The Effects of Pollution on Health and the Environment

ABSTRACT

Air pollution is one of our era's biggest scourges, not only because of its impact on climate change, but
also because of its impact on public and individual health due to increased sickness and death. There are
numerous contaminants that are substantial contributors to human disease. Particulate Matter (PM),
particles with varying but extremely small diameters, enter the respiratory system through inhalation
and cause respiratory and cardiovascular illnesses, reproductive and central nervous system
malfunction, and cancer. Despite the fact that ozone in the stratosphere protects against ultraviolet
irradiation, it is hazardous at ground level, harming both the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.

Furthermore, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), dioxins, and polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are all considered dangerous air pollutants. When inhaled in large
quantities, carbon monoxide can cause direct poisoning. Heavy metals, such as lead, can cause direct
poisoning or chronic intoxication when absorbed into the human body, depending on the level of
exposure. The disorders caused by the aforementioned compounds mostly include respiratory
difficulties such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD), asthma, bronchiolitis, and lung
cancer, as well as cardiovascular events, central nervous system dysfunctions, and skin diseases.

Last but not least, climate change caused by pollution has an impact on the geographical spread of many
infectious diseases, as do natural disasters. The best way to handle this issue is through public
awareness combined with a multidisciplinary approach by scientific specialists; national and
international organizations must address the threat's rise and suggest long-term remedies.

APPROACH TO THE PROBLEM

Because many human activities have an impact on the environment, the interactions between humans
and their physical surrounds have been intensively researched. The environment is a synthesis of the
biotic (living organisms and microbes) and the abiotic (inanimate objects). (hydrosphere, lithosphere,
and atmosphere).

Pollution is described as the introduction of toxic compounds into the environment that are destructive
to humans and other living organisms. Pollutants are dangerous solids, liquids, or gases that are created
in higher-than-normal concentrations and degrade the quality of our environment.

Human activities harm the ecosystem by polluting the water we drink, the air we breathe, and the soil
that plants grow in. Although the industrial revolution was a major accomplishment in terms of
technology, society, and the supply of numerous services, it also resulted in the production of massive
amounts of pollutants discharged into the atmosphere that are damaging to human health. Without a
doubt, global environmental degradation is seen as a multifaceted international public health issue. This
big issue is linked to social, economic, and legislative considerations, as well as lifestyle behaviors.
Clearly, urbanization and industrialisation are reaching unprecedented and alarming levels in our day.
Anthropogenic air pollution is one of the most serious public health threats in the world, accounting for
around 9 million fatalities per year. (1).

Without a doubt, all of the aforementioned are directly related to climate change, and in the event of
danger, the implications for humans can be serious. (2). Climate change and the impacts of global
planetary warming have a major impact on numerous ecosystems, producing difficulties such as food
safety, ice and iceberg melting, animal extinction, and plant damage. (3, 4).

Air pollution has a variety of health consequences. Even on days with low air pollution, the health of
vulnerable and sensitive persons might be harmed. Short-term air pollution exposure is linked to COPD
(Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary disorders), cough, shortness of breath, wheezing, asthma, respiratory
disorders, and high hospitalization rates. (a measurement of morbidity).

Chronic asthma, pulmonary insufficiency, cardiovascular illnesses, and cardiovascular mortality are all
long-term impacts of air pollution. Diabetes appears to be produced by long-term air pollution exposure,
according to a Swedish cohort study. (5). Furthermore, air pollution appears to have a variety of
negative health impacts in early human life, including respiratory, cardiovascular, mental, and perinatal
abnormalities (3), which can lead to infant mortality or chronic disease in adulthood. (6).

According to national reports, there is an elevated risk of morbidity and mortality. (1). These
investigations, which were done in a variety of locations around the world, reveal a link between daily
ranges of particulate matter (PM) concentration and daily mortality. Climate change and global warming
(3) could exacerbate the situation. Furthermore, higher hospitalization (a morbidity indicator) has been
observed among the elderly and vulnerable populations for specific causes. Because tiny and ultrafine
particulate matter can infiltrate the deepest sections of the airways and more quickly reach the
bloodstream, it appears to be related with more serious disorders (6).

Air pollution primarily affects those who live in large cities, as traffic emissions contribute the most to
poor air quality. There is also the risk of industrial accidents, in which the spread of a poisonous fog can
be devastating to the surrounding communities. Many factors influence pollution dispersion, the most
important of which are air stability and wind speed. (6).

Overpopulation and unregulated urbanization, combined with the rise of industrialization, exacerbate
the problem in emerging countries (7). This results in poor air quality, particularly in nations with social
inequality and a dearth of information on environmental sustainability. Due to low earnings, the usage
of fuels such as wood fuel or solid fuel for household needs exposes them to poor-quality, polluted air at
home. It is worth noting that three billion people worldwide rely on the aforementioned energy sources
for their everyday heating and cooking needs. (8). Women in underdeveloped nations appear to be at
the highest risk of illness development due to their longer duration exposure to indoor air pollution (8,
9).

China is one of the Asian countries facing major air pollution concerns as a result of its rapid industrial
expansion and overpopulation. (10, 11). Fine particles have been linked to an increase in lung cancer
mortality in China. (12). As previously noted, long-term exposure is linked to negative effects on the
cardiovascular system. (3, 5). It is worth noting, however, that cardiovascular disease has been observed
more frequently in established and high-income countries than in developing low-income countries
subjected to high levels of air pollution. (13). Extreme air pollution has been documented in India, where
air quality has reached dangerous levels. New Delhi is one of India's most polluted cities.

Flights into and out of New Delhi International Airport are frequently canceled owing to poor visibility
caused by air pollution. Pollution is occurring in both urban and rural parts of India as a result of rapid
industrialisation, urbanization, and the increased usage of motorcycle transportation. Nonetheless,
biomass burning remains a major cause of home air pollution in India and Nepal due to heating and
cooking demands and habits. (14, 15). In India, there is spatial heterogeneity because places with
various climatological circumstances, population, and education levels produce varying indoor air
qualities, with higher PM2.5 recorded in North Indian states (557-601 g/m3) compared to Southern
States (183-214 g/m3). (16, 17).

The frigid climate of northern India may be the main explanation for this, as longer periods at home and
more heating are required than in southern India's tropical environment. In India, household air
pollution is linked to serious health problems, particularly among women and young children who spend
more time indoors. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (CORD) and lung cancer are more common in
women, while acute lower respiratory disease is more common in children under the age of five. (18).

The accumulation of air pollution, particularly sulfur dioxide and smoke, exceeding 1,500 mg/m3,
resulted in an increase in the number of deaths (4,000 deaths) in London in December 1952 and in New
York City (400 deaths) in 1963. (19). On the basis of outdoor pollution monitoring in six US metropolitan
cities, a connection between pollution and mortality was reported. (20). In every case, it appears that
fine, inhalable, and sulfate particle levels were more closely connected to mortality than total
particulate pollution, aerosol acidity, sulfur dioxide, or nitrogen dioxide levels. (20).

Furthermore, exceptionally high levels of pollution have been observed in Mexico City and Rio de
Janeiro, with Milan, Ankara, Melbourne, Tokyo, and Moscow following closely after (19).

Different types of interventions should undoubtedly be considered based on the extent of the public
health impact. There has been claimed success and efficacy in controlling air pollution, particularly at the
local level. Adequate technological means are used in light of the source and nature of the emission, as
well as the impact on health and the environment. Schwela and Köth-Jahr discuss the need of
controlling both point and non-point causes of air pollution. (21). A thorough emission inventory,
without a doubt, must record all sources in a given area. As previously indicated, geography and
meteorological should be addressed in addition to the aforesaid sources and their nature.

Control policies and methods are frequently projected from the local to the regional and ultimately to
the global scale. Air pollution can be distributed and carried from one region to another in a distant
location. Air pollution management refers to the reduction or eradication of air pollutants whose
presence in the air harms our health or the environment's ecology. Actions are taken by private and
public entities and authorities to improve air quality. (22). The WHO and EPA adopted air quality
standards and guidelines for various pollutants as a tool for managing air quality. (1, 23).

To identify problematic locations, these requirements must be matched to the emissions inventory
standards using causal analysis and dispersion modeling. (24). In general, inventories are based on a
combination of direct observations and emissions modeling. (24).
As an example, we will discuss the control measures implemented at the source via the use of catalytic
converters in automobiles. These are devices that catalyze redox processes to convert pollutants and
hazardous gases produced by combustion engines into less-toxic pollutants. (25). In order to decrease
traffic congestion during rush hour, the usage of private cars in Greece was restricted by tracking their
license plates. (25).

In terms of industrial emissions, collectors and closed systems can restrict air pollution to the bare
minimum imposed by legislation. (26). Current air quality improvement tactics necessitate an estimate
of the economic worth of the benefits received from proposed projects. These planned programs and
instructions by governmental bodies are provided with guidelines to be followed.

Air quality limit values AQLVs (Air Quality Limit Values) are granted in Europe to offset planning claims.
(27). The NAAQS (National Ambient Air Quality Standards) in the United States establish the national air
quality limit values. (27). Despite the fact that standards and directives are based on different methods,
great progress has been made in reducing overall emissions and the accompanying health and
environmental impacts. (27). The European Directive identifies geographical risk exposure areas as
monitoring/assessment zones to record emission sources and levels of air pollution (27), whereas the
United States establishes global geographical air quality criteria based on the severity of their air quality
problem and records all sources of pollutants and their precursors. (27).

In this vein, money have been used to finance, directly or indirectly, air quality projects as well as the
technical infrastructure required to maintain acceptable air quality. These plans center on a database
inventory derived from air quality environmental planning awareness efforts. Furthermore, pollution
precautions for air pollutants from automobiles, machinery, and industry in urban areas may be taken.

Technological innovation can only be successful if it can meet societal needs. In this sense, technology
must mirror the decision-making methods and procedures of individuals involved in risk assessment and
evaluation, as well as operate as a facilitator in delivering information and evaluations to assist decision
makers to make the best possible decisions. To summarize, several factors must be considered in order
to design an effective air quality control strategy: environmental factors and ambient air quality
conditions, engineering factors and air pollutant characteristics, and finally, economic operating costs
for technological improvement as well as administrative and legal costs. In terms of the economy,
competitiveness through neoliberal ideals is providing a solution to environmental challenges. (22).

The advancement of environmental governance, combined with technology advancement, has

prompted the establishment of a debate. Environmental politics has generated disagreements and areas
of contention among various political parties, scientists, the media, and governmental and non-
governmental groups. (22). There have been radical environmental activism activities and movements
developed. (22).

Many studies have been conducted to determine whether and how new information and
communication technologies (ICTs) have changed modes of communication and social movements such
as activism. (28). Since the 1990s, the phrase "digital activism" has been used more frequently and in a
variety of contexts. (29). Several digital technologies can now be employed to create a digital activism
outcome on environmental issues. More precisely, online-capable gadgets such as computers and
mobile phones are being utilized to effect change in political and social affairs. (30).
In this study, we focus on the origins of environmental pollution in relation to public health and propose
some ideas and actions that environmental legislators and decision makers may find useful.

SOURCES OF EXPOSURE

The bulk of environmental contaminants are known to be emitted by large-scale human activities such
as the use of industrial machinery, power plants, combustion engines, and automobiles. Because these
activities are carried out on such a vast scale, they are by far the most significant contributors to air
pollution, with autos accounting for nearly 80% of today's pollution. (31). Other human activities, such
as field cultivation techniques, gas stations, fuel tanks heaters, and cleaning procedures (32), as well as
various natural sources, such as volcanic and soil eruptions and forest fires, have a minor impact on our
environment.

The classification of air pollutants is primarily dependent on the sources of pollution. As a result, the
four major sources, as defined by the classification system, are worth mentioning: major sources, area
sources, mobile sources, and natural sources.

• Pollutant emissions from power plants, refineries, and petrochemicals, the chemical and
fertilizer industries, metallurgical and other industrial plants, and, lastly, municipal incineration
are major sources.
• Domestic cleaning operations, dry cleaners, printing companies, and gas stations are examples
of indoor sources.
• Mobile sources include automobiles, automobiles, trains, airplanes, and other sorts of vehicles.
• Finally, as previously indicated, natural sources include physical disasters (33) such as forest
fires, volcanic erosion, dust storms, and agricultural burning.
• Many classification schemes, however, have been proposed. Another sort of categorisation is
based on the recipient of the pollution, as shown below:
• Air pollution is defined as the presence of contaminants in high amounts in the air for extended
periods of time. Air contaminants include dispersed particles, hydrocarbons, CO, CO2, NO, NO2,
SO3, and other substances.
• Water pollution is organic and inorganic charge, as well as biological charge (10) at excessive
levels, which have an impact on water quality. (34, 35).
• Soil contamination happens as a result of chemical releases or waste disposal, such as heavy
metals, hydrocarbons, and pesticides.

By damaging precipitation that falls into water and soil settings, air pollution can have an impact on the
quality of soil and water bodies. (34, 36). Notably, acid precipitation can alter soil chemistry by
influencing plants, cultures, and water quality. (37). Furthermore, soil acidity promotes heavy metal
mobility, and metals are therefore transported into the aquatic environment. Heavy metals, such as
aluminum, are known to be toxic to wildlife and fish. Soil quality appears to be important, as soils with
low calcium carbonate levels are more vulnerable to acid rain. Rain, snow, and particle matter all fall
into aqueous bodies. (36, 38).

Lastly, pollution is classified following type of origin:

Radioactive and nuclear pollution, which occurs when radioactive and nuclear pollutants are released
into water, air, and soil as a result of nuclear explosions and accidents, nuclear weapons, and the
handling or disposal of radioactive sewage.

Radioactive elements can contaminate surface water bodies and are harmful to plants, animals, and
humans. It is well known that radioactive chemicals such as radium and uranium can accumulate in the
bones and cause cancer. (38, 39).

Machines, trucks, traffic noises, and musical installations all contribute to noise pollution, which is
damaging to our hearing. The term DALYs was coined by the World Health Organization.

The DALYs for a disease or health condition are defined as the total of the Years of Life Lost (YLL) in the
population due to premature death and the Years Lost due to Disability (YLD) for those living with the
disease or its effects. (39). Air pollution is the leading cause of disability-adjusted life years lost (DALYs)
in Europe, followed by noise pollution. The potential links between noise and air pollution and health
have been investigated. (40). The study discovered that DALYs associated with noise were more
significant than those associated with air pollution, because the effects of environmental noise on
cardiovascular illness were independent of air pollution. (40). Environmental noise should be considered
a separate public health issue. (40).

Changes in the physical, chemical, or biological constituents of the environment (air masses,
temperature, climate, etc.) cause pollution.

Pollutants degrade our ecosystem by either increasing levels above normal or adding dangerous
compounds. Primary pollutants are emitted directly from the sources listed above, while secondary
pollutants are emitted as byproducts of the primary ones. Pollutants can be biodegradable or non-
biodegradable, natural or anthropogenic, as previously indicated. Furthermore, their origin can be a
single source (point-source) or a collection of sources.

Pollutants differ in their physical and chemical qualities, which explains the disparity in their ability to
produce harmful consequences. As an example, because of their small size (solid or liquid) in the
atmosphere, aerosol chemicals (41-43) have a higher toxicity than gaseous compounds; they also have a
greater penetrating capacity. Our respiratory system eliminates gaseous substances more easily. (41).
These particles can harm the lungs and even reach the bloodstream (41), causing millions of people to
die prematurely each year. Furthermore, aerosol acidity ([H+]) appears to significantly boost the
generation of secondary organic aerosols (SOA), but this final point is not corroborated by other
scientific teams. (38).

CLIMATE AND POLLUTION

Air pollution and climate change are inextricably linked. Climate change is the opposite side of the same
coin that lowers the quality of our planet. (44). Pollutants such as black carbon, methane, tropospheric
ozone, and aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight that enters the atmosphere. As a result, the Earth's
temperature is rising, causing ice, icebergs, and glaciers to melt.

Climate change will have an impact on the incidence and prevalence of both residual and imported
illnesses in Europe. Climate and weather have a significant impact on the duration, timing, and intensity
of outbreaks, as well as changing the global map of infectious diseases. (45). Mosquito-borne parasitic or
viral infections are very climate-sensitive, as warming both shortens the pathogen incubation period and
alters the vector's geographic map. Similarly, water warming caused by climate change increases the
prevalence of waterborne illnesses. Recently, eliminated diseases such as cholera, poliomyelitis, tick-
borne encephalitis, and malaria have emerged in Europe as a result of population migration. (46).

The spread of diseases is linked to natural climate disasters like storms, which appear to be increasingly
common nowadays. (47). Malnutrition and immune system disequilibrium are also linked to new
pathogens that threaten public health. (48).

The Chikungunya virus "flew" from the Indian Ocean to Europe, with outbreaks of the disease recorded
in Italy (49) and autochthonous cases in France. (50).

Following flooding, there appears to have been an increase in cryptosporidiosis in the United Kingdom
and the Czech Republic. (36, 51).

As previously said, aerosol compounds are extremely small and have a significant impact on the climate.
They can dissipate sunlight (the albedo phenomenon) by reflecting a quarter of the sun's rays back into
space and have lowered global temperatures over the previous 30 years. (52).

AIR POLLUTANTS

Particle pollution, ground-level ozone, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and lead are the
six major air pollutants reported by the World Health Organization (WHO). Air pollution has the
potential to devastate all aspects of the environment, including groundwater, soil, and air. Furthermore,
it represents a major threat to living beings. In this sense, we are primarily interested in these pollutants
since they are linked to more widespread and serious problems in human health and environmental
damage. Acid rain, global warming, the greenhouse effect, and climate change all have significant
ecological consequences for air pollution. (53).

Particulate Matter (PM) and Health

Particulate matter (PM) and harmful health consequences have been linked in studies concentrating on
either short-term (acute) or long-term (chronic) PM exposure.

Particulate matter (PM) is commonly created in the atmosphere as a result of chemical interactions
between contaminants. The size of particles influences their penetration. (53). The United States
Environmental Protection Agency defines Particulate Matter (PM) as a word for particles. (54).
Particulate matter (PM) pollution includes particles with sizes of 10 micrometers (m) or less, known as
PM10, as well as extremely fine particles with diameters of 2.5 micrometers (m) or less.

Particulate matter consists of microscopic liquid or solid particles that, if breathed, can have major
health consequences. Several epidemiological research on the health consequences of PM have been
conducted. A link was shown between short-term and long-term PM2.5 exposure and acute
nasopharyngitis. (56). Furthermore, long-term exposure to PM for years was linked to cardiovascular
disease and neonatal death.
Because of a lack of spatially resolved daily PM2.5 concentration data, those studies are limited in terms
of study region or city area and, as a result, are not representative of the full population. According to a
recent epidemiological study conducted by the Department of Environmental Health at Harvard School
of Public Health (Boston, MA) (57), as PM2.5 concentrations vary spatially, an exposure error (Berkson
error) appears to be produced, and the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term effects are not
yet fully understood. Based on remote sensing data, the researchers created a PM2.5 exposure model
for measuring short- and long-term human exposures. (57). This model allows for geographic resolution
in short-term effects as well as the assessment of long-term consequences.

Furthermore, respiratory illnesses and immune system dysfunction are documented as long-term
chronic consequences. (58). People suffering from asthma, pneumonia, diabetes, and respiratory and
cardiovascular illnesses are most susceptible to the effects of PM. Because of their small size, PM2.5 and
PM10 are closely related with a variety of respiratory system diseases (59). (60). Because of their
chemical and physical features, the particles cause harmful effects. PM10 and PM2.5 constituents can be
organic (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, dioxins, benzene, 1-3 butadiene) or inorganic (carbon,
chlorides, nitrates, sulfates, metals). (55).

Microorganisms (bacteria, viruses, fungi, mold, and bacterial spores), cat allergens, house dust and
allergens, and pollen are examples of biological contaminants.

Dust is classified into three types: suspended air dust, settling dust, and heavy dust.

Finally, because of their small size, PM10 and PM2.5 particles have a longer half-life in the atmosphere,
allowing for their long-term suspension and even transfer and spread to distant locations where people
and the environment may be exposed to the same level of pollution. (53). They have the ability to alter
the nitrogen balance in aquatic ecosystems, harm forests and crops, and acidify water bodies.

As previously noted, PM2.5 particles are generating more serious health consequences due to their
small size. These small particles are the primary source of "haze" production in many metropolitan
regions. (12, 13, 61).

Ozone Impact in the Atmosphere

Ozone (O3) is a gas that is generated from oxygen when a high voltage electric discharge occurs. (62). It
is a powerful oxidant, 52% more powerful than chlorine. It forms in the stratosphere, but it may also
form as a result of photochemical smog chain reactions in the troposphere. (63).

Ozone can travel long distances from its source by travelling with air masses. (64). It is unexpected that
ozone levels over cities are modest, despite higher levels in metropolitan regions, which could be
hazardous to cultures, forests, and plants (65) by limiting carbon assimilation. (66). Because of its
antibacterial capacity, ozone decreases growth and yield (47, 48) and has an effect on plant microbiota.
(67, 68). In this manner, ozone affects other natural ecosystems by affecting the species composition of
microflora (69, 70) and animal species. (71). Ozone causes DNA damage in epidermal keratinocytes,
impairing cellular activity. (72).

Ground-level ozone (GLO) is produced by a chemical interaction between nitrogen oxides and VOCs
emitted by natural sources and/or anthropogenic activities.
Inhalation is the most common method of absorbing ozone. Ozone damages the upper layers of the skin
as well as the tear ducts. (73). A study of mice exposed to high levels of ozone for a short period of time
found malondialdehyde production in the upper skin (epidermis), but also vitamin C and E depletion.
Ozone levels are unlikely to interfere with skin barrier function and integrity, predisposing to skin illness.
(74).

Because of ozone's low water solubility, it can permeate deeply into the lungs when inhaled. (75).

Ozone causes toxic consequences in metropolitan areas all over the world, producing biochemical,
morphologic, functional, and immunological issues. (76).

The European research (APHEA2) focuses on the acute consequences of elevated ozone levels on
mortality. (77). Over a three-year period, daily ozone concentrations were compared to the daily
number of deaths in several European towns. During the warm season, an observed rise in ozone
concentration was associated with an increase in the daily number of fatalities (0.33%), respiratory
deaths (1.13%), and cardiovascular deaths (0.45%). During the winter, there was no effect.

Carbon Monoxide (CO)

When fossil fuel combustion is incomplete, carbon monoxide is created. Carbon monoxide poisoning
symptoms include headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea, vomiting, and, finally, loss of consciousness.

Carbon monoxide has a far higher affinity for hemoglobin than oxygen. In this vein, long-term exposure
to large levels of carbon monoxide may result in serious poisoning. Hypoxia, ischemia, and
cardiovascular illness are recognized as a result of oxygen depletion caused by the competitive binding
of carbon monoxide.

Carbon monoxide influences greenhouse gases, which are closely linked to global warming and climate
change. This should result in an increase in soil and water temperatures, as well as the occurrence of
extreme weather conditions or storms. (68).

However, it has been shown in laboratory and field trials to promote plant growth. (78).

Nitrogen Oxide (NO2)

Nitrogen oxide is a contaminant associated with transportation because it is generated by automotive

engines. (79, 80). When inhaled at high levels, it is an irritant of the respiratory system because it
penetrates deep into the lung, causing respiratory illnesses, coughing, wheezing, dyspnea,
bronchospasm, and even pulmonary edema. It appears that concentrations greater than 0.2 ppm cause
these negative effects in humans, while concentrations greater than 2.0 ppm affect T-lymphocytes,
specifically the CD8+ and NK cells that produce our immune response (81). It has been reported that
long-term exposure to high levels of nitrogen dioxide can cause chronic lung disease. Long-term NO2
exposure can impair one's sense of smell. (81).

However, symptoms such as eye, throat, and nose irritation have been reported, implying that systems
other than the respiratory system may be implicated. (81).

Nitrogen dioxide levels above a certain threshold are harmful to crops and plants, since they have been
shown to lower crop production and plant growth efficiency. Furthermore, NO2 can impair sight and
discolor fabrics. (81).
Sulfur Dioxide (SO2)

Sulfur dioxide is a dangerous gas that is primarily emitted through the use of fossil fuels or industrial
activity. The annual SO2 standard is 0.03 ppm. (82). It has an impact on human, animal, and plant life.
Susceptible individuals include those with lung disease, the elderly, and youngsters, who are at a higher
risk of harm. Sulfur dioxide emissions in industrialized areas cause respiratory irritation, bronchitis,
mucus production, and bronchospasm because it is a sensory irritant that penetrates deep into the lung
and converts to bisulfite before interacting with sensory receptors, causing bronchoconstriction.
Furthermore, skin redness, eye damage (lacrimation and corneal opacity), mucous membrane damage,
and worsening of pre-existing cardiovascular disease have been seen. (81).

Sulfur dioxide emissions appear to be linked to negative environmental impacts such as soil acidification
and acid rain. (83).

Lead

Lead is a heavy metal that is employed in various industrial plants and is emitted by some gasoline
engines, batteries, radiators, waste incinerators, and waste waterways. (84).

Furthermore, metals, mining, and piston-engine aircraft are major producers of lead pollution in the air.
Lead poisoning is a public health concern because of its negative impact on humans, animals, and the
environment, particularly in developing nations.

Lead exposure can occur via inhalation, ingestion, or skin absorption. Lead has also been observed to be
transported transplacentally, as lead passes through the placenta unimpeded. (85). The toxic effects are
more detrimental to the fetus the younger it is. Lead toxicity damages the fetal neurological system,
causing edema or swelling of the brain. (86). Lead accumulates in the blood, soft tissue, liver, lung,
bones, and cardiovascular, neurological, and reproductive systems after inhalation. Adults also
experienced attention and memory loss, as well as muscle and joint pain. (85, 86).

Children and newborns (87) are highly vulnerable to even low levels of lead since it is a neurotoxicant
that causes learning problems, memory impairment, hyperactivity, and even mental retardation.

Lead levels in the environment are toxic to plants and agricultural growth. High lead levels have been
linked to neurological consequences in vertebrates and animals. (88).

Aromatic Polycyclic Hydrocarbons(PAHs)

PAHs are widespread in the environment because the atmosphere is the most important mechanism of
dissemination. They are found in coal and tar sands. Furthermore, they are produced by incomplete
combustion of organic matter, as in forest fires, incineration, and engines.

(89). PAH chemicals such as benzopyrene, acenaphthylene, anthracene, and fluoranthene are known to
be poisonous, carcinogenic, and mutagenic. They are a significant risk factor for developing lung cancer.
(89).

Volatile Organic Compounds(VOCs)

Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) as toluene, benzene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (90) have been linked
to cancer in humans. (91). The usage of innovative products and materials has actually raised VOC
concentrations. VOCs pollute indoor air (90) and may be harmful to human health. (91). There are both
short-term and long-term negative consequences on human health. Indoor air odours are caused by
VOCs. Short-term exposure causes irritation of the eyes, nose, throat, and mucosal membranes, but
long-term exposure causes hazardous effects. (92). The harmful consequences of complex VOC
combinations are difficult to predict since these contaminants can have synergistic, antagonistic, or
indifferent effects. (91, 93).

Dioxins

Dioxins are produced by industrial operations as well as natural events such as forest fires and volcanic
eruptions. They accumulate in foods such as meat and dairy products, fish and shellfish, and particularly
in animal fatty tissue. (94).

Short-term exposure to high dioxin concentrations can cause black patches and lesions on the skin. (94).
Long-term dioxin exposure can result in developmental issues, immunological, endocrine, and
neurological system damage, infertility, and cancer. (94).

Without a doubt, the use of fossil fuels contributes significantly to air pollution. This contamination can
be artificial, such as through agricultural and industrial activities or transportation, or it might come from
natural sources. It is worth noting that the European Air Quality Directive air quality criteria are
somewhat looser than the WHO norms, which are harsher. (95).

EFFECT OF AIR POLLUTION ON HEALTH

Ground-level ozone and Particulate Matter are the most common air contaminants. (PM). Air pollution is
classified into two types:

• Outdoor pollution is also known as ambient air pollution.

• Indoor pollution is pollution caused by the combustion of fuels in the home.

People who are exposed to high amounts of air pollution have disease symptoms and states of varying
severity. These consequences are classified as either short-term or long-term health effects.

Older adults, children, and persons with diabetes and predisposing heart or lung disease, particularly
asthma, are vulnerable populations that should be informed of health-protection measures.

As previously noted, the relative magnitudes of the short- and long-term impacts have not been totally
defined (57) due to varied epidemiological techniques and exposure mistakes, according to a new
epidemiological study from Harvard School of Public Health. New models are presented for more
successfully assessing short- and long-term human exposure data. (57). As a result, in this section, we
report on the most prevalent short- and long-term health impacts, as well as general concerns for both
types of effects, because these effects are frequently reliant on environmental conditions, dose, and
individual sensitivity.

Short-term effects are transient and range from simple discomfort, such as eye, nose, skin, and throat
irritation, wheezing, coughing, and chest tightness, and breathing difficulties, to more serious
conditions, such as asthma, pneumonia, bronchitis, and lung and heart problems. Short-term air
pollution exposure can also produce headaches, nausea, and dizziness.
These issues can be exacerbated by long-term exposure to pollution, which is damaging to the
neurological, reproductive, and respiratory systems, as well as causing cancer and, in rare cases, death.

The long-term effects are chronic, lasting years or even a lifetime, and can even result in death.
Furthermore, the toxicity of numerous air contaminants may, in the long run, cause a range of
malignancies. (96).

As previously indicated, respiratory illnesses are closely linked to the inhalation of air contaminants.
These pollutants will enter the airways and collect in the cells. The pollutant component involved, as
well as its source and dose, should be linked to cell damage. Health impacts are also strongly influenced
by country, region, season, and time. Long-term health impacts from pollutant exposure should be
expected in connection to the aforementioned parameters.

Particulate Matter (PMs), dust, benzene, and O3 all have a negative impact on the respiratory system.
(97). Furthermore, there is an additional danger if you have a pre-existing respiratory ailment like
asthma. (98). Long-term impacts are more common in persons who have a predisposing illness. When
contaminants infiltrate the trachea, voice changes may be observed after acute exposure. Air pollution
can cause chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), which increases morbidity and death. (99).
Long-term consequences of traffic, industrial air pollution, and fuel burning are the key risk factors for
COPD. (99).

Multiple cardiovascular consequences have been observed following air pollution exposure. (100).
Changes in blood cells caused by long-term exposure may have an impact on heart functionality. Long-
term exposure to traffic emissions has been linked to coronary arteriosclerosis (101), whilst short-term
exposure has been linked to hypertension, stroke, myocardial infracts, and heart failure. Long-term
exposure to nitrogen oxide (NO2) has been linked to ventricular hypertrophy in humans. (102, 103).

Long-term exposure to air pollution has been linked to neurological consequences in both adults and
children.

Long-term air pollution appears to be linked to psychological difficulties, autism, retinopathy, prenatal
development, and low birth weight. (83). The etiologic agent of the neurodegenerative disorders
(Alzheimer's and Parkinson's) is unknown, but prolonged exposure to air pollution is thought to be a
cause. Pesticides and metals, as well as nutrition, are specifically mentioned as etiological contributors.
Oxidative stress, protein aggregation, inflammation, and mitochondrial dysfunction in neurons are all
factors in the development of neurodegenerative illness (104) (Figure 1).

Brain inflammation was seen in dogs who had spent a long time living in a heavily polluted area of
Mexico. (105). Systemic inflammation markers (IL-6 and fibrinogen) were shown to be elevated in
human adults as an immediate response to PNC on the IL-6 level, presumably leading to the creation of
acute-phase proteins. (106). The mechanisms involved in the neurological abnormalities produced by
long-term air pollution appear to include the growth of atherosclerosis and oxidative stress.
Inflammation occurs as a result of oxidative stress and appears to be implicated in developmental
maturation delay, impacting many organs. (105, 107).

Similarly, other characteristics that characterize the vulnerability to long-term air pollution appear to be
implicated in developmental maturity. Birthweight, maternal smoking, genetic background, social
milieu, and education level are all factors.
Diet, beginning with breast-feeding, is another decisive element. Diet is the primary source of
antioxidants, which play an important role in protecting us from air pollution. (108). Antioxidants are
free radical scavengers that restrict free radical interaction in the brain. (108). Similarly, genetic
background may influence vulnerability to the oxidative stress pathway. (60). Antioxidant therapy with
vitamins C and E, for example, appears to regulate the effect of ozone in asthmatic children who are
homozygous for the GSTM1 null allele. (61).

Inflammatory cytokines secreted in the periphery (e.g., respiratory epithelia) increase the expression of
the innate immunological Toll-like receptor 2. Such activation and the ensuing events leading to
neurodegeneration have recently been detected in lung lavage from mice exposed to ambient
particulate matter in Los Angeles (CA, USA). (61). Lead exposure caused neurodevelopmental
morbidities in children. These children exhibited aggressive and delinquent behavior, as well as
decreased IQ, learning difficulties, and hyperactivity. (109). There appears to be no "safe" threshold of
lead exposure, and the scientific community has petitioned the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) to lower the existing screening standard of 10 g/dl. (109).

It is critical to note that poor air quality has an impact on the immune system, generating malfunction
and neuroinflammation (104). Nonetheless, increases in immunoglobulin (IgA, IgM) and complement
component C3 serum levels have been recorded. (106). Another concern is that air pollution influence
antigen presentation by upregulating costimulatory molecules such as CD80 and CD86 on macrophages.
(110).

As the most external layer of our body, skin protects us from ultraviolet radiation (UVR) and other
contaminants. Pollutants from traffic, such as PAHs, VOCs, oxides, and PM, can develop pigmented
blotches on our skin. (111). On the one hand, as previously indicated, when pollutants enter the body
through the skin or are inhaled, they cause organ damage because some of these pollutants are
mutagenic and carcinogenic, notably affecting the liver and lungs.

Conversely, air pollutants (particularly those in the troposphere) mitigate the negative effects of
ultraviolet radiation UVR in polluted urban areas. (111). Skin aging, psoriasis, acne, urticaria, eczema,
and atopic dermatitis (111), which are typically caused by exposure to oxides and photochemical smoke,
may be exacerbated by air pollutants absorbed by the human skin. (111). Smoking and exposure to PM
act as skin-aging agents, creating spots, dyschromia, and wrinkles. Finally, contaminants have been
linked to skin cancer. (111).

When exposed to the aforementioned hazards, fetuses and children suffer from increased morbidity.
Fetal growth retardation, low birth weight, and autism have all been reported. (112).

The eye is another external organ that could be damaged. Contamination is typically caused by
suspended pollutants and might result in asymptomatic ocular outcomes such as irritation, retinopathy,
or dry eye syndrome. (113, 114).

AIR POLLUTION'S IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT

Not only does air pollution impair human health, but it also harms the environment (115) in which we
live. The following are the most significant environmental effects.
Wet (rain, fog, snow) or dry (particulates and gas) precipitation containing lethal levels of nitric and
sulfuric acids is referred to as acid rain. They are capable of acidifying the water and soil habitats,
causing damage to plants and plantations, and even causing damage to buildings and outdoor
sculptures, constructions, and statues.

Haze is created when fine particles in the air spread and impair the transparency of the atmosphere. It is
caused by airborne gas emissions from industrial sites, power plants, cars, and trucks.

As previously stated, ozone occurs both at ground level and in the upper level (stratosphere) of the
Earth's atmosphere. Stratospheric ozone shields us from the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) rays. Ground-level
ozone, on the other hand, is both hazardous to human health and a pollutant. Unfortunately, ozone-
depleting chemicals eventually deplete stratospheric ozone. (i.e., chemicals, pesticides, and aerosols). If
the protective stratospheric ozone layer thins, UV radiation can reach our planet, causing harm to
human life (skin cancer) (116) and agriculture. (117). In plants, ozone enters the stomata, causing them
to close, preventing CO2 transport and reducing photosynthesis. (118).

Global climate change is a major worry for humanity. The "greenhouse effect," as it is known, maintains
the Earth's temperature steady. Unfortunately, humans activities have damaged this temperature-
regulating effect by emitting significant volumes of greenhouse gases, and global warming is worsening,
threatening human health, animals, forests, wildlife, agriculture, and the aquatic environment.
According to one assessment, global warming is increasing the health risks for poor people. (119).

As temperatures rise, people living in poorly designed buildings in warm-climate countries are at
increased risk of heat-related health problems. (119).

Toxic contaminants from the air, soil, or water ecosystems stress wildlife, and animals might suffer
health problems when exposed to excessive amounts of pollution. There have been reports of
reproductive failure and birth defects.

Eutrophication occurs when elevated nutrient concentrations (particularly nitrogen) drive the
blossoming of aquatic algae, causing a disequilibrium in the diversity of fish and their deaths.

There is, without a doubt, a threshold concentration of pollution that an ecosystem can accept without
being destroyed, which is related to the ecosystem's ability to neutralize acidity. This load was set at 20
kg/ha/year by the Canada Acid Rain Program. (120).

As a result, air pollution has a negative impact on both soil and water. (121). The impact of PM as an air
contaminant on crop output and food productivity has been documented. Its impact on bodies of water
is linked to the survival of living organisms and fish, as well as their productivity capacity. (121).

Plants exposed to the effects of ozone show a reduction in photosynthetic rhythm and metabolism.
(121).

Acid rain is caused by sulfur and nitrogen oxides, which are hazardous to plants and marine organisms.

Last but not least, as previously stated, the toxicity of lead and other metals is the most serious threat to
our ecosystems (air, water, and soil) and living organisms. (121).

CONCLUSION
During the first WHO Global Conference on Air Pollution and Health in 2018, Dr. Tedros Adhanom
Ghebreyesus, WHO General Director, referred to air pollution as a "silent public health emergency" and
"the new tobacco." (122).

Without a doubt, children are especially exposed to air pollution, particularly during their development.
Air pollution has a negative impact on our lives in a variety of ways.

Diseases caused by air pollution have a significant economic cost as well as a societal impact owing to
absences from productive job and school.

Despite the challenge of eliminating anthropogenic environmental contamination, a good solution might
be envisioned as a close collaboration of authorities, bodies, and doctors to normalize the condition.
Governments must provide adequate information, educate citizens, and involve specialists in these
concerns in order to properly control the rise of the problem.

Air pollution reduction technologies must be developed and implemented in all sectors and power
plants. The Kyoto Protocol of 1997 established as a main goal the reduction of GHG emissions to less
than 5% by 2012. (123). This was followed by the Copenhagen summit in 2009 (124), and then the
Durban summit in 2011, where it was resolved to continue on the same path. Many countries ratified
the Kyoto Protocol and following ones. China was one of the early adopters of this critical protocol for
the world's environmental and climate "health." (3). As is well known, China's economy is rapidly
increasing, and its GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is predicted to be very high by 2050.

The Paris pact of 2015, announced by the UNFCCC, is a more recent international pact of critical
relevance for climate change. (United Nations Climate Change Committee). This most recent agreement
was ratified by a large number of UN (United Nations) countries as well as European Union countries.

(126). In this vein, parties should encourage actions and initiatives to improve a variety of areas related
to the subject. Increasing education, training, public awareness, and public participation are some of the
relevant steps for optimizing opportunities to meet the critical targets and goals of climate change and
environmental degradation. (126). Without a question, technology advancements make our lives easier.
While it may appear tough to eliminate the damaging impact of gas emissions, we could limit their
influence.

To summarize, a global preventative program should be developed to combat anthropogenic air

pollution in addition to the proper management of the adverse health impacts connected with air
pollution. In order to effectively address the problem, sustainable development approaches should be
combined with research findings.

International cooperation in research, development, administration policy, monitoring, and politics is

critical at this stage for effective pollution control. Air pollution legislation must be aligned and updated,
and policymakers should propose the development of a formidable weapon for environmental and
health protection. As a result, the fundamental idea of this essay is to focus on nurturing local structures
to encourage experience and practice, and then extrapolate these to the worldwide level through the
development of effective regulations for sustainable ecosystem management.
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