Unit I

Part A
1. Write properties of X-rays.
X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation with high energy and short wavelengths.
They are invisible, penetrate materials, and are ionizing, making them valuable for
medical imaging. X-rays are produced when accelerated electrons interact with a metal
target, commonly in X-ray tubes. Their ability to be absorbed by different materials
contributes to image contrast in X-ray imaging.

2. What is a contrast agent? Give examples.

A contrast agent is a substance used in medical imaging to enhance the visibility of internal
structures or fluids. It improves the differentiation between tissues with varying X-ray absorption.
Examples:
Iodine-based Contrast Agents - X-Ray, CT
Barium Sulfate - X-ray for GIT imaging
Gadolinium-based Contrast Agents - MRI imaging
Perfluorocarbons - Ultrasound Imaging

3. How does X-ray mammography utilize tissue contrast for breast cancer detection?

X-ray mammography utilizes tissue contrast by taking advantage of the differential X-ray
absorption between dense breast tissue and potential abnormalities like tumors. Cancerous
tissues, being denser, absorb more X-rays and appear as areas of increased opacity on the
mammogram, enhancing their visibility against the surrounding breast tissue. This contrast
allows for the detection of early signs of breast cancer.

4. Mention the parts of X-ray equipment.

Key parts of X-ray equipment include the X-ray tube, which generates X-rays, the
collimator for beam control, the Bucky grid to enhance image quality, a power supply for
operation, and detectors such as digital sensors for image capture.

5. Draw the structure of the X-ray tube.

6. Mention the reasons for x-ray tube failure.

Common reasons for X-ray tube failure include overheating, filament failure, anode
wear, and target pitting. These issues can result from prolonged usage, high heat levels,
or manufacturing defects, leading to reduced performance or complete tube malfunction.
Regular maintenance and monitoring are crucial to prevent and address these issues.

7. Mention the importance of collimators in X-ray machines.

Collimators in X-ray machines are crucial for controlling the size and shape of the X-ray
beam. They help focus the radiation to the specific area of interest, limiting unnecessary
exposure to surrounding tissues. This not only enhances image quality by reducing
scatter radiation but also contributes to patient safety by minimizing radiation dose and
improving the overall precision of the diagnostic or therapeutic procedure.

8. What is the importance of Bucky Grid in X-Ray?

The Bucky grid is important in X-ray imaging for its role in reducing scatter radiation and
improving image quality. It is a device placed between the patient and the X-ray detector
to absorb scattered X-rays, which can otherwise contribute to a decrease in image
contrast. The Bucky grid enhances the clarity of X-ray images by allowing only primary,
more direct X-rays to reach the detector. This results in improved diagnostic accuracy
and a clearer representation of anatomical structures in medical imaging.

9. Mention the advantages of Digital Radiography.

Images are available instantly, allowing for faster diagnosis and treatment.
 Digital systems often require lower radiation doses for comparable image quality,
reducing patient exposure.

Digital images can be manipulated for better visualization and analysis, aiding in
diagnostics.

Digital images can be easily stored, retrieved, and shared electronically, enhancing
accessibility and collaboration among healthcare professionals.

Eliminates the need for film processing chemicals, making it more environmentally
friendly.

Over time, digital systems can be more cost-effective due to reduced film and
processing costs.

Digital detectors have a wider dynamic range, capturing a broader range of image
intensities, leading to improved image quality.

10. What are the different types of power supplies needed for an X-ray machine?
X-ray machines typically require two main types of power supplies:

High Voltage Power Supply: Provides the high voltage needed for X-ray tube operation,
generating X-rays through electron acceleration.

Low Voltage Power Supply: Supplies power for various components like the collimator,
tube head movement, and image receptors, ensuring proper functioning of the X-ray
system.

11. What is the working principle of fluoroscopy?

A continuous X-ray beam is passed through the body part being examined.
Fluoroscopy involves real-time X-ray imaging. The X-ray tube continuously emits X-rays,
which pass through the patient and strike a fluorescent screen or digital detector. The
screen emits visible light in proportion to the intensity of the X-rays, creating a dynamic,
moving image.

12. Mention any four applications of Digital subtraction angiography.

Vascular Imaging - DSA provides detailed images of blood vessels

 DSA guides minimally invasive procedures, such as catheter-based interventions like
angioplasty, embolization, and stent placement.

Neurology - DSA is commonly employed for neurological studies

Peripheral Angiography used for imaging peripheral vessels
used for study of blood flow in joints and bones
Renal Angiography - to assess the renal vasculature

13. Compare angiography and cine angiography.

The angiography provides a static snapshot of blood vessels, cine angiography adds the
dynamic element, allowing for the assessment of blood flow over time. Cine angiography
is particularly valuable during interventional procedures for real-time guidance and
assessment.
The angiography used for visualizing the anatomy and structure of blood vessels and
cine angiography used to visualize the real-time flow of contrast through blood vessels.

14. What is the electromagnetic spectrum, and where do X-rays fall in it?

The electromagnetic spectrum encompasses all forms of electromagnetic radiation,

ranging from radio waves with long wavelengths to gamma rays with short wavelengths.
X-rays fall in the higher energy portion of the spectrum, beyond ultraviolet (UV) light,
characterized by shorter wavelengths and higher frequencies.

Part B & Part C (13 & 15 Marks)

Describe the components of X-Ray equipment with a neat diagram.
X-ray Tube: The primary component that generates X-rays through the interaction of high-speed
electrons with a metal target.

Collimator: A device that shapes and limits the X-ray beam, ensuring precise targeting and
reducing unnecessary radiation exposure.

Bucky Grid: Placed between the patient and the X-ray detector, it improves image quality by
reducing scattered radiation.

Detector: In digital radiography, this can be a digital sensor or a phosphor plate that captures
the X-ray image.

High Voltage Generator: Provides the high voltage needed for X-ray tube operation.

Control Panel: Allows the radiographer to adjust exposure settings, including exposure time and
tube current.

X-ray Tube Stand: Holds the X-ray tube and allows for its movement, positioning, and alignment
during imaging procedures.

Table or Bucky Tray: A surface where the patient is positioned for X-ray imaging.

Cables and Connectors: Transmit electrical signals between various components.

Explain the mechanism of X-ray generation and importance of collimator in X-ray

equipment
X-rays are produced whenever electrons collide at very high speed with matter and are thus
suddenly stopped. The energy possessed by the electrons appears from the site of the collision
as a parcel of energy in the form of highly penetrating electromagnetic waves (X-rays) of many
different wavelengths, which together form a continuous spectrum. X-rays are produced in a
specially constructed glass tube, which basically comprises (i) a source for the production of
electrons, (ii) an energy source to accelerate the electrons, (iii) a free electron path, (iv) a mean
of focusing the electron beam and (v) a device to stop the electrons. Stationary mode tubes and
rotating anode tubes are the two main types of X-ray tubes.

Stationary Anode Tube

The normal tube is a vacuum diode in which electrons are generated by thermionic emission
from the filament of the tube. The electron stream is electrostatically focused on a target on the
anode by means of a suitably shaped cathode cup. The kinetic energy of the electrons
impinging on the target is converted into X-rays. Most electrons emitted by the hot filament
become current carriers across the tube. It is, therefore, possible to independently set
(i) Tube current by adjusting the filament temperature,
(ii) Tube voltage by adjusting primary voltage.
Rotating Anode Tube
With an increasing need in radiology for more penetrating X-rays, requiring higher tube voltages
and current, the X-ray tube itself becomes a limiting factor in the output of the system. This is
primarily due to the heat generated at the anode. The heat capacity of the anode is a function of
the focal spot area. Therefore, the absorbed power can be increased if the effective area of the
focal spot can be increased. This is accomplished by the rotating anode type of X-ray tubes.
The
tubes with rotating anode are based on the removal of the target from the electron beam before
it reaches too high a temperature under the electron bombardment and the rapid replacement
of it by another cooler target.
importance of collimator in X-ray equipment

Radiation Control: The collimator shapes and confines the X-ray beam, ensuring that only the
necessary area is exposed to radiation. This helps reduce unnecessary radiation exposure to
surrounding tissues and organs.

Image Quality: By limiting the X-ray beam to the region of interest, the collimator minimizes
scattered radiation, which can degrade image quality. This improves the clarity and contrast of
X-ray images.

Patient Safety: Focused and controlled X-ray beams contribute to patient safety by minimizing
radiation dose to healthy tissues. This is particularly important in medical imaging, where the
goal is to obtain diagnostic information with the least amount of radiation exposure.

Compliance with ALARA Principle: The collimator supports the ALARA (As Low As Reasonably
Achievable) principle, emphasizing the importance of keeping radiation exposure as low as
possible while still obtaining the necessary diagnostic information.

Reduced Artifact Formation: Unwanted exposure beyond the area of interest can lead to
artifacts in the X-ray image. The collimator helps prevent these artifacts, ensuring accurate and
reliable diagnostic information.

Precision in Imaging: The collimator allows for precise control over the size and shape of the X-
ray beam. This is crucial for obtaining detailed and accurate images, especially in procedures
where precision is essential, such as surgical or interventional radiology.

Describe X-ray absorption and its importance in medical imaging.

X-ray absorption refers to the process by which X-rays are absorbed or attenuated as they pass
through matter, such as the human body. The extent of absorption is influenced by the density
and composition of the material.

Importance in Medical Imaging:

 Contrast Enhancement: Different tissues absorb X-rays to varying degrees due to differences
in density and atomic composition. This property creates contrast in X-ray images,
making it possible to distinguish between structures like bones, organs, and soft tissues.
Diagnostic Imaging: X-ray absorption is fundamental in various medical imaging modalities,
including radiography and computed tomography (CT). It allows for the creation of
detailed images that aid in the diagnosis and assessment of medical conditions.
Identification of Abnormalities: Pathological conditions, such as tumors or fractures, often
result in changes in tissue density. X-ray absorption helps highlight these abnormalities,
enabling healthcare professionals to identify and diagnose diseases or injuries.
Treatment Planning: In radiation therapy, where X-rays are used to treat cancers,
understanding X-ray absorption is crucial for accurately targeting and delivering the
therapeutic radiation dose to cancerous tissues while minimizing exposure to surrounding
healthy tissues.
Monitoring Procedures: During interventional procedures, real-time X-ray imaging
(fluoroscopy) relies on X-ray absorption to visualize the movement of contrast agents and
medical devices within the body. This aids in guiding procedures such as angiography or
catheter-based interventions.

Describe the factors that affect the absorption of X-rays in tissues.

The absorption of X-rays in human tissues is influenced by several factors:

Tissue Density: Different tissues have varying densities, affecting X-ray absorption. Dense
tissues like bone absorb more X-rays, resulting in higher opacity on the image. Soft
tissues, with lower density, allow more X-rays to pass through.
Tissue Thickness: The thickness of the tissue along the X-ray path influences absorption.
Thicker tissues absorb more X-rays, leading to reduced transmission through the body.
X-ray Energy Level: The energy level of X-rays emitted by the machine affects their ability
to penetrate tissues. Higher-energy X-rays can penetrate more deeply, influencing the
extent of absorption.
Atomic Composition (Z): Tissues with higher atomic numbers (Z), such as bones containing
calcium, absorb X-rays more effectively than tissues with lower atomic numbers, like soft
tissues composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen.
Composition Heterogeneity: Variations in tissue composition within the body can impact X-
ray absorption. For example, the presence of contrast agents or metal implants alters
absorption characteristics.
Patient Size: Larger or thicker individuals may require adjustments in X-ray exposure
settings to ensure adequate penetration and image quality.
Path Length: The distance X-rays travel through tissues (path length) affects absorption.
Longer path lengths result in greater absorption.
 Beam Angle: The angle at which the X-ray beam interacts with tissues can influence
absorption. A perpendicular beam is more likely to be absorbed than a beam traveling at
an angle.
Scattering: X-ray scattering within tissues can reduce absorption. Scatter radiation
contributes to background noise in the image and may affect image quality.

Explain the concept of attenuation in the context of X-ray absorption.

Attenuation in the context of X-ray absorption refers to the reduction in the intensity of X-rays as
they pass through a material. When X-rays interact with matter, they can be absorbed, scattered,
or undergo a combination of both processes. Attenuation primarily occurs due to absorption,
where the energy of the X-ray photons is absorbed by the atoms of the material.

The attenuation of X-rays depends on several factors:

Material Thickness: Thicker materials absorb more X-rays than thinner materials because there
are more atoms for the X-rays to interact with as they pass through the material.

Photon Energy: The energy of the X-ray photons affects their ability to penetrate materials.
Higher energy X-rays are more penetrating and attenuate less compared to lower energy X-rays.

Material Composition: The type of material the X-rays pass through influences attenuation.
Different elements have varying abilities to absorb X-rays. For example, materials with high
atomic numbers (e.g., lead) attenuate X-rays more effectively than materials with low atomic
numbers (e.g., plastic).

Density of the Material: The density of the material also plays a role. Materials with higher
densities tend to attenuate X-rays more effectively because there are more atoms packed closely
together for the X-rays to interact with.

Attenuation is often quantified using the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the intensity of a
beam of monochromatic light (or X-rays) decreases exponentially with the thickness of the
material and the linear attenuation coefficient of the material.

What is tissue contrast in medical imaging, and why is it essential?

Tissue contrast in medical imaging refers to the ability of an imaging modality to distinguish
between different types of tissues based on their visual appearance in the resulting images. It
essentially describes the visual differences in brightness or intensity between different
anatomical structures or tissues within the body.
Tissue contrast is essential in medical imaging for several reasons:

Disease Detection and Diagnosis: Clear tissue contrast enables radiologists and other
healthcare professionals to differentiate between healthy and abnormal tissues. This is
crucial for accurately detecting and diagnosing various medical conditions such as
tumors, fractures, infections, and other abnormalities.
Treatment Planning: Tissue contrast provides important information for planning appropriate
treatment strategies. For example, in oncology, accurate delineation of tumor boundaries
relative to surrounding healthy tissues is crucial for planning radiation therapy or surgical
interventions.
Monitoring Disease Progression: Changes in tissue contrast over time can indicate disease
progression or response to treatment. By comparing images acquired at different time
points, healthcare providers can assess whether a disease is improving, stable, or
worsening.
Minimizing Invasive Procedures: High tissue contrast can help avoid unnecessary invasive
procedures by providing detailed information about the location, size, and characteristics
of abnormalities. For example, in some cases, imaging modalities with excellent tissue
contrast may obviate the need for exploratory surgery.
Enhancing Surgical Precision: In surgical settings, preoperative imaging with good tissue
contrast can help surgeons better visualize the anatomical structures they will be
operating on, thereby improving surgical planning and precision.

Achieving optimal tissue contrast requires selecting the appropriate imaging modality and
technique for the clinical scenario, as well as optimizing imaging parameters such as contrast
agents, image acquisition settings, and post-processing algorithms. Different imaging modalities,
such as X-ray, computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), ultrasound, and
positron emission tomography (PET), have varying abilities to generate tissue contrast depending
on factors such as tissue density, composition, and contrast mechanisms utilized.

Overall, tissue contrast is a fundamental aspect of medical imaging that plays a central role in the
detection, diagnosis, and management of various medical conditions, ultimately contributing to
improved patient care and outcomes

Describe the use of digital X-ray detectors and their advantages over traditional film-based
systems.
Digital X-ray detectors, also known as digital radiography (DR) systems, have revolutionized medical

imaging by replacing traditional film-based X-ray systems with electronic sensors that directly capture

and convert X-ray images into digital format. Here's an overview of their use and advantages over film-

based systems:
Use of Digital X-ray Detectors:

Direct Digital Radiography (DDR): In DDR systems, X-rays pass through the patient and are detected
directly by a digital detector, typically composed of a scintillator layer that converts X-rays into
visible light, which is then captured by an array of photodiodes or charged-coupled devices
(CCDs). These systems provide immediate image acquisition, eliminating the need for film
processing.
Computed Radiography (CR): CR systems use a cassette-based approach where X-ray images are
captured on a special phosphor plate housed in a cassette. After exposure, the cassette is inserted
into a reader that scans the plate, releasing the stored X-ray image data. This data is then
converted into a digital image for viewing and analysis.

Advantages of Digital X-ray Detectors:

Faster Image Acquisition: Digital X-ray detectors offer rapid image acquisition, providing almost
instantaneous images compared to the time-consuming process of film development in traditional
systems. This speed improves workflow efficiency in busy medical settings.
Immediate Image Review: Digital X-ray images can be viewed on a computer monitor immediately
after acquisition, allowing radiologists and clinicians to assess image quality, make diagnostic
decisions, and provide prompt patient care without waiting for film processing.
Lower Radiation Dose: Digital X-ray detectors are often more sensitive to X-rays than traditional
film, allowing for lower radiation doses to be used while maintaining image quality. This
reduction in radiation exposure is particularly beneficial for patients, especially in pediatric
imaging and for individuals undergoing repeated X-ray examinations.
Enhanced Image Quality and Manipulation: Digital X-ray images offer superior image quality and
resolution compared to film-based systems. Additionally, digital images can be manipulated
using image processing software to adjust contrast, brightness, and magnification, enhancing
diagnostic capabilities.
Electronic Storage and Retrieval: Digital X-ray images can be stored electronically in Picture
Archiving and Communication Systems (PACS), allowing for easy access, retrieval, and sharing
of patient imaging data across healthcare facilities. This electronic storage eliminates the need for
physical film archives, saving space and reducing the risk of image loss or damage.
Integration with Other Imaging Modalities: Digital X-ray systems can seamlessly integrate with other
imaging modalities such as CT, MRI, and ultrasound within a PACS environment, enabling
comprehensive patient imaging and multi-modality image correlation for more accurate
diagnoses.

Overall, digital X-ray detectors offer numerous advantages over traditional film-based systems, including

faster image acquisition, immediate image review, lower radiation dose, enhanced image quality,

electronic storage and retrieval, and integration with other imaging modalities, ultimately improving

patient care and workflow efficiency in medical imaging departments.

What safety precautions are necessary when using X-rays in medical imaging?
When using X-rays in medical imaging, it's crucial to implement safety precautions to minimize radiation

exposure to patients, healthcare workers, and the general public. Here are some essential safety

precautions:

Radiation Protection Measures:

● Use lead aprons, thyroid collars, and lead gloves to shield sensitive organs from radiation
exposure during imaging procedures.
● Ensure that patients are properly positioned to minimize unnecessary radiation exposure
and to obtain optimal image quality with the lowest possible dose.
● Use appropriate filtration and collimation techniques to reduce the scatter of radiation and
focus the X-ray beam on the area of interest.
● Limit the X-ray beam to the smallest possible area necessary to capture the diagnostic
information required, thereby reducing unnecessary radiation exposure.
Quality Assurance and Equipment Maintenance:
● Conduct regular quality assurance checks on X-ray equipment to ensure proper
functioning and optimal image quality.
● Perform routine maintenance and calibration of X-ray machines to prevent malfunctions
and ensure accurate radiation doses.
● Implement a system for monitoring radiation dose levels to ensure compliance with
safety standards and guidelines.
Personnel Training and Education:
● Provide comprehensive training and education to radiology technologists and other
healthcare personnel on radiation safety protocols, proper use of protective equipment,
and safe handling of X-ray equipment.
● Ensure that all personnel who operate X-ray equipment are certified and properly trained
in radiation safety practices.
Patient Screening and Dose Optimization:
● Screen patients for pregnancy and assess the potential risks versus benefits of performing
X-ray examinations, especially for pregnant women and pediatric patients.
● Tailor the radiation dose to the specific clinical indication and patient characteristics,
such as age, size, and body habitus, to minimize unnecessary radiation exposure while
maintaining diagnostic image quality.
Radiation Monitoring and Dosimetry:
● Implement measures for monitoring radiation exposure levels for both patients and
healthcare workers, such as personal dosimeters and environmental monitoring devices.
● Regularly review radiation dose reports and dose indices to identify trends and areas for
optimization in radiation dose management.
Emergency Procedures and Contingency Plans:
● Develop and implement emergency procedures and contingency plans for managing
accidental radiation exposures, equipment malfunctions, or other unforeseen events.
 ● Provide training to staff on emergency response protocols and procedures for evacuating
patients and personnel in the event of a radiation incident.

By implementing these safety precautions, healthcare facilities can minimize the risks associated with X-

ray exposure and ensure the safe and effective use of medical imaging technology for diagnostic

purposes. Additionally, adherence to established safety guidelines and regulations helps protect both

patients and healthcare workers from unnecessary radiation exposure and potential health hazards.

Discuss the potential risks associated with prolonged exposure to X-rays.

Prolonged exposure to X-rays, whether through medical imaging procedures or occupational exposure,

can pose various risks to human health. While X-rays are invaluable tools for diagnosing medical

conditions and treating certain diseases, it's essential to manage and minimize the risks associated with

their use. Here are some potential risks associated with prolonged exposure to X-rays:

Tissue Damage and Radiation Burns: Excessive exposure to X-rays can cause damage to living
tissues, leading to radiation burns, erythema (skin reddening), and other forms of radiation-
induced skin injury. This risk is particularly significant in interventional radiology procedures or
prolonged fluoroscopy examinations where patients or healthcare workers may receive high doses
of radiation.
Increased Cancer Risk: Prolonged or repeated exposure to ionizing radiation, such as X-rays, can
increase the risk of developing cancer over time. Ionizing radiation has the potential to damage
DNA within cells, leading to mutations that may result in cancerous growths. The organs most
susceptible to radiation-induced cancer include the thyroid, breast, lungs, and gastrointestinal
tract.
Genetic Damage: Radiation exposure can cause mutations in germ cells (sperm and eggs), increasing
the risk of hereditary genetic disorders in offspring. This risk is of particular concern for
individuals of reproductive age who undergo frequent or high-dose X-ray examinations.
Cataract Formation: Prolonged exposure to X-rays can increase the risk of developing cataracts, a
clouding of the lens of the eye that impairs vision. The lens of the eye is highly sensitive to
radiation, and cumulative exposure over time can lead to cataract formation, especially in
individuals who work in occupations with significant radiation exposure.
Acute Radiation Syndrome (ARS): In extreme cases of high-dose radiation exposure, such as
accidental radiation incidents or nuclear disasters, individuals may develop acute radiation
syndrome (ARS), a serious illness characterized by symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
and bone marrow suppression. ARS can be life-threatening and requires prompt medical
intervention.
Skin Aging and Premature Aging Effects: Chronic exposure to X-rays can accelerate skin aging and
lead to the premature appearance of wrinkles, skin thinning, and loss of elasticity. These effects
are attributed to the cumulative damage caused by radiation to skin cells and collagen fibers.
 Psychological Effects: Prolonged exposure to X-rays, particularly in medical settings where patients
may undergo numerous imaging procedures, can lead to psychological distress, anxiety, and fear
associated with radiation exposure and potential health risks.

To mitigate these risks, it's essential to adhere to established radiation safety guidelines and protocols,

implement dose optimization strategies, use appropriate shielding and protective equipment, and ensure

proper training and education for healthcare workers involved in the use of X-ray equipment.

Additionally, healthcare providers should carefully weigh the benefits of X-ray examinations against the

potential risks, especially for vulnerable populations such as children, pregnant women, and individuals

with pre-existing health conditions.

Draw and label a block diagram representing the components of an X-ray machine.
Explain the function of each component.
What is the Bucky grid, and how does it impact the quality of X-ray images?
Describe the importance of the power supply in X-ray equipment. How does it influence
the performance of the X-ray tube?
Explain the principles behind storage phosphor technology in digital radiography.
What is the purpose of an X-ray image intensifier tube? How does it enhance image
brightness in fluoroscopy?
Define fluoroscopy and its applications in medical imaging.
How does digital fluoroscopy differ from traditional fluoroscopy? Discuss the
advantages of digital fluoroscopy technology.
Discuss the principle of cine angiography and its applications in capturing dynamic
vascular images.
Compare digital subtraction angiography with traditional angiography techniques.
Explain the importance of mammography in breast cancer screening.

UNIT II COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY

Principles of Tomography
Define the principles of tomography.
Write any two limitations of conventional tomography.
Mention the mechanism of contrast agent.
Give examples for contrast agents.
What is the fundamental principle behind tomography imaging?
In computed tomography (CT), what type of X-ray source movement is commonly used for data
acquisition?
How does the choice of X-ray energy affect image contrast and resolution in tomography?
Explain the principle of computed tomography (CT) scanning and how it differs from traditional
X-ray imaging methods.

CT Generations
Define Attenuation Coefficient in CT.
Explain the components of CT imaging system with neat diagram.

X- Ray sources
List the sources of x-rays.

Collimation
What is collimation in CT imaging and how does it contribute to the quality of CT images?

X- Ray detectors
What is the purpose of anti-scatter grids in X-ray detectors?
What is the primary function of X-ray detectors in medical imaging?
How does dynamic range contribute to the performance of X-ray detectors?
What is the role of pixel size in influencing spatial resolution in X-ray detectors?

Viewing systems
Draw the block diagram of CT image viewing system.

Spiral CT scanning
What distinguishes spiral CT scanning from traditional CT scanning?

Ultra fast CT scanners

Image reconstruction techniques

Back projection and iterative method.