Céfiro Vol 16
Céfiro Vol 16
Céfiro Vol 16
Executive Editors
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Marcus Guilherme Valadares
Design
Jorge A. Hernández Camacho
Faculty Advisor
Sara Guenguerich, Texas Tech University
John Beusterien, Texas Tech University
Brandon Rogers, Texas Tech University
2
Débora Fernandes de Miranda, Pontificia Universidade Católica de Minas Gerais
Leslie Sotomayor, Texas Tech University – Women’s and Gender Studies
Antônio Ladeira, Texas Tech University
Leonor Vázquez-González, University of Montevallo
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CÉFIRO
A JOURNAL OF THE CÉFIRO GRADUATE STUDENT ORGANIZATION
TEXAS TECH UNIVERSITY CMLL M/S 42071
Lubbock, TX 79409-2071
3
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
LITERARY CRITICISM
CREATIVE WRITING
Angela Acosta
Mis tías españolas The Ohio State University
(My Spanish Aunts)
Rubén Galve Rivera
Diario de a bordo I Missouri Southern State University
Dennis González
Tarapacá The University of Texas at El Paso
LITERARY
CRITICISM
On the importance of
Legal History to Afro-Hispanic Linguistics
and Creole Studies 1
Sandro Sessarego
University of Texas at Austin
ABSTRACT: This paper claims that legal history has much to offer to the study of the
Afro-European languages that developed in the Americas. In particular, it is suggested
that a comparative analysis of colonial slave laws may help us better understand
why certain colonies were more conducive to the formation/preservation of creole
languages than others. This study builds on the recently-proposed Legal Hypothesis of
Creole Genesis (Sessarego, 2015, 2017) and, in so doing, it provides data that weaken
the assumptions on which the Afrogenesis Hypothesis was based (McWhorter, 2000).
1. Introduction
The main goal of this paper is to show that Afro-Hispanic linguistics and
creole studies have much to gain from interdisciplinary research. In par-
ticular, I would like to argue that, in order to cast light on the genesis and
evolution of the Afro-European languages that formed in the Americas, it
is of fundamental importance to pay close attention to the sociohistorical
scenarios that characterized the European colonies in the “New World”, and
specifically, to the legal systems that regulated black slavery in such territories.
This is the research philosophy that underlies the Legal Hypothesis
of Creole Genesis (LHCG) (Sessarego, 2015, 2017), a hypothesis I will
present here to address some of the main questions that gravitate around
the so-called “Spanish creole debate” (i.e., the debate concerning the
1 This work was supported by the U.S. National Science Foundation–National Endowment
for the Humanities (Award Number: 2212058, to Sandro Sessarego).
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Sessarego On the importance of
by the available historical and legal data, and, second, show how such
data, on the other hand, do support the LHCG (Sessarego, 2015, 2017).
This study consists of six sections. Section 2 summarizes the main
AH claims and assumptions. Section 3 shows why each of the colonies indi-
cated by the AH as ideal places for Spanish creole formation did not actually
show the suggested sociohistorical characteristics. Section 4 presents the
LHCG and provides a comparative analysis of colonial slave laws to show
that colonial slavery was highly heterogeneous across the Americas. Section
5 tests the LHCG on colonial Chocó, which is the most important region
for McWhorter’s hypothesis as well as a challenging colonial scenario for
the LHCG. In fact, it was a remote department, far away for urban centers
and legal courts, where law could hardly be enforced (Sharp, 1976). Finally,
section 6 summarizes the article and provides my concluding remarks.
In his book, The Missing Spanish Creoles, McWhorter (2000) proposed what
he called the Afrogenesis Hypothesis (AH), the model according to which
all Atlantic and Indian Ocean creoles would have developed out of pidgins
that formed on the western African coast. In his view, the presence of
coastal slave castles in colonial Africa is key to understanding the genesis
and evolution of these contact varieties. The author claims that all French-
based creoles developed out of a single French-based pidgin, which originally
formed in Senegal, on the ˆIle the Bieurt, when the French started their
slave trade activities around 1638 (cf. Delafosse, 1931:111; McWhorter,
2000:173). In a similar way, all English-based creoles would have developed
out of a single English-based pidgin, which formed around 1632 in Ghana,
in the Cormantine Castle (cf. Porter, 1989:128; McWhorter, 2000:111).
The author tries to back his claims by providing linguistic and
sociohistorical data. In particular, he suggests that his model can per-
fectly account for the Spanish creole debate. As his book title suggests,
the absence of Spanish creoles would be the most important piece of
evidence in favor of the AH. Indeed, according to McWhorter, the paucity
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of Spanish creoles in the Americas would be due to the fact that Spain did
not directly trade in African slaves, since it did not have sub- Saharan colo-
nies. For this reason, there were no Spanish slave castles in colonial Africa.
Thus, the lack of Spanish creoles in the Americas would be linked to the
absence of Spanish-based pidgins on the other side of the Atlantic Ocean.
Such a model, according to the author, would explain the non-creoliza-
tion of Spanish in the Americas, in a context in which black slavery is assumed
to be quite homogeneous across the different European colonies. In particular,
McWhorter points out five specific Spanish colonies which, in his view, presented
all the conditions that have been reported in other contexts as factors responsi-
ble for language creolization (i.e., massive introduction of African-born slaves,
big numeric disproportions between blacks and whites, harsh working condi-
tions, etc.). The Spanish-ruled regions characterized by such a scenario would
be: Chota Valley (Ecuador), coastal Venezuela, coastal Peru, Veracruz (Mexico),
and especially the Department of Chocó (Colombia) (McWhorter, 2000:6--12).
The author suggests that the idea according to which creoles existed in those
regions and then, somehow, decreolized and disappeared is not realistic, since
it is difficult to believe that people would “give up” their language so easily and
in so many regions only across Spanish America (McWhorter, 2000:20--30).
TheauthoralsosuggeststhattheexistenceofPapiamentuandPalenquero
can be easily explained if we consider that these two varieties are Spanish creoles
only in a “synchronic sense”, since, from a diachronic perspective, they started
out as Portuguese-based contact varieties, which were then relexified with
Spanish lexicon in a second phase of their evolution (McWhorter, 2000:13--
20). Thus, the AH is based on several sociohistorical and linguistic assumptions:
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3. Was mainland Spanish America the perfect place for creole formation?
During the past few years, several studies have shown that all the places iden-
tified by McWhorter (2000:7) as perfect “breading grounds” for Spanish creole
formation did not actually present the sociohistorical conditions he assumed.
Here is a brief account of what we know about colonial coastal Venezuela,
Chota Valley (Ecuador), coastal Peru, Veracruz (Mexico) and Chocó (Colombia):
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(1)
Ese plan tubo (<estuvo) bien hecho ... pero si el gobierno atiende
(la) lej,
that plan was well done but if the government follows the
law
ba a causá (<causar) gran dolo´ (<dolor).
go to cause big pain
‘That plan was well done, but if the government follows the law it will cause a
lot of pain.’
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This section tackles the second main assumption on which the AH is based, the
idea that slavery in the Americas was quite homogeneous, independently of
the colony. A comparative analysis of colonial slave laws will shed light on this
issue. Such an analysis is the foundation of the LHCG (Sessarego, 2015, 2017),
a hypothesis rooted in the idea that law plays now---in the present---and played
back then---in the past---a central role in the regulation of social dynamics.
The study of colonial slave law can be used as a powerful research
tool to understand how blacks and whites interacted in colonial settings.
The LHCG explores the evolution of slavery, from the rules contained in the
Roman Corpus Juris Civilis (CJC) to the codes and regulations implemented
across the Americas by the different European powers involved in the col-
onization of the ‘‘New World’’. This proposal shows that slavery was highly
heterogeneous, and that the Spanish system was significantly divergent
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Sessarego On the importance of
from the others, since it was the only one that acknowledged slave’s legal
personality. Having legal personality in a certain legal system implies the
possibility of acquiring a series of rights and duties, such as taking part in
civil lawsuits, getting married, entering into contracts, owning property, etc.
The other European systems---in line with the ancient Roman
one---did not acknowledge slaves’ legal personality. Consequently, all the
aforementioned rights were completely absent or highly restricted for
non-Spanish slaves. Thus, the LHCG suggests that due to these differences,
Spanish slaves had more chances to significantly improve their standards
of living, acquire the colonial language and integrate into free society. The
presence of legal personality, and the corollary of rights that came with that,
is probably the most important “piece” to solve the Spanish creole “puzzle”
and to understand the historical reasons behind such a “mysteriously absent
creoles cluster under a single power” (McWhorter, 2000:39). In so doing,
the LHCG offers the basis for a theoretical generalization on the evolution
of the Afro-European languages of the Americas. In addition, this model
provides food for thought on why the only two Spanish creoles found in the
Americas are actually spoken where Spanish law never applied: in Aruba,
Curaçao and Bonaire (Papiamentu), where Dutch law was enforced, and in
San Basilio de Palenque, Colombia (Palenquero), a former maroon village,
where---by definition---the Spanish Crown never managed to impose its rule.
The following subsections will provide an overview of the main
slave laws in colonial Americas (Spanish, English, French, Dutch and
Portuguese) to highlight the heterogeneity of such systems and there-
fore falsifying the second main assumption on which the AH was built.
Spain had slavery since antiquity, it acquired this institution with the
Roman colonization of the Iberian Peninsula. As it is well known, slaves
were common in ancient Rome and race had nothing to do with slavery.
On the other hand, three other main conditions determined one’s cat-
egorization as either a free man or a slave. Human beings, in fact, could
become slaves if they belonged to any of the following categories: (1) war
prisoners, (2) offspring of an enslaved woman, (3) people who had to sell
themselves into slavery (usually to repay a major debt) (Marrone, 2001: ch. 6).
As we stated earlier, slaves had no legal personality. They were
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Watson (1989) stresses that Spanish and English slave laws differed drasti-
cally. The most important reason behind such a divergence had to do with
the fact that England did not receive Roman law in ancient times and, as a
result, slavery did not exist in England before the colonization of the Americas.
The English, therefore, could not rely on a legal heritage like the Spanish did.
Consequently, in order to fill such a legislative gap, “a law on slavery had to be
made from scratch” (Watson, 1989:63). Moreover, the Spanish law-making
machinery was highly centralized. For this reason, the law of the Spanish
colonies was essentially the law made in Madrid, and could only be made
in the colonies by local governors and viceroys with the permission of the
King. On the contrary, the law of the English colonies was, for the most part,
made locally, by the colonists. Thus, English slave law started being created
overseas, over time, mainly by juridical court precedent and by statute.
English slave law, therefore, was not imposed by the motherland;
rather, it was the result of local processes, involving colonial judges and
local authorities. Colonial judges had to create a law on slavery in a context
in which they could not rely on any established slave code. For this reason,
it was common practice to refer to Roman law, and thus to a system that
was comparatively harsher on slaves than the one the Spanish society was
able to elaborate during the course of its medieval history. As for the law
created outside the judicial courts, colonial authorities oftentimes approved
statutes that established even stricter rules on slaves than those originally
stated in the CJC. A key characteristic that differentiated English slave law
from the Roman and the Spanish ones had to do with greater attention paid
by the English legislators to the regulation of the public aspects of slaves’
life. In fact, as I explained in Sessarego (2015, 2017), Roman slave law was
primarily a matter of private law. For this reason, it was up to the master
in Rome to decide how to clothe, employ, educate, punish, etc. a slave. On
the other hand, all those aspects of slaves’ lives tended to be regulated by
statute in the English territories, so that in many instances, a master was not
even allowed to treat his slaves better than what had been established by law.
This stronger emphasis on public law is reflected in the fact that in
most English colonies the local authorities established the types of clothes
the slaves could wear, the types of punishments that had to be inflicted upon
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Sessarego On the importance of
those who did not obey orders (even if the master decided to forgive them),
the prohibition of formal education for blacks, etc. Moreover, since blacks
did not have legal personality, they could not own anything. As a result, they
were not allowed to either buy or sell anything and their masters could not
even decide to donate them any goods. Slaves had to live with their masters,
and could not live anywhere else, not even with their owners’ permission.
Watson (1989) provides extracts from several US statutes on
slavery, showing that, in many states, paying black captives for their work
was absolutely forbidden; they could not receive any peculium, or work a
parcel of land for their own benefit. Since slaves had no legal personality,
they could not sue their masters or any other person. They could not take
part in civil lawsuits, but could be persecuted for criminal actions and
there was a specific legal system that regulated criminal law for slaves.
As far as manumission is concerned, Watson (1989) shows that
becoming a freed black was far more difficult in English America than in
the Spanish colonies. In fact, in some US statutes manumission was not
even an option. In other cases, it was conceded that a slave could become
free, but that would usually happen only with the permission of the
governor, given a good reason. The institution of marriage was not con-
templated for slaves. Slave couples could be separated and their children
sold to different masters. Interracial relations were usually prohibited.
When we compare English slave law to the Spanish one, we can
immediately observe how the absence of legal personality in the former
system deprived English slaves of a set of rights they had in the Spanish-ruled
colonies. Such limitations inevitably affected both the private and the public
spheres of slaves’ lives and, therefore, their possibilities of integration into
colonial society. Such a systematic segregation, in my view, significantly
contributed to the formation and/ or preservation of contact varieties in
English America, which diverged more substantially from their lexifier than
the Afro- Hispanic dialects that formed in the territories under Spanish rule.
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with the public sphere of slavery than Spanish law was. To a certain act of
disobedience corresponded a specific punishment, pre-established by
law, which could not be forgiven by the master. Overall, the set of punish-
ments allowed by French law were more severe than those contemplated
by the Spanish system (Watson, 1989:83--90). Moreover, since slaves
had no legal personality, they could not take their masters to court if they
had been punished too harshly, beyond what was established by law.
Slavery was based on race and race mixing was highly discouraged. A
free person could not marry a slave. If a master had children with his slave,
their offspring would be confiscated by the state and would automatically
become slaves with no possibility of becoming free people in the future
(Watson, 1989:88). Due to the pressure exerted by the church, slaves could get
married---but only if their owners agreed. Married couples and their children
could not be separated and sold as individual tokens, as in the Spanish system.
When we compare the French system to the Spanish one, we can
observe how, overall, the former was stricter on black captives than the
latter. Such regulations more significantly limited slaves’ chances of becom-
ing free people and their possibilities of integration in colonial society.
Roman law was not homogeneously received by all of the United Provinces of
the Netherlands. As a result, certain regions, such as Friesland and Holland,
underwent a more significant Romanization than other regions, such as
Gelderland, Overijssel and Drente. Nevertheless, a legal characteristic that all
the Netherlands Provinces shared was the absence of the institution of slavery,
which was not received from the Roman tradition. In addition, the Dutch col-
onies in the Americas were not directly controlled by the Dutch government;
rather, a private company, the Dutch West India Company, was the ruling
organization in those territories. Since neither the United Provinces of the
Netherlands nor the Dutch West India Company had a legal tradition regulating
slavery, as in the case of France and England, the Dutch had to create a new
system to regulate forced black labor in the overseas colonies. To do so, they also
borrowed directly from the CJC. As a result, the bulk of Dutch slave law con-
sisted of Roman slave law. The Dutch only introduced small modifications to it
through the use of placaaten (local ordinances), which had the goal of addressing
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The problem is that the rules of the Roman law, as they were set out
in the Corpus Juris Civilis and as understood by later scholars, were so
taken for granted that they were not restated. And little of this law
was changed. The placaaten basically added only local police law.
Dutch slaves, therefore, did not have legal personality, they could not
own property or take their masters to court, they could receive a peculium (if the
owner agreed), they could not get married, etc. The placaaten, for the most part,
introduced restrictions on their ability to sell and buy objects, celebrate cere-
monies, wear certain clothes, etc.; thus, they regulated several aspects of their
public life, about which Roman law did not have much to say. Moreover, Dutch
law imposed more constraints on manumission than the CJC did. Indeed,
the Edele Hove van Politie, the local Police Department, had to approve the
master’s application for slave manumission before the slave could be set free.
In summary, as it can be observed, the direct borrowing of Roman
law into the Dutch system implied that the Dutch slave had no legal
personality. Consequently, black captives within the Dutch system did
not enjoy most of the rights Spanish slaves had. Such a difference, in
addition to the further restrictions introduced by the placaaten, signifi-
cantly reduced the slaves’ ability to become free people and the chances
of improving their living conditions to better climb the social ladder.
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Debates concerning whether Spanish slave law “in books” was reflected in the
actual law “in action” are nothing new in the field of American colonial history.
Historian Frank Tannenbaum is probably the most well-known supporter of the
idea that Latin American slavery was significantly less harsh and more likely to lead
to black integration into free society than the other European systems. In fact, this
is the main claim of his well-known book, Slave and Citizen (Tannenbaum, 1947).
This publication generated much debate in the field, and several scholars criti-
cized Tannenbaum’s model by suggesting that his work was exclusively based on
a legalistic approach, which did not pay much attention to archival data and to
the reality of Spanish slavery in colonial society (see, for example, Harris, 1964).
Several historians tried to test Tannenbaum’s hypothesis on different
colonial contexts. Klein (1967), for example, compared the realities of colonial
Cuba and Virginia, and reached the same conclusions that Tannenbaum proposed
(cf. Harris’ 1970 review of his book). Another historian who tested Tannenbaum’s
model is William Sharp, who decided to pick one of the most remote regions of
Latin America, a region “on the frontier” as he would say, to see to what extent
Tannenbaum’s legalistic proposal would apply to a place in which law could hardly
be enforced during the colonial period, the Department of Chocó, Colombia.
Sharp (1976) wrote an entire book on Chocó slavery, Slavery on the Spanish
Frontier: The Colombian Choco´ 1680-- 1810, and dedicated a whole chapter to
understanding to what extent ‘‘law in books’’ diverged from “law in action” in the
region (cf. Pound, 1910). The chapter is entitled “Slavery in Chocó: Law and Reality”.
After paying close attention to archival data, including local records
for manumissions, marriages, last wills, slave treatment manuals provided
by the owners to the local slave gang administrators, inventories, etc.,
Sharp (1976) concluded that, even though law could not be enforced in
the region, all the basic rights proceeding from the notion of slave’s legal
personality were essentially present in colonial Chocó: slave abuse was not
common (1976:136), slaves received systematic Christian education on a
daily basis (1976:139), marriage was supported, and family units preserved
(1976:140), slaves worked an average of 260 days a year, they received time
off to work on their own and feed their families (that was conceived as a sort
of peculium) (1976:134); since the region was rich in gold, slaves were often
able to accumulate capital and pay for their own manumission (1976:135).
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The LHCG builds on historical and legal data to offer a new per-
spective for understanding the genesis and evolution of the Afro-European
languages in the Americas. This hypothesis does not presume to be the
answer to all the questions that gravitate around the development of these
contact varieties. On the other hand, it acknowledges that several other
factors, besides the legal one, played a key role in shaping the Afro-European
languages that formed in the “New World” (i.e. demographic, economic,
political, etc.). Nevertheless, this model identifies an element that had never
been analyzed in relation to the evolution of these contact varieties, which
clearly differentiates the Spanish colonies from any other colonial setting
(i.e., presence vs. absence of slaves’ legal personality). Thus, it offers a rea-
sonable generalization that helps us cast light on the Spanish creole debate.
6. Conclusion
This paper has provided a legal perspective on the evolution of the Afro-
European languages of the Americas. It stressed the importance of legal
history to understand the social dynamics behind the processes of language
formation in colonial times. In so doing, this study challenged two main
assumptions on which the AH (McWhorter, 2000) was built: (1) mainland
Spanish America presented the perfect conditions for Spanish creole for-
mation; (2) slavery in the Americas was a quite homogeneous phenomenon.
The sociohistorical evidence provided indicates that
assumptions 1 and 2 are not right. On the contrary, the
collected information backs the LHCG (Sessarego, 2015, 2017), which
sees comparative legal analysis as a powerful research tool to cast light
on the reasons behind the paucity of Spanish creoles in the Americas.
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References
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30
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31
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Sessarego, S., 2018. Enhancing dialogue in the field: some remarks on the
status of the Spanish creole debate. J. Pidgin Creole lang. 33 (2),
197-203.
Sessarego, S., Afro-Veracruz Spanish: African Diaspora and Creole Genesis.
Ms. University of Texas at Austin, (in preparation).
Sessarego, S., Language Contact and the Making of an Afro-Hispanic
Vernacular: Variation and Change in the Colombian Chocó.
Ms. University of Texas at Austin, (submitted for publication).
Sharp, F., 1976. Slavery on the Spanish Frontier. University of Oklahoma
Press, Norman.
Tannenbaum, F., 1947. Slave and Citizen. Vintage Books, New York.
Watson, A., 1989. Slave Law in the Americas. The University of
Georgia Press, Athens.
Winks, R. (Ed.), 1972. Slavery: A Comparative Perspective. New York
University Press, New York.
32
Céfiro
Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
and La Coatlicue:
A Nepantlera Walking the Path of the Snake
Marco Cerqueira
Washington State University
I wrote this counter storytelling through the lenses of Critical Race Theory
(CRT) to interrogate and deconstruct master narratives that explain
why racism connected with gender and class oppression is a structure
of power against people of color all over the world, but specifically in
the United States of America (Brayboy, 2006, Alim, Ball, and Rickford,
2016, Alemán, Bernal, and Mendoza, 2013, Lynn, and Dixson, 2013).
Brayboy (2006) points out that CRT values lived experiences or
“experiential knowledge to inform thinking and research. As a result,
narrative accounts (...) are valued as key sources of data by CRT schol-
ars” (Brayboy, 2006, p. 428). For that reason, counter storytelling
from the perspective of Critical Race Theory is activist in nature and
committed to social justice to denounce racism, sexism, and poverty.
Nepantlera
Nepantla is a Náhuatl word for the space between two bodies of water,
the space between two worlds. It is a limited space, a space where
35
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
you are not this or that but where you are changing… It is very awk-
ward, uncomfortable, and frustrating to be in that Nepantla because
you are in the midst of transformation (Anzaldúa, 1987, p. 237).
36
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
37
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
38
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
On my third day in Brazil, I met my friend from Porto Alegre in Praia do Forte.
I met El Gaucho, o rapaz alegre.
DJ playing Brazilian artists in the bourgeois lounge:
“Onde você está as coisas são mais lindas…” [Things are prettier around you…”]
The sun is going down. “And you said something that I’ve never forgotten”,
PJ Harvey singing on my mind.
We embraced trees embracing the stars in Imbassaí.
And you said: “since immemorial times the sea sings this way…”
And I, like a little boy, cited Nando Reis:
“Quando a gente fica em frente ao mar, a gente se sente melhoooor…”
[“When we are in front of the sea, we feel betteeeer…”]
We almost saw the sun rise, hugging each other.
You said that you were a vampire, but I see Goddess in you.
But you are also a vampire. LOL
Negx Lindx!
Your eyes rainbow from the Mermaid’s House.
I said goodbye to you from there that night that rained, Llorona!
My eyes, sea…
Dancing and balancing with you in the Cortejo Afro concert that night.
I fell for you.
I flew to Mexico City in the night of Réveillon with the sea beneath my eyes.
We toasted the New Year’s Eve with prosecco above the Caribbean Sea.
After that I had the worst nightmare of my life!
I don’t even remember it anymore!
But my horrified scream woke up the entire airplane.
React, playa!
In the Museo Nacional de Antropología I saw Mesoamerican turtles.
And you showed me the autopsy of a dead turtle in Praia do Forte.
Wherever I walk I see little turtles like the ones in that video that you
posted in your Instagram.
Happy 2020! Happy 69 with you.
In the Museo de Arte Moderno I met Cida.
The “Two Fridas” and the Naturaleza muerta con sandías [Still nature with
watermelons] inviting us to lick them.
“I want to wake you up licking you”, I told you.
And you asked me to do it every day.
39
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
40
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
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Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
“The muxes in Oaxaca, the drag queens in the DF and the artist Fabián
Cháirez embody the art of resistance against the machismo that
still prevails in the world. “Art must challenge and be transgressive
or it is not art”, said the drag queen Superperra in the book “Dragas
en rebeldía” [Drag queens in rebellion]. I met Superperra in the bar
El Marrakech in the DF when the book was launched in January
2020. This retablito is for you, Oswaldo Calderón (1973-2020).”
They said that they are not daughters of Ru Paul, even though they
acknowledge Paul’s legacy.
Las dragas are so punk!
In his dedication, Marquet invited me to be a rebel.
I think I’m a queer rebel queen.
42
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
Venus Non-Binary,
In Tlili, In Tlapalli.
Written within my heart.
My heart within their heart.
In Xochitl, In Cuicatl.
In the flower, the song.
This is a flowery love song.
Pelé and Rivelino, you and I, were the best ballgame players in Tenochtitlan
Mexico City
We played in the name of Quetzalcóatl.
We wanted to fly with the deity of the wind to Tlilan Tlapallan.
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Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
Or did he win?
In Tlili, In Tlapalli.
Written within my heart.
My heart within their heart.
In Xochitl, In Cuicatl.
In the flower, the song.
This is a flowery love song.
44
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
45
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
Works Cited
46
Cerqueira Abrazando Quetzalcóatl
47
Literatura brasileira,
decolonialidade e educação antirracista
ABSTRACT: This paper discusses didactic paths of Brazilian literature from the
perspective of “decoloniality” (Bernardino-Costa e Grosfoguel). To this end, we
observed the role that the social and historical structure from the 19th century to
the 21st century had in the production and reception of literary works produced by
blacks and mestizo from Brazil. We parallel the action of the policies of the Brazilian
State to create an anti-racist agenda within school institutions and how the reading
of the discourses of some literary texts can favor the anti-racist struggle or, on the
other hand, contribute negatively to “epistemicide”— “epistemicídio” (Carneiro)—
and the erasing of the identities of artists and/or “consumers” of literary art,
especially students from Brazilian elementary schools. To this do, we briefly discuss
the reorganization of the space occupied in Brazilian literature by Gonçalves Dias
(1823-1864), mainly due to his (re)discovery work Meditation (1845-1846), as well
as some didactic possibilities that may favor an anti-racist education in the works of
Machado de Assis (1839-1908), Racionais MC’s (1988-) and Mel Duarte (1988-).
Introdução
Nest artigo, discuto o modo como as provas do Exame Nacional do Ensino Médio
(Enem) e de outros processos seletivos, como Comvest/UNICAMP e Vunesp/
UNESP, moldam parte da perspectiva dos estudantes da educação básica no
Brasil sobre as questões raciais. Para tal, apresento a relevância do vestibular
na formação desses estudantes e discuto o modo como as leituras sugeridas
transformam-se em questões nos exames vestibulares que pouco contribuem
para o enfrentamento da problemática racial. Nesse sentido, discuto algumas
escolhas de questões e sugiro possibilidades de modificação e alinhamento do
exame vestibular com a formação dos estudantes no contexto da educação
básica brasileira. De modo mais amplo, concluo apontando para a especifici-
dade do epistemicídio relacionado às mulheres negras na literatura brasileira.
Com a promulgação das leis n° 10.639/03 e n° 11.645/08, que
alteraram a Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educação Nacional para incluir a
obrigatoriedade das temáticas História e Cultura Afro-Brasileira e História
e Cultura Afro-Brasileira e Indígena, respectivamente, nos estabelecimentos
de ensino fundamental e médio, a instituição Escola viu-se “obrigada” a tratar
de uma parte fundamental, mas marginalizada, da formação da sociedade
brasileira: a contribuição dos negros na formação cultural livresca brasileira.
Em nosso caso, acreditamos que o fato de as leis citadas
“obrigarem” o ensino da cultura afro-brasileira pouco efeito traria se
os vestibulares não adotassem, como parte integrante das provas,
textos que abordassem a temática negra e indígena, visto que
51
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
52
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Com este título lapidar Can the subaltern speak? (Pode o subalterno falar?), a
analista Gayatri Spivak (1988) trouxe à tona uma questão que no Brasil ainda
ecoa: quem é que pode falar dos negros, no Brasil? Os brancos, com seu olhar
“exterior”, ou os negros, de sua “interioridade”? Não há resposta fácil aqui,
mas, em outros momentos, já concluímos que representantes da cultura negra
brasileira, como os Racionais Mc’s, por exemplo, cujos textos constam em
diversas provas vestibulares como Enem 2017 e UNICAMP/Comvest 2020,
2021 e 2023, fogem ao estereótipo do negro com baixa capacidade intelec-
tual, estereótipo que “ainda assim, subjaz ao modo como suas obras foram
analisadas pelas instâncias da cultura predominante” (Saldanha da Silva 12).
Dessa forma, de uma perspectiva multicultural, seria mais importante
que os brancos não tivessem mais o monopólio das opiniões, ao mesmo tempo,
seria fundamental que os negros deixassem a posição “subalterna” de objeto de
análise para assumirem a posição de construtores de agenda analítica. Nesse
sentido, soam como bastante problemáticas algumas opções que os vestibulares
fizeram ao eleger como alvo de suas avaliações autores negristas. Não que não
haja valor em suas obras, pelo contrário, mas porque o negrismo tem como
centro de suas heterogêneas produções um discurso afetado, estereotipado,
ainda que cheio de denúncias, e quase sempre enunciado por uma elite branca
que se coloca como porta-voz das dores e das mazelas dos pretos e das pretas
e reporta-as a um público também majoritariamente branco e da mesma elite.
Exemplo lapidar dessa relação entre brancos cujo assunto são os pretos
é o uso do conto “Negrinha”, publicado em 1920 por Monteiro Lobato, no Enem
20101. Na questão da prova, utilizam-se os primeiros parágrafos do conto,
momento em que o narrador descreve pejorativamente as características de
Negrinha, e descreve a dona da casa em que Negrinha vive, a Dona Inácia.
O comando da questão versa o seguinte: “A narrativa focaliza um momento
histórico-social de valores contraditórios. Essa contradição infere-se, no
contexto, pela...”. O item que melhor responde ao comando é o item D: “resistên-
cia da senhora em aceitar a liberdade dos negros, evidenciada no final do texto”.
53
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Ora, não se espera que questões como essas, “apenas” por terem
sido produzidas a partir de textos feitos por pessoas brancas sejam questões
retiradas dos processos seletivos. O problema está no fato de que os
exames vestibulares buscavam, até então, quase que unicamente textos em
que os negros eram apenas retratados pelos brancos, nunca sendo os(as)
escritores(as), nem também sendo os protagonistas dos textos. Levando
essas escolhas dos exames avaliativos para dentro do trabalho pedagógico
em sala de aula, isso quer dizer que ainda que seja possível promover uma
discussão sobre os “valores contraditórios” sociais brasileiros, a chave de
interpretação mantém os sujeitos negros na condição subalternizada.
Quanto ao protagonismo negro nos textos literários, a pesquisa
de Regina Dalcastagnè sobre a personagem em romances brasile-
iros publicados entre 1990 e 2004 é indiscutível sobre o assunto:
“A personagem do romance brasileiro contemporâneo é branca. [...]
Os brancos não apenas compõem a ampla maioria das personagens
identificadas no corpus; eles quase monopolizam as posições de maior vis-
ibilidade e de voz própria.” (44-46). O que se confirma nos dados a seguir:
54
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
55
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Elaboração do autor.
Fonte: O tenso enegrecimento do cinema brasileiro nos últimos 30 anos, p. 92-101.
In: https://journals.openedition.org/cinelatino/4185#text.
Decolonialidade e epistemicídio
56
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
57
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Figura 1: Possível última fotografia de Machado de Assis que mostra sua cor de pele: negra.
Foto publicada na Revista Caras y Caretas, da Argentina, 1908, p. 80.
Fonte: Biblioteca Nacional de Espanha:
In: http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0004253465&search=&lang=es
58
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
59
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
60
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
61
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
62
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Elaboração do autor
Fonte: https://documento.vunesp.com.br/documento/stream/Mjc5MTE1
diria Gilberto Freyre, mas ele é naturalmente branco.” (Araújo); b) ou, mesmo
na visão progressista de autores como Florestan Fernandes, Octávio Ianni
e Celso Furtado, é o negro que foi incapaz de tornar-se cidadão dentro das
bases capitalistas e democráticas, visto que “a experiência deformadora
da escravidão [...] criou uma ‘massa desagregada, inerte, inculta’, e fez do
elemento negro um ser indolente, incapaz de competir com os imigrantes
brancos em uma sociedade nova, moderna, industrial e de classe.” (Araújo).
A forma como a Escola pode lidar com este esquemas de pensar
as pessoas negras e revitalizar seu lugar dentro da sociedade é, além de
realmente se debruçar sobre a temática racial nos textos clássicos, indicar
como leitura também os textos mais recentes, cujos autores e autores e
63
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
64
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Cremos que perguntas como essas seriam muito mais eficientes para
o verdadeiro desenvolvimento de uma educação significativa na luta antir-
racismo. Isso porque abririam a possibilidade de pensar a obra literária como um
continuum social, ao mesmo tempo em que, com a condução docente, poderiam
significar o entendimento dos lugares sócio discursivos que são ocupados por
determinados sujeitos e como estes lugares interferem no olhar constituído
sobre a própria sociedade e em relação a ela, isto é, uma reação ao status quo.
65
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
66
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Considerações finais
A instituição de uma lei não tem, sozinha, o poder de mudar uma cultura.
Por isso é que devemos louvar a promulgação das leis n° 10.639/03 e n°
11.645/08, mas, ao mesmo tempo, devemos tanto insistir que a atuação do
67
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
Works Cited
68
Saldanha da Silva Literatura brasileira
69
Enriqueta Vasquez y el concepto
de la “raza”
Una lectura diacrónica de sus publicaciones
en El Grito del Norte
Alessio Piras
The University of New Mexico
ABSTRACT: Entre 1968 y 1973 Enriqueta Vasquez publicó una serie de artículos
en El Grito del Norte, periódico independiente del movimiento chicano. Algunos
de ellos han sido recopilados y publicados en Writings from El Grito del Norte
(Arte Público Press, 2006). El volumen ordena los textos de Enriqueta Vasquez
alrededor de algunos ejes temáticos, independientemente de la fecha de publi-
cación. En esta comunicación nos proponemos dar una lectura cronológica de los
artículos recopilados, con el objetivo de evidenciar la evolución del pensamiento
de Vasquez en relación con dos ejes temáticos: la raza como marco identitario
nacional chicano y el rol de la mujer chicana en el Movimiento. El punto de partida
metodológico de esta investigación son algunos de los textos base del Movimiento
Chicano, como Yo soy Joaquín (1967) y El plan espiritual de Aztlán (1969). De
igual importancia será la lectura de escritos más recientes como los de Rudolfo
Anaya y Rafael Pérez-Torres. La lectura cronológica de los textos de Vasquez
constituirá un primer acercamiento crítico al volumen, que abrirá las puertas a
una clave interpretativa alternativa con respecto a la temática sugerida por el
libro. Gracias a esta perspectiva diacrónica, se observará cómo Vasquez reelabora
el concepto de la raza en clave feminista. Finalmente, será posible individuar
aquellos momentos clave en la historia del Movimiento Chicano que han funcio-
nado también como puntos de inflexión en el pensamiento de Enriqueta Vasquez.
Palabras preliminares
73
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
74
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
2
thought: the basic historical writings, Routledge, 1997; Vicki L. Ruiz y Virginia Sánchez
(ed.), Latinas in the United States: a historical encyclopedia, Indiana UP, 2003. 2 El marco
ideológico de la Raza procede directamente desde el muy reconocido libro de José Vascon-
celos, La raza cósmica. 16th ed. Espasa-Calpe Mexicana, 1996. A pesar de que Vasconce-
los no hable directamente de México, sino que se centre en Argentina y Brasil, las consid-
eraciones generales que aporta sobre la América de lengua española han sido reinterpretadas
y adaptadas al caso del país norte-centro americano: “(…) lo que de allí va a salir es la raza
definitiva, la raza síntesis o raza integral, hecha con el genio y con la sangre de todos los
pueblos y, por lo mismo, más capaz de verdadera fraternidad y de visión realmente uni-
versal” (30). La raza cósmica, publicado en 1925 por vez primera, ha servido para forjar la
identidad nacional mexicana en época posrevolucionaria y asentar el ideal del mestizaje.
75
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
3 La raza postulada por el movimiento chicano es, a todos los efectos, una trasliteración
del discurso identitario mexicano. 3 Véase en este sentido el trabajo del genetista ital-
iano Luigi Luca Cavalli Sforza, Genes, people, and languages, North Point Press, 2000
76
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
77
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
4 En los años en que Enriqueta Vasquez está escribiendo en El Grito del Norte, el legislador
americano escribe el Equal Rights Amendment, aprobado por la Cámara de Representantes en
1971 y por el Senado en 1972. La enmienda, que equiparaba los derechos entre hombres y mu-
jeres, fue curiosamente apoyada y hostigada por dos grupos de mujeres. El de apoyo se verte-
braba alrededor del equipo de redacción de la revista feminista Ms, y el hostil creció alrededor
de la actividad de la conservadora Mrs Schlalfy. La enmienda no pudo ser ratificada por todos
los estados de la Unión y, finalmente, no fue integrada en la Constitución de los EE. UU. Con-
temporáneamente, la futura juez del Tribunal Supremo Ruth Baker Ginsburg llevaba a cabo
batallas legales muy similares en los tribunales para que los hombres pudiesen cuidar de sus fa-
miliares con el mismo amparo legal que las mujeres. Es decir, combatía la evidente desigualdad
desde otro punto de vista, a demostración de la inclusividad de las instancias más altas del fem-
inismo. La misma Ginsburg escribió un claro apoyo al ERA en 1973 (“The Need for the Equal
Rights Amendment”. American Bar Association Journal, vol 59, no3, 1013-1019). A pesar de no
obtener la ratificación del ERA, el movimiento en su favor pudo romper numerosos techos de
cristal, el más importante de los cuales fue, probablemente, la elección de la primera mujer de
color, Shirley Chisholm, como Representante en 1969, cargo que pudo mantener hasta 1983.
5 Sobre el protonacionalismo véase Eric J. Hobsbawm, “Popular Proto-Nationalism”.
Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, and Reality, Cambridge UP, 1990.
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Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
6 En Vasquez (2006) el artículo abre la colección. Sin embargo tiene como título
“Discriminación”, está sin fecha y no hay una nota que aderece al lector y dé una explicación.
Para poder demostrar que se tratara del original “¡Despierten hermanos!” ha sido necesario
consultar directamente el número 1 de El Grito del Norte, publicado el 24 de agosto de 1968.
79
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
80
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
81
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
8 La versión en castellano que citamos se ha publicado unos meses más tarde, el 11 de febrero de
1970
82
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
83
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
9 Se trata de una batalla legal que el movimiento chicano seguía llevando en la época en
que se escribían estas palabras y que radica en el polémico tratado de Guadalupe-Hidal-
go y en la legislación siguiente del Congreso de EE. UU. La literatura del Southwest se ocupó
desde el principio de esta cuestión, que no deja de ser una de las muchas heridas abiertas
de esta parte de los Estados Unidos. Uno de los ejemplos más importantes, también por
el eficaz empleo de estrategias narrativas de la novela realista de su época, es The Squat-
ter and the Don, de María Amparo Ruíz de Burton, publicado por primera vez en 1885.
84
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
10
Esta idea Vasquez la refuerza también unos meses más tarde en “La Santa Tierra” al af-
rimar que: “La Raza is a Mestizo nation. Our Spanish blood predates 300 years in Las Améri-
cas; our Indian blood predates 25,000 years and we are the Mestizo nation of Aztlán” (56).
11
Este es particularmente evidente en un artículo del 30 de marzo de 1971, “La historia
del Mestizo”, escrito directamente en español, en el que la autora intenta trazar una histo-
ria del indio en diferentes zona del Norte y Centro América y que tengan en común el haber
sido o ser en la actualidad territorios mexicanos: “Que reconocemos ser mexicanos mu-
chas veces es porque nuestra nacionalidad fue realmente mexicana, declarada por la con-
quista del español, y también tenemos relaciones en común con México (…). Así es que se
puede decir que nuestra relación es fuerte espiritual y culturalmente. Ahora estamos pen-
sando y hablando de gente, no de bordes [fronteras], sino de lengua, cultura y espíritu” (68).
85
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
Her strength is lost to her people” (Vasquez 132). Hay que leer este extracto
dentro de una lógica de luchas conectadas entre ellas: la nacional chicana, la de
la clase trabajadora, la feminista. Lo que intenta conjugar Enriqueta Vasquez es
una conciencia de la mujer que no permita a ninguna de estas luchas prevalecer
sobre la otra. El equilibrio buscado por la autora debería dar lugar a una causa
que pueda mantener cohesionadas estos tres ejes. La acusación de traición
movida por Enriqueta Vasquez, sin embargo, parece retornar, criticada, años
más tardes en las palabras que Cherrie Moraga escribe en Loving in the War
Years: “The potential accusation of ‘traitor’ or ‘vendida’ is what hangs above
the heads and beats in the hearts of most Chicanas seeking to develop our own
autonomous sense of ourselves, particularly through sexuality” (Vasquez 95).
No obstante, al margen de cualquier disputa interna y de la evolución del
feminismo chicano a partir de la segunda mitad de los años 70 y particularmente
en los 80, es necesario reconocer que la visión feminista de Enriqueta Vasquez
no era excluyente. De hecho, en noviembre de 1972 participa en el Third World
Women’s Conference de San Anselmo, California. A raíz de este evento publica un
artículo en el mismo mes titutalo “Third World Women Meet”, en el que da cuenta
de la importancia que tiene el hecho de que todas las color women se unan en la lucha
de liberación. Asimismo, en esta ocasión Vasquez ensancha el concepto de raza
cósmica a todas las mujeres del tercer mundo, confiriéndole un matiz universal.
Conclusiones
Desde un punto de vista formal y general, cada uno de los artículos de Enriqueta
Vasquez representan una llamada a la acción. Esto se desprende ya desde el
mismo título de su columna en El Grito del Norte, ¡Despierten hermanos! Este
elemento predomina sobre el elemento informativo y el narrativo que, sin
embargo, están presentes. Asimismo, abundan las invitaciones directas que
la autora hace para animar su comunidad lectora a actuar: en la educación de
los hijos, en la cuestión de la tierra, en la igualdad entre hombres y mujeres
en la familia, etc. El intento de Vasquez es el de hacer de intermediario entre
las capas más altas del movimiento y sus lectores. Esto es particularmente
evidente en los artículos que siguieron las dos conferencias de Denver. En ellos,
Vasquez resume los puntos más importantes de las dos convenciones y asume
el papel de portavoz de los puntos programáticos del movimiento chicano.
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Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
Del mismo modo actúa cuando se dirige a las chicanas, llamándolas a una
acción precisa de empoderamiento dentro de la familia chicana, concepto que
Vasquez reelabora y encaja en el de la “raza”. A pesar de que El Grito del Norte
en ningún momento renuncia a su independencia como periódico, en estos
frangentes las columnas de la autora asumen las características de un órgano
oficial del movimiento. Por lo tanto, la autora se convierte de activista a intelec-
tual orgánico al movimiento chicano y, en particular, a las mujeres chicanas.
Desde la lectura cronológica del corpus emerge que, en el
comienzo, su perspectiva no se centraba únicamente en los prob-
lemas relacionados con el pueblo chicano. Su enfoque era más general,
movido por un interés de clase, y solo en un segundo momento bajaba al
particular de la situación del suroeste de EE. UU. Sus dianas en las prim-
eras entregas eran la justicia y la exclusión social, el racismo y la pobreza.
Asimismo, podemos apreciar una clara evolución de las ideas de la autora
con, por lo menos, tres puntos de inflexión evidentes, que son los congresos
de Denver de 1969 y 1970, y el congreso de Houston de 1971. Es a partir de la
primavera de 1969, pues, que las temáticas de los artículos de la autora se verán
cada vez más enfocados en la causa chicana, sin por ello ignorar cuestiones
internacionales, como es el ejemplo de Cuba. Particularmente interesante es
la manera en que Enriqueta Vasquez abre la puerta a la discusión feminista
dentro del movimiento chicano, elevando la causa de la mujer al mismo rango
que la causa nacional. De igual manera, se aprecia un progresivo acercamiento y
encaje del feminismo chicano en el feminismo de las mujeres del tercer mundo.
Este elemento sitúa Enrique Vasquez en un espacio preciso y bien identificado
de los movimientos sociales de su época. Por lo tanto, hay que reconocer a la
autora el mérito de haber abierto la puerta de una discusión que ha permitido
el comienzo de un proceso de empoderamiento de la mujer chicana que, en
los años 80, gracias a la labor de Gloria Anzaldúa y Cherrie Moraga, puso al
día el feminismo chicano dentro de los movimientos feministas. El que dio
Vasquez fue quizás un primer paso para la emancipación de la mujer, pero
fue necesario e importante. Y seguramente la columnista de El Grito del Norte
tenía razón en afirmar que el punto de partida de la lucha por la igualdad entre
hombres y mujeres tenía que ser el lugar donde empieza la discriminación, es
decir la casa, la familia, el hogar. De esta manera, el concepto de Raza adquiere
mayor inclusividad al incluir la mujer en los procesos de empoderamiento
de la nación chicana en condiciones de igualdad con respecto al hombre.
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Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
88
Piras Enriqueta Vasquez
Works Cited
89
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90
Céfiro
La ciudad como signo ideológico
en dos novelas neopoliciales de Paco Ignacio Taibo II
Rodrigo Figueroa O
New Mexico State University
Keyword: Neopolicial, Paco Ignacio Taibo II, geocrítica, Ciudad de México, violencia.
El debate sobre si la ciudad puede ser tratada como un signo capaz de decodificación
(como el lingüístico, por ejemplo) es más bien nutrido y álgido. En este trabajo se
pretende analizar la ciudad como un signo social que participa de dos realidades
a la vez: por un lado, el referente extra-textual de la Ciudad de México y, por otro,
la Ciudad de México entendida como un signo textual dentro de dos novelas de
Paco Ignacio Taibo II. Esta conjunción entre realidades textual y extra-textual
nos permite entender a la ciudad mediada siempre por un sistema de signos
interrelacionados y, por lo tanto, hacerla capaz de generar sentido. La ciudad:
En este sentido, son los sujetos (o los personajes en relación con la novela)
los que semantizan la ciudad y la convierten en un objeto capaz de ser decod-
ificado. Si esta ciudad es literaria, es decir, ha sido tamizada por un doble
proceso de codificación (el extra-textual y el textual), es indudable su condi-
ción de signo. La ciudad física tiene al urbanista (contratado por el Estado), a
las empresas privadas y a los grupos ciudadanos como emisores (Gottdiener
229), mientras que la literaria tiene al narrador. Es importante recalcar que:
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Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
94
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
En este mapa se puede situar los puntos más importantes de Días de combate:
95
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
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Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
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Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
nada se relacionan con otros espacios y, por el contrario, los tiñen con estig-
mas sociales que reproducen la fragmentación urbana (Bayón y Saraví 49).
Partiendo de la idea de que “toda actuación social responde a rel-
aciones de poder entre los distintos agentes interesados en intervenir de
acuerdo con sus intereses” (Sánchez 32), no se puede dejar de pensar que:
Y esto parece ser cierto, pero habría que darle ciertos matices. Hay que difer-
enciar entre historia y diégesis, pues ésta pertenece al ramo de la ficción. Esta
diferencia la tiene muy clara Paco Ignacio Taibo II al afirmar en una “Nota del
autor” a No habrá final feliz que “evidentemente, la historia [la diégesis] y los
nombres que se manejan en esta novela pertenecen al reino de la ficción. El país,
sin embargo, aunque cuesta trabajo creerlo, es absolutamente real” (Taibo 401).
Podemos también cuestionar el que se diga que el país (o en este caso la ciudad)
“es absolutamente real”. Pero al hablar de que la historia es ficción, que no es otra
cosa que diégesis, el autor permite oponerse a la idea de que Paco Ignacio Taibo
II está reescribiendo la historia. La ciudad, por otro lado, y como mencionamos
al principio, es real como referente extra-textual, pero es también una creación
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Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
lingüística dentro de las novelas. Así, en Días de combate el crimen que se averi-
gua no es de índole histórica ni social (a primera vista, aunque hay un subtexto
ideológico, como se pretende probar), a diferencia de No habrá final feliz, que sí
tiene referencias a la historia de México (o del Distrito Federal, para ser más pre-
cisos, porque se excluyó por completo las referencias al origen del conflicto en
el estado de Nuevo León), pero que termina por ficcionalizarse en gran medida.
Así, parece más bien que Taibo II no pretende reescribir la historia de
México, sino que el personaje recupere el territorio del Distrito Federal de aquel-
las fuerzas que lo quieren hacer exclusivo por medio de la violencia y los agentes
paraestatales. Recuérdese que en la Ciudad de México real existen de facto las
calles privadas, a pesar de que lo prohíbe el Artículo 11º de la Constitución
Mexicana. Héctor Belascoarán surge del subterráneo para hacer explotar las
oficinas de los Halcones, recorre la Ciudad de este a oeste para matar a Cerevro.
Dice Pírez que “para analizar a lo metropolitano en una perspectiva
política, parece necesario identificar en primer lugar los focos de toma de
decisiones (núcleos de autoridad) y en segundo lugar los actores que definen
las relaciones metropolitanas” (93); sin embargo, estos focos no se ven en
ningún momento en las novelas. Sabemos que Belascoarán vive a dos kilómet-
ros y medio de la Residencia Oficial de Los Pinos (y el Metro Juanacatlán,
donde están los Halcones, justo a la mitad de distancia entre el detective y el
Presidente), pero esta asociación geográfica está apenas sugerida para quien
conoce el entramado urbano. De ahí el caos y la ausencia de gobernabilidad:
“un área metropolitana fragmentada es una realidad descentralizada sin
centro. Ausencia de centro percibida como razón de problemas en la gestión
y de dificultades para resolver las cuestiones urbanas metropolitanas” (Pírez
92). De ahí que Belascoarán Shayne se presente como centro, en el Centro,
para recuperar la Ciudad de sus fragmentaciones y de las fuerzas que quieren
excluir (en el caso de las novelas, matar) a los demás actores sociales. De ahí que:
99
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
100
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
101
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
102
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
103
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
absence of a trace as a form of a trace” (Detective 38). Estas pistas que deja el
criminal son la Ciudad misma. Si se observa el mapa de la Imagen 1, se puede
ver que, relacionando los puntos que se habían mostrado ya en la novela, se
puede rastrear con facilidad la casa de Márquez Thiess; de igual forma, entre
la casa de Belascoarán y la casa del Presidente están los Halcones. Estas pistas
no las pudo leer el detective. Observó los objetos y no las relaciones entre
ellos. Así, la labor de Beloscoarán ante la ciudad no llega al término idóneo,
pues su función es “to dissolve the impass of this universalized, free-float-
ing guilt by localizing it in a single subject and thus exculpating all others”
(Žižek, Detective 39). Belascoarán apunta a unos culpables, pero no parece
saber quiénes son los culpables. Cuando menos, no sabe a quién apresar o
matar para terminar con la jerarquización de la ciudad. Este descubrimiento:
104
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
lo recalca), pero no porque sean opuestos, sino porque son similares; Héctor fue
un capataz, nadie hizo nada para vengar las muertes en Tlatelolco, la violencia
de la Revolución generó caciques que hundieron al país. La población continuó
viviendo, con el trauma histórico bien enterrado en las entrañas de la Ciudad, en
sus divisiones, jerarquizaciones, en la Plaza de las Tres Culturas. Héctor fue un
capataz al servicio del sistema. Como detective nunca pudo encontrar el rostro
del culpable, el chivo expiatorio que nos librara a todos. Héctor no combatió al
sistema, sino que se metió en su laberinto, encontró a los monstruos y murió,
pero nunca se dio cuenta que el monstruo éramos todos, era la ciudad aún
ensangrentada y hubo de pagar con su vida su desconocimiento. Belascoarán
no encuentra al minotauro en el laberinto: “the metro had taught that one
can always change lines and stations, and the fact that if one can’t escape the
labyrinth of the network, it at least offers some beautiful detours” (Augé 71).
Belascoarán no encuentra en las entrañas de la ciudad estos “hermosas desvia-
ciones”, sino la sangre que históricamente se ha acumulado, que se va aguando
solamente con la lluvia que cae cuando él muere. Termina por ser él mismo el
chivo expiatorio y sin llegar a buen destino, por lo que “no habrá final feliz”.
105
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
Works Cited
106
Figueroa La ciudad como signo ideológico
107
A Spectral Reading
of the Paxp’aku in Cuando Sara Chura despierte
Varun Biddanda
Georgetown University
111
Biddanda A Spectral Reading
categorization, there exist a handful of traits that alert one to the trickster’s
telltale ontology. The American folklorist William Hynes writes that, “[at] the
heart of this cluster of manifest trickster traits is (1) the fundamentally ambig-
uous and anomalous personality of the trickster. Flowing from this are such
other features as (2) deceiver/trick-player, (3) shape-shifter, (4) situation-in-
verter, (5) messenger-imitator of the gods, and (6) sacred/lewd bricoleur”(35).
Returning to the paxp’aku and the vignette described earlier
from the novel, the defiance of the concrete physical form is seen in Cesar
Amato’s habitation of skins, as opposed to their mere borrowing. In doing
so, the paxp’aku’s teleology is distinguished from that of the mere act of
disguise in a very clear way. Disguise, to the trickster, is sublimated to a
site of habitation as opposed to surface-level gestures and practices. This
rejection of materiality, or perhaps the imperviousness thereof, is further
dimensionalized by the discursive transfiguration from coin to skin, alluding
to a simultaneous transposition of monetary semiotics to the biological.
Derived from an Aymara term meaning “one who speaks excessively”,
the term paxp’aku is heir to a range of significations and connotations owing
to the polysemic nature of its language of origin. On one hand, its employ-
ment may describe an astute person prone to mischief1 or, less frequently,
a lazy person. As a testament to these rhetorical artifices and verbal acro-
batics used by the paxp’aku, the term may be employed as a pejorative word
for a charlatan or untrustworthy individual. The writer Eusebio Gironda
Cabrera calls attention of, “los mitayos de ayer… a ejecutar su venganza,
y demoler el hogar de los p‘ajp’akus (charlatanes) y los sallkas (embauca-
dores), para levantar una nueva Ulaka (parlamento) que sea la expresión
real de la sociedad y sus intereses permanentes” (Gironda Cabrera, s.p).
Beyond Gironda Cabrera’s description of the paxp’aku as an entity
to be violently excised from the national and political landscape, I expand
the term’s space of signification toward its less caustic implications as an
avenue more congruent with the wider mechanisms and ontologies of the
trickster. In the quotidian context, and reflected with great importance in
the novel, it is worth noting that paxp’aku is employed in popular language
to describe those individuals who utilize a variety of verbal artifices to sell
their wares in the street. The novel describes the paxp’aku as “el ilusionista,
el que con palabras podía crear una piel para después vestirla” (8). Reopening
the discursive imaginations of the paxp’aku in the cultural landscape of La
112
Biddanda A Spectral Reading
113
Biddanda A Spectral Reading
secreto, una llave para acceder a los murmullos, a los lugares escon-
didos y al fondo de los precipicios. Era el idioma que hacía visible lo
invisible y revelaba la ciudad ancestral que duerme en las profundidades
de La Paz. Eran versos cantados por varias mujeres y el postizo recon-
oció de inmediato que se trataba de tejedoras. (166, my emphasis)
The awakening of the goddess Sara Chura is interwoven with the repo-
sitioning of language in its oneness with the cosmos in which words comprise
what Ana Prada describes as “elementos de un gran tejido comunicativo” (148).
In the novel, language — and orality in particular — asserts itself both through
the simultaneous performances of enshrouding and revealing, surveying this
ancestral city, and permitting the entry only of those porous to its forgotten
semiotics. Through the generative apertures of orality and its palimpsestic inter-
weaving, the city of La Paz, like the paxp’aku, is read as possessing its own skin.
The oral character of the andean spiritual landscape further contextualizes the
role of language and its evolution throughout history where “el cielo abierto y la
tierra fecunda son el ‘libro’ del mundo que se puede leer, tal como los occiden-
tales suelen leer textos escritos” (Estermann n.p). These epistemological con-
siderations are further reinforced at the juncture of historiographical concerns,
wherein, as observed by Silvia Rivera, the written word and its violent intro-
duction constitutes the rigid and hegemonic perimeter around which history is
understood as a ‘civilizing mission’ and as such, orality constitutes a vital oppos-
ing force to the predominant occidental and colonial conceptions of history.
The detective’s quest, on behalf of the aymara goddess, is guided by
the pursuit of a “Cadáver que respira”, who is described by Amato himself as
“[el que ha perdido los cinco sentidos, pero no puede morir. Está condenado
a habitar su cuerpo4 como si fuera una tumba tibia, para siempre” (25).
The liminal suspension5 of the cadaver between life and death articulates a
condition evocative of that of the specter. This interplay between being and
non-being situates the paxp’aku and his telos, like all trickster figures, as being
similarly haunted by a spectral presence when not embodying it outright.
Jung is perhaps most explicit in this relationship, regarding the trickster as a
‘psychologem’ whose primacy is interior to the undifferentiated human psyche.
The spectral ecology of the novel is also undergirded by its temporal and
mythological dimensions, and specifically the intertextual resonances shared
with the Inkarri myth, in which Atahuallpa — the last leader of the Incan Empire
114
Biddanda A Spectral Reading
— swore to rise from the dead in to avenge his execution at the hands of the
Spanish conquistadores. The myth, in several versions, tells that with his return
harmony will be restored between Pachamama and her children (Batstone 199).
The carnavalesque centering of the novel constructs a space where the inversion
of occidental and aymara epistemology is destined to precipitate. Furthermore,
the idea of the goddess Sara Chura in search of the “Cadaver que respira” invokes
the connective tissue between the resurrection of the Incan emperor and
Pachamama. The paxp’aku embodies the mediator and fulcrum not only of this
relationship but also that of the restless interplay between myth and modernity6.
At this latter juncture the novel unleashes a dialogue between the
temporal regimes of the occidental and Aymara traditions. The ritual of
the carnival, harkening back from well beyond the medieval celebrations in
Western Europe, is understood by Teofilo Ruiz as “a cultural bridge between the
erudite celebrations of those above and ancient ludic practices of those below…
a feast such as Carnival… has been always associated with revelry, subversive
inversions of the social order, and transgressive behavior” (247). It is true,
however, that the celebration of Carnival has functioned as a mechanism of
social control and some may argue that the subversive tendencies inherent
to Carnival are only present to the extent that they uphold pre-existing social
hierarchies. To this point, it is the situation of the novel in the peripheries of
the official celebration that permits truly trickster-like behaviors and other
authentic expressions of subversion. Carnavalesque transgression, there-
fore, acquires an unmistakable spatialization along the territory of La Paz.
The linearity of the Christian tradition persists with the amerindian
reinventions of Christianity. The cyclic conception of time, as exemplified in
the novel, is relegated to the annual ritualization of the liturgical calendar,
nevertheless reinforcing the linear progression of the christian myth. In
this almost pseudo-circularity, trickery finds the precise moment to twist
linearity into its winding coil. The trickster’s role in the carnivalesque ecol-
ogy is catalyzed by the inversive character of the Fiesta del Gran Poder. The
two are perhaps most productively connected by the words of Jung, who
conceptualizes the carnival as the site where the “phantom of the trickster
haunts the mythology of ages, sometimes in quite unmistakable form” (Jung
n.p.). Thus, the carnival presents a performative ritualization of collective
social memory of the city of La Paz, thus providing a psycho-spatial inter-
stice where the trickster-paxp’aku is determined to appear. The subversive
115
Biddanda A Spectral Reading
tendencies of the paxp’aku, in this particular axis, lie in the novel’s contor-
tion of linear chronologies into circular and cyclic conceptions of time by
means of the oneiric and linguistic maneuvers implemented by César Amato.
The linearity of occidental chronology is also linked to its unidirectional
conception of senescence as well as the binary divisions separating life and its
absence. The centrality of the “Cadaver que respira” to this novel introduces a
degree of ambiguity into this bifurcation by complicating the directionality of
senescence in the occidental tradition. As an entity destined to be awakened
— like the titular Aymara goddess — the state of dormancy immediately dis-
mantles that which was thought to be dead. The role of spectrality in the novel
thus engages the reader in a dialogic relationship between myth and modernity.
As a conceptual metaphor, the specter is said to exert itself as an absence of
a presence through the paradoxical process of affectation. I trace this absence
in “Cuando Sara Chura despierte” to the intertextual resonances between the
Inkarri myth and the “Cadáver que respira”. The politics of this spectral ecology
feeding into the mythic search for a “Cadáver que respira” in many ways is a
transposition of affect and its paradox. Seamlessly traversing the boundaries
between myth and modernity and relatedly between the occidental and aymara
world-views, the paxp’aku provides an interesting vehicle through which this
folkloric truth can be negotiated. The metaphor of the specter is also invoked
as a reminder of temporal disjunction. This is something that I conceptualize
as a way of understanding both the dynamic tensions between modernity and
myth, as well as the profound element of loss that this implies. But as opposed
to a process of mourning, the paxp’aku’s restlessness state of interminable
telos subverts this tendency toward melancholia by instead insisting upon
what Avery Gordon refers to as a “something to be done”. The electrification
of orality by the trickster undergirds the paxp’aku’s being and represents a
juncture where the oral mechanisms of Andean narrative subvert Occidental
historiography’s insistence upon the written material object. Furthermore,
the living and dialogic character of orality invokes a cyclic epistemology
wherein the performance of memory is consonant with its undifferentiated
contemporaneity. Here we see that the paxp’aku exhibits an engaging link with
Derrida’s idea of the specter as both revenant and arrivant, two directional-
ities that respectively invoke that which was and that which has yet to come.
Perhaps most importantly, it is the spectral underpinnings of trickery
that establish a dialogue with mortality and the physical and discursive bodies
116
Biddanda A Spectral Reading
Works Cited
117
Biddanda A Spectral Reading
118
CREATIVE
WRITING
Mis tías españolas
(My Spanish Aunts)
Angela Acosta
The Ohio State University
(Carmen Conde)
121
Acosta Mis tías españolas
122
Acosta Mis tías españolas
Matriarca
La responsabilidad matriarcal
nunca termina con la muerte
porque ellas nos inspiran a realizar sus sueños,
aquellas oportunidades de un presente que el pasado las negó.
123
Acosta Mis tías española
124
Acosta Mis tías española
125
Chronic (as)
Jorge A. Hernández Camacho
Texas Tech University
Por fuera la casa luce como cualquier otra, emite una tran-
quilidad comfortable. En el frente tiene una cancha de
basquetbol y una Van blanca estacionada. Un vistoso patio
con un césped envidiable se extiende en la parte de atrás.
Es una vivienda con tres recámaras, dos baños, una amplia sala y cocina.
Un techo bastante alto. Tiene muebles deteriorados y viejos. También
un cuarto donde se guardan bajo llave las medicinas de los enfermos.
El grupo que vive en Casa Morton, acude por las mañanas a la escuela o
a una cita médica. Para ese entonces, todos deben de haber ya almorzado
y tomado sus medicamentos. Tender la cama y lavar los trastes, son algu-
nas de las tareas que los pacientes de la vivienda deben de cumplir, pero
a algunos no les importa y prefieren irse a mirar la televisión a la sala.
129
Hernández Camacho Chronic (as)
130
Hernández Camacho Chronic (as)
ROCK !!!!
131
Hernández Camacho Chronic (as)
132
Hernández Camacho Chronic (as)
________________________________________________________
Monterrey y el vicio
133
Hernández Camacho Chronic (as)
134
Hernández Camacho Chronic (as)
Las Nubes se dividen por una larga y horizontal semi pared de madera
donde ocurre de todo justo detrás de ella. Pasé la mayoría del tiempo frente
a ese muro escuchando lamentaciones y viendo entrar y salir a numer-
osos hombres de enorme y desparramada corpulencia, escuálidos como
una liga o acarreando el pesado andar de los años sobre miles de arrugas.
Había que descansar, por que la próxima noche era visitar otra de las
paradas obligadas de esta ciudad como es el bar El Jardín-Wateke.
136
Perro Verde
Poetry selection: “Diario de a bordo I”
Desaliñado,
estilo perro flauta, dejado, homenaje a Valle-Inclán.
Alejado,
no del mundanal ruido; bicho raro en multitudinaria soledad.
Ausente,
memoria en stand by, cuan muerto viviente.
Trastornado,
victimismo consecuente del fracaso de no conquistar.
¿Permanente?
Quién sabrá.
En búsqueda de la decencia
lo único certero
es la resultante incongruencia,
del estatus de “norma general”.
“Mundo enfermo”
Horrendo,
cuasi insulso;
un mal trago
hasta arriba de sucia sal.
En un derroche de desuso visual,
apreciar su fealdad
se torna en imposible
al momento de embarcar.
139
Rivera Diario de a bordo I
¿Estaré loco?
Quien lo afirme
se encuentra inundado
en un pozo de generalidad.
Yo soy un caballero
y quien no lo vea
es que no tiene a su Dulcinea.
Permanece tranquilo, océano:
quien bien te quiere
te hará llorar;
y si me excedí,
disculpas te pido;
en todos estos años
nada tengo que objetar.
Lo sé,
mi crítica te suena
demasiado familiar.
Pelícano de escasos piropos;
Presente.
mas siempre regreso al nido,
siempre vuelvo
a te-visitar.
Llega la noche.
Llega la hora,
de dejarlo todo atrás.
140
Rivera Diario de a bordo I
Hasta la vista,
Hasta más ver.
Hasta mi próximo paso
por la autopista
con destino a querer.
Nostalgia
141
Tarapacá
Dennis González
The University of Texas at El Paso
Para algunas personas, los aromas delicados o las dulces melodías las
transportan a su lejana infancia. Para mí, el ladrido de un perro, las voces
de dos vecinas conversando en la calle, o la sirena de una ambulancia deses-
perada por llegar a tiempo me hacen recordar cuando aún vivía en Perú.
Vivo en New Milford, un pueblo donde nunca pasa nada.
Well, not all the time. A veces un adolescente se compra una
moto marca Yamaha y la maneja a más de cien millas por hora.
145
González Tarapacá
146