), and (2) more plasma
antigen cells and antibodies are produced. As a
 person develop disease symptoms consequence, the antigen is quickly
destroyed, no disease symptoms
Secondary Response develop, and the person is immune.
Memory Cells
 occurs when immune system is exposed CELL - MEDIATED IMMUNITY
to antigen that has been seen before  Cell-mediated immunity is used against
 B memory cells quickly divided to form antigens in cells and tissues.
plasma cells which produce antibodies  It is effective against intracellular
 produces new memory cells bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa.
 It uses different types of T cells

TYPES
Helper T - Cells (TH)
 activate macrophages
 help form B cells
 promote production of Tc
Cytotoxic T - Cells (TC)
 precursor to cytotoxic T lymphocytes
(CTL)
Cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL)
 destroys antigen on contact
Regulatory T cells (Tr)
 turn off immune system response
when antigen is gone

PROLIFERATION OF CYTOTOXIC CELLS

1. The primary response results from the
first exposure of a B cell to an antigen.
When the antigen binds to the antigen-
binding receptor on the B cell and the B
cell has been activated by a helper T
cell, the B cell undergoes several
divisions to form plasma cells and
memory B cells. Plasma cells produce
antibodies. The primary response
normally takes 3–14 days to produce
enough antibodies to be effective
against the antigen. In the meantime,
the individual usually develops disease
symptoms because the antigen has had 1. When viruses infect cells, some viral
time to cause tissue damage. proteins are broken down and become
2. Memory B cells are responsible for the processed antigens that are combined
secondary response, or memory with MHC class I molecules and
response, which occurs when the displayed on the surface of the infected
immune system is exposed to an cell. Cytotoxic T cells can distinguish
antigen against which it has already
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

between virally infected cells and IMMUNE INTERACTIONS

noninfected cells because the T-cell
receptor can bind to the MHC class
I/viral antigen complex, which is not
present on uninfected cells.
2. The cytotoxic T cell is activated when
the T-cell receptor binds with the MHC
class I/antigen complex.
3. Costimulation by other surface
molecules, such as CD8, also occurs.
4. Helper T cells provide costimulation as
well by releasing cytokines, such as
interleukin-2, which stimulate activation
and cell division of cytotoxic T cells.
5. Increasing the number of “daughter”
helper T cells results in greater
stimulation of cytotoxic T cells. In cell-
mediated responses, helper T cells are
activated and stimulated to divide in the
same fashion as in antibody-mediated
responses

STIMULATION AND EFFECTS OF T - CELLS

______________________________________

When activated, cytotoxic T cells form many TYPES OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY

additional cytotoxic T cells, as well as memory T
cells. The cytotoxic T cells release cytokines NATURALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY
that promote the destruction of the antigen or Active
cause the lysis of target cells, such as virally  natural exposure to antigens causes
infected cells, tumor cells, or transplanted cells. production of antibodies
The memory T cells are responsible for the  can be lifelong immunity
secondary response.  Example—mononucleosis
Passive
 transfer of antibodies from mother to
child
 Example—breast milk or
placenta

ARTIFICIALLY ACQUIRED IMMUNITY

Active
 injection of antigens using vaccines
which cause the production of
antibodies
Chapter 14: Lymphatic System

 immunization is a process of
introducing killed, live, or inactivated
pathogen
Passive
 injection of antibodies from another
person or animal