UNIT III

Data collection technique

Data collection is the process of collecting and evaluating information or data from multiple
sources to find answers to research problems, answer questions, evaluate outcomes, and forecast
trends and probabilities. It is an essential phase in all types of research, analysis, and decision-
making, including that done in the social sciences, business, and healthcare.

Accurate data collection is necessary to make informed business decisions, ensure quality
assurance, and keep research integrity.

During data collection, the researchers must identify the data types, the sources of data, and what
methods are being used. We will soon see that there are many different data collection methods.
There is heavy reliance on data collection in research, commercial, and government fields.

Before an analyst begins collecting data, they must answer three questions first:

 What’s the goal or purpose of this research?

 What kinds of data are they planning on gathering?

 What methods and procedures will be used to collect, store, and process the information?

Additionally, we can break up data into qualitative and quantitative types. Qualitative data covers
descriptions such as color, size, quality, and appearance. Quantitative data, unsurprisingly, deals
with numbers, such as statistics, poll numbers, percentages, etc.

1. Primary Data Collection:

Primary data collection involves the collection of original data directly from the source or through
direct interaction with the respondents. This method allows researchers to obtain firsthand
information specifically tailored to their research objectives. There are various techniques for
primary data collection, including:

a. Surveys and Questionnaires: Researchers design structured questionnaires or surveys to collect

data from individuals or groups. These can be conducted through face-to-face interviews,
telephone calls, mail, or online platforms.

b. Interviews: Interviews involve direct interaction between the researcher and the respondent.
They can be conducted in person, over the phone, or through video conferencing. Interviews can
be structured (with predefined questions), semi-structured (allowing flexibility), or unstructured
(more conversational).

c. Observations: Researchers observe and record behaviors, actions, or events in their natural
setting. This method is useful for gathering data on human behavior, interactions, or phenomena
without direct intervention.
d. Experiments: Experimental studies involve the manipulation of variables to observe their impact
on the outcome. Researchers control the conditions and collect data to draw conclusions about
cause-and-effect relationships.

e. Focus Groups: Focus groups bring together a small group of individuals who discuss specific
topics in a moderated setting. This method helps in understanding opinions, perceptions, and
experiences shared by the participants.

2. Secondary Data Collection:

Secondary data collection involves using existing data collected by someone else for a purpose
different from the original intent. Researchers analyze and interpret this data to extract relevant
information. Secondary data can be obtained from various sources, including:

a. Published Sources: Researchers refer to books, academic journals, magazines, newspapers,

government reports, and other published materials that contain relevant data.

b. Online Databases: Numerous online databases provide access to a wide range of secondary data,
such as research articles, statistical information, economic data, and social surveys.

c. Government and Institutional Records: Government agencies, research institutions, and

organizations often maintain databases or records that can be used for research purposes.

d. Publicly Available Data: Data shared by individuals, organizations, or communities on public

platforms, websites, or social media can be accessed and utilized for research.

e. Past Research Studies: Previous research studies and their findings can serve as valuable
secondary data sources. Researchers can review and analyze the data to gain insights or build upon
existing knowledge.

Observation in research

In sociological research, 'observation' refers to a method in which researchers study the ongoing
behaviour of their participants (or subjects). This is different from techniques such as interviews
or questionnaires because observations are a study of what subjects do instead of what they say.
Observation is a primary research method. Primary research involves personally collecting the
data or information being studied. This is the opposite of the secondary research method, where
researchers choose to study data that has already been collected before their study begins.

The purpose of observation is to : to capture the human conduct as it actually happens; to

provide more graphic description of social life; to study important events and situations; to verify
and extend the generalisations or theories formed on the basis of other studies; and to gain insights
in to the problem. The purpose of the observation method is to collect valid data for qualitative
research used in both basic and applied research.
The characteristics of observation method of data collection are: It involves both mental and
physical activity. The observer may see many things but attention has to be drawn only on the
items useful / relevant for the study. Observation is made on selective basis i.e. the researcher
selects a relevant sample. Observation takes place in natural surroundings. It helps the researcher
to determine the reality by himself or herself. It avoids manipulations. The collection and
recording of data is not selective, it is done as it is observed in natural environment rather than
creating an artificial/laboratory environment. It involves few or no controls on the surroundings.
It could be observation of fewer items/subjects. It must serve the formulated research purpose.

Types of observation:

There are several types of observational methods used across many social science disciplines.
They're each suited to different research purposes, and have different strengths and limitations.

 In covert research, the research participants don't know who the researcher is, or that
there's even a researcher there at all.
 In overt research, the research participants are all aware of the researcher's presence and
their role as an observer.

Participant observation

In participant observation, the researcher integrates themselves into a group to study their way
of life, their culture, and how they structure their community. This technique is commonly used
in ethnography.

Ethnography is the study of the way of life of a group or community. The fact that researchers
have to be integrated into the group's way of life means that they need to find a way to be let
into the community. However, many communities don't want to be studied. So, the researcher can
either earn the trust of certain members and seek permission to study their way of life (overt
observation), or the researcher can pretend to become a member of the group to gain access to
information (covert observation). While conducting participant observation, the researcher should
focus on capturing an accurate and authentic account of the community's way of life. This means
that the researcher has to avoid influencing the behaviour of anyone in the group. Where simply
observing the crowd isn't enough, the researcher might need to ask some questions. If they're
conducting covert research, they might enlist an informant. The informant will be aware of the
researcher's presence and can answer questions that are not addressed by observation alone.
Taking notes is more difficult when they're acting covertly. It's common for researchers to pop
into the bathroom to make a quick note of something important, or to summarise their daily
observations every evening. Where the researcher's presence is known, it's relatively simple for
them to take notes, because they don't need to hide the fact that they're conducting research.

Non-participant observation

In non-participant observation, the researcher studies their subjects from the sidelines - they
don't participate or integrate themselves into the lives of the group they are studying. Non-
participant observation can be either structured or unstructured. Structured non-participant
observation involves some sort of observation schedule. Before they begin their observation,
researchers make a list of behaviours that they expect to see. They then use this list to tick off what
they see. Unstructured observation is the opposite of this - it involves the researcher freely noting
down whatever they see. Moreover, non-participant research can be overt. This is where the
subjects are aware that they are being studied (like the headteacher sitting at the back of a class
for one day each term). Or, the research can be covert, where the researcher's presence is a little
more unassuming - the subjects don't know that they're being researched. For example, a
researcher might be disguised as another customer in a shop, or use a one-way mirror. As strange
as it might sound, it's important for researchers to not only take note of what the subjects are doing
but also what they aren't doing. For example, if a researcher was examining customer behaviour
in a retail store, they might observe that people ask shopkeepers for assistance in some situations,
but not others. What are those particular situations? What do customers do when they're
uncomfortable asking for help?

Systematic---Non Systematic Observation Method:

In Systematic observation, stated procedures are used for observation and recording the data has
to be done following certain rules or logical approach. This data could be possibly replicated.
Unsystematic observation does not follow any rules or logic and replication becomes difficult.

Structured --- Unstructured Structured observation

Structured --- Unstructured Structured observation is organised and planned which employs
formal procedure. The units to be observed have to be carefully defined. It is also necessary to
define the information to be recorded, selection of data and standardisation of conditions of
observation; the observer is supposed to be knowing the situation and therefore need to prepare
specific plan for collection and recording the data. In this type, the categories of observation have
to be developed. It is subjected to high levels of control and differentiation. The unstructured
observation is contrasting to the above situation. The participant observation could be of this type
as the observer may have to observe many things for longer time and may not be able to structure
his program. Further, he will depend on the natural situation, which is not in his control and
difficult to structure. However, the researcher should decide the relationship between him and the
group; the period of observation; type of behaviour to be observed, etc.

Natural – Laboratory observation

Natural observation is made in natural settings. While the laboratory observation is made in the
laboratory.

Open – Hidden Observation

In open observation the identity of the researcher as well as the purpose of study are known to the
participants. In hidden observation, both the identity and purpose are kept hidden from the people
under observation.

Direct – Indirect Observation:

In direct observation, the observer merely records what occurs. No attempt is being to control /
manipulate the situation. Indirect observation is being made where either the subject is dead or
refuses to take part in the study. The observer may observe the physical traces left behind and
 make conclusions about the subject. For example, the police may visit the site of the crime and
look for traces left by the criminal for further investigation or study.

In Covert observation, the subjects / group being observed are not aware that they are being
observed. Participant observation could be covert observation as the observer is a participant in
the group and their activities. In Overt observation, the subjects are aware that they are being
observed. Once the subjects know that they are being observed, there is every possibility of change
in their behaviour. We can take an example of a police man’s behaviour with the accused/
criminals, while he knows that he is being observed. He will be polite and may not use abusive
language.

Advantages of observational research

 Covert participant observation is likely to have high levels of validity because:

o Participants are being studied in their natural environment, in which their behaviour
won't be swayed by the known presence of a researcher.
o Researchers can gain the trust of their participants, and get a better idea of not only
what people do, but how and why they do it. This is beneficial to making
assumptions by applying their own understandings to observed behaviours.

 Non-participant research is generally cheaper and quicker to do. It doesn't require time and
resources for the researcher to integrate into an unfamiliar community.

 The quantitative nature of structured observations makes it easier for researchers to make
comparisons between different communities, or the same community at different times.
Schedule:
Schedule is the tool or instrument used to collect data from the respondents while interview is
conducted. Schedule contains questions, statements (on which opinions are elicited) and blank
spaces/tables for filling up the respondents. The features of schedules are :

 The schedule is presented by the interviewer. The questions are asked and the answers are noted
down by him.
 The list of questions is a more formal document, it need not be attractive.
 The schedule can be used in a very narrow sphere of social research.

The main purposes of schedule are three fold :

1. To provide a standardized tool for observation or interview in order to attain objectivity,

2. To act as memory tickler i.e., the schedule keeps the memory of the interviewer/ observer refreshed
and keeps him reminded of the different aspects that are to be particularly observed, and
3. To facilitate the work of tabulation and analysis.

Types of Schedule

There are several kinds of schedule. Rating Schedules is a schedule used to obtain opinions,
preferences etc, respondents over statements on the phenomenon studied. The schedule consists
of positive and negative statements of opinion on the phenomenon. Documents Schedules are
used to collect data/information from recorded evidences and/or case histories. Here the blanks,
 functional issues related blanks and the like to be filled up from records and documents are
present. Survey Schedules are like questionnaires. Observation Schedules are schedules used
when observational method of data collection is used. These could be structured or unstructured
interview schedules are used for collecting data when interview method of communication with
the respondents is used.

Essentials of a Good Schedule

A good schedule must have the following features

 Content: Should cover questions or statements relating to all significant aspects of the study.
 Dissectional: Should look into the problem analytically, dissecting every, major and significant
components of the problem.
 Context: Should suit the context in which it is applied. Different types of studies need different
schedules.
 Criterion: Should use sound logic in classifying respondents based opinions expressed.
 Construction: Should be constructed in such a way that questions statements progress gradually
and in order. Better it is sub-divided into parts, each part deeding with a certain sub topic of the
issue studied. For each objective, a separate part may be devoted.
 Language: Should be linguistically superbly designed. Clear and straight forward language be
used.
 Reliable: Should be reliable such that same results are obtained whenever the schedule is used
when everything else remains same.
 Mechanical Aspects: Paper used, margin space given, spacing, printing, size of letters, etc. should
be normal.
 Size: Should not too length nor too short. Should give fair coverage to the topic.
 Qualities to be Avoided: Long, complex, presumptuous, personal, embarrassing, hypothetical
issues, morality oriented, upsetting type and necessary questions must be avoided.

Questionnaire:
In survey research where large number of respondents have to be contacted and a large amount of
data has to be gathered, questionnaire as a tool of data collection appears to be the most suitbale
and appropriate. The questionnaires play a central role in the data gathering process. In order to
gather efficient and correct information and that too economically, the questionnaire has to be
worked out very systematically and designed most appropriately depending on the information
needed. Questionnaires play a central role in the data collection process. Questionnaires facilitate
the coding and capturing of data accurately, and it leads to an overall reduction in the cost and
time associated with data collection and processing. Questionnaires contain a large number of
questions pertaining to the subject matter. In many questionnaires there are sections that are part
of the major topic and these sections go into details of information on the subject matter. The
questionnaires address the following issues, viz., why the research is being conducted and why
the survey form has been selected for collecting information. Secondly the questionnaire deals
with how the information is going to be used and whether the information will be accurate and
timely. The questionnaires can be sent by post to the respondents or given peronally by the
researcher, and getthe same filled in by self or by the respondent. When sent by post the number
of questionnaires returned will be far less and if it is 66% it may be considered representative.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaires are of varied types and depending on the type of survey undertaken the
questionnaire will be of a certain type. Let us see what are the various types of questionnaires we
have. The first one is structured questionnaire, unstructured questionnaire, and semi structured
questionnaires. Let us see in detail each of these types.
Structured Questionnaires: As the name suggests, these are structured. That is the answers are
already given and the respondent has to tick mark the most suitable answer. In most questionnaire
the responses to most questions are exhaustive and still if a person wants to give a response aside
from the responses mentioned in the questionnaire, there is a column indicating “any other
response, specify”. However all responses are clearly gven and predetermined and there is very
little flexibility to add anything except in rare cases.
Unstructured Questionnaires: In this, the questions are open ended and the answers are not given
or predetermined. And hence the respondent can give whatever response he would like to these
questions. However even though unstructured, the sequence of the questions follow an order. This
sequence is predetermined by the researcher. The answers obtained are noted down by the
researcher or the respondent himself fills it up. Since there is flexibility to add one’s own thoughts
and feelings, these questionnaires elicit very factual and truthful and descriptive responses.
Semi-structured Questionnaires: These types of questionnaires have a mixed approach. In this
some questions are structured and some are not structured. There is generally a mixed approach.
Structured questionnaires allow for the exploration of patterns and trends which help to describe
what is happening in the L&T context and provide a measure of respondents’ opinions, attitudes,
feelings, and perceptions about issues of particular concern to the evaluator. They also help to
identify patterns and trends that merit further exploration using qualitative methods.
PURPOSES OF QUESTIONNAIRE STUDIES
1) Descriptive Studies: The task here is to count something. The intent may be to estimate the
parameters (population facts) for certain characteristics of a given population or to survey current
practices in some field or profession.
2) Analytical Studies: In these studies, the investigator is usually interested in comparing
characteristics among two or more populations. Studies in which the interest lies in exploring the
relationship among variables for a single population also qualify as analytical studies.
THE METHODS TO MAKE A QUESTIONNAIRE EFFICIENT
Questionnaire designers have to look into these factors, namely, the layout, presentation, the
overall appearance and avoid the temptation to ask four questions in one question etc. To cite an
example, if we are conducting a survey on drop outs of children before reaching class 8, we may
have a question as given below: “Do you think the parents or children responsible for drop outs or
whether the income is low and the children supplement the family income. Here too many
questions and each can be answered separately with different answers. Here are certain important
rules for questionnaire construction which have to be kept in mind while we construct the
questionnaire.
 Give attention to the structure of the questionnaire.
 Start with a straightforward question to get the recipient to start replying.
 Move from the general to the specific in each section (usually).
 Try to ensure some variety in the types of question asked (see below).
 Draw skidpaths if there are alternative routes (of the type ‘if ‘Yes’ go on to question x’) to make
sure that every eventuality is covered. Then choose whether to leave these in to help people move
through the questionnaire.
 Group related topics into modules.
 Make the structure clear to the respondent by using headings. Questionnaire Method Tools of
Data Collection
 Choose the question types to fit the purpose. The main options are:
 closed questions – pre-assigned response categories or ‘yes’ and ‘no’ boxes (make sure that each
category is distinct [especially for age ranges] and that all eventualities are covered – if your
response category is not provided what does this say about the competence of the designers?)
 Open questions – at simplest this may be a ‘Why is this?’ after a closed question; the intention
is that the respondents should reply in their own words (don’t forget to analyse these and that
categorisation/synthesis takes time)
 Use response scales where appropriate. These are a form of closed question.
Most common are: Some of the important scales that could be made use of include the following:
1) Likert scales: a set of choices to record agreement/disagreement.
2) Guttman scales: statements arranged according to the strength of attitude.
3) Thurstone scales: forced choice to agree/disagree.
4) Semantic differential: seeking quantitative measures by offering scales between extremes.
While using any of the scales above, it must be remembered that the researcher must offer clear
and consistent instructions for completing the questionnaire (easily forgotten if questions are
considered individually) The researcher must pay attention to question wording since this is a topic
in its own right. Thus the overall aim of the research questionnaire is to obtain research relevant
information efficiently. For this the researcher requires active co-operation from the target group.
Every effort should be made to get back the maximum questionnaires that were distributed to
respondents, or else the findings may not be possible to generalise. This ofcourse would take time,
planning and attention to detail. However considering the difficulty in getting the questionnaires
back, it has been stated that two-thirds of the questionnaire if returned back tht could make the
research findings worth the while.
Interview methods:
Some interviews are conducted for gathering information from very important persons to know
about their lives, ideas etc. This can be used for biographical writing. Other types of interview are
the ones conducted for the purpose of understanding an event that has taken place, such as the
suicide of an individual or murder of a person etc. Here the purpose is clear though the method of
interviewing may vary considerably. Other type of interview is to have clear questions in order to
understand a person and his or her problem. There is another type of interview between the doctor
and the patient, where the doctor questions the patient in a particular order as to what the symptoms
are and how long the person had it and then based on the interview which is called case history is
able to come to an understanding of the diagnosis of the patient’s problem. An Interview, meant
for a research study, involves the researcher or his investigators interacting on a one- to-one level
with a respondent, who has been selected by the researcher as one of the subjects for the study.
The interviewer puts questions to the respondent on a particular subject matter and the
respondent’s replies are noted down verbatim, where possible or recorded as an audio report. The
interview aims to describe the meanings of central themes in the life of the subjects. The main task
in this is to understand the meaning of what the interviewees say. Interviews also can focus on the
main aspects of the subject matter. The interview is as a follow-up instrument to get to know about
certain responses to the questionnaires, so that one can further investigate their responses. An
interview can be one to one or it can be one to many. Answers to the questions posed during an
interview can be recorded by writing them down (either during the interview itself or immediately
after the interview) or by tape-recording the responses, or by a combination of both. Interviews
can be conducted with varying degrees of flexibility that is high and low degree of flexibility. As
regards high flexibility, one can take an example of studying sensitive issues such as teenage
pregnancy and abortions. The investigator may use a list of topics rather than fixed questions.
These may include how teenagers started sexual intercourse, the responsibility girls and their
partners take to prevent pregnancy (if at all), and the actions they take in the event of unwanted
pregnancies etc. The investigator should have an additional list of topics ready when the
respondent falls silent, (example, when asked about abortion methods used, who made the decision
and who paid). The sequence of topics should be determined by the flow of discussion. It is often
possible to come back to a topic discussed earlier in a later stage of the interview. The unstructured
or loosely structured method of asking questions can be used for interviewing individuals as well
as groups of key informants. A flexible method of interviewing is useful if a researcher has not
much of an understanding of the problem or situation he is investigating, or if the topic is sensitive.
It is frequently applied in exploratory studies. The instrument used may be called an interview
guide or interview schedule. In regard to low degree of flexibility, these interview methods are
useful when the researcher is relatively knowledgeable about expected answers or when the
number of respondents being interviewed is relatively large. In such cases structured
questionnaires may be used so that large number of respondents could be covered. To cite an
example, after a number of observations on the (hygienic) behaviour of women drawing water at
a well and some key informant interviews on the use and maintenance of the wells, one may
conduct a larger survey on water use and satisfaction with the quantity and quality of the water.
Interviews also can focus on the main aspects of the subject matter, or can get to know what the
topic has to convey behind the scene and what the topic can convey. Interviews are generally
easier for respondent, especially if what is sought includes opinions or impressions. Interviews are
time consuming and they are resource intensive. The interviewer is considered a part of the
measurement instrument and interviewer has to be well trained in how to respond to any
contingency.
Types of Interviews:
The interviews are of many types, as for instance (1) Informal, conversational type, (2) General
interview guide (3) Standardised open ended interview (4) Closed fixed response.
Informal conversational type interviews In the informal conversational interview, as is implied,
the respondents are identified and are involved in a pleasant conversation. This conversation is
with a specific research purpose that has been already determined. In the pleasant conversation,
the interviewer talks in general, gets acquainted with respondents, after which the purpose of the
research study is put across to the respondents and they are told what is expected of this study and
how important the respondent and his responses are for the research. Thus from a general approach
the researcher moves on to the specific purpose. There are no pre-determined questions, and the
researcher indicates clearly that any answer the interviewee provides should be stated without
hesitation as there is no right or wrong answers. During the interview the interviewer “goes with
the flow” of what the respondent tells.
General Interview Guide In this, every effort is put in to ensure that no important points are left
out and the manner in which the questions should be asked and the sequences are kept up. This
general interview guide also helps in conducting the interview to get information from all the
respondents, on all the items that have to be covered. The interview guide thus provides the needed
focus to the conversational approach and at the same time gives enough freedom to the interviewer
and the respondent.
Standardised, Open Ended Interview: This type of interviews gives considerable scope for the
respondent to answer fairly in detail his own ideas and opinions on the particular topic instead of
answering or tick marking the answers only. These open ended questions are also uniformly put
to all the respondents selected for the study. It not only elicits a variety of responses but also makes
the research much more rich in contents.
Closed, Fixed-response Interview: In this the answers are provided to all the questions, and the
respondents are required to select from within them, that response which is most applicable to
them. Thus all respondents will choose answers from amongst the same set of alternatives. This
format is useful where the questions could have clear cut answers and they can be categorised
meaningfully into 7 to 10 categories or less, and the respondents, except a few would find their
answers within those categories and tick mark the same. Such responses are easy to score code
and analyse, as compared to the responses obtained in the open ended interview. This is so
because, the responses in the open ended questions may be so many that the researcher will have
to scrutinise all the responses and categorise them after the entire data have been collected.
Telephone Interview Another type of interview is the Telephone Interview, in which the
researcher gathers information rapidly through telephone. Though these interviews do help to
establish a kind of rapport with the person at the other end of the telephone, yet many respondents
may just refuse to answer and may put down the phone. At the same time, there is a personal touch
which can be transmitted to the respondent. Furthermore the telephone interviews have to be
necessarily short as no one would like to answer a large number of questions. There are varying
points of view regarding the advisability and utility of using the telephone to conduct research
interviews.
Interview Questions:
it must be able to tap the behaviours of the respondents, their moods and emotions and their exact
responses which are truthful and objective. Given below are some of the important aspects that
should be covered in any interview questions.
1) Behaviours: These questions try to find out from the respondent what he does or did or would
do if given a situation. (Example, Respondent’s opinion in regard to making admission to schools
for children without screening under Right to Education Act. Here the person may say that he will
write articles against it in the newspaper or give lectures or speeches condemning such non
screening as it is harmful to children who are normal and intelligent. These indicate the behaviours
of the respondent in regard to the topic).
2) Opinions/values: These questions will also tap the attitudes and opinions of the respondents
regarding an issue. Opinions and values are generally strong until something very significant
occurs which changes the opinion and value. The questions would be for instance, what does the
respondent think of a person marrying out of caste and religion. The respondent may state that he
is very much against anyone marrying out of caste and religion. This is his opinion and to an extent
perhaps goes with his value system.
3) Feelings: The questions also elicit the feelings of the individual in regard to what a person feels
rather than what a person thinks.
4) Knowledge: This would ensure that the topic of research and knowledge about the facts
regarding the topic is conveyed to the respondent. Thus the respondents get facts about the topic.
5) Sensory: The Questions that would be included in this section will deal with the respondent’s
perceptions. That is, what ever he has seen, whatever he has touched, whatever he had heard,
whatever he had tasted, whatever he had smelt etc.
6) Background / Demographics: The respondent is asked questions related to his age, gender,
education, income, marital status etc., which are all put together constitute the socio demographic
features of the respondent
Stages of Interview :
There are in all seven (7) stages in the interview investigation. These include the following:
1) Thematising: The why and what of the investigation.
2) Designing: Plan the design of the study.
3) Interviewing: Conduct the interview based on a guide.
4) Transcribing: Prepare the interview material for analysis.
5) Analysing: Decide on the purpose, the topic, the nature and methods of analysis that are
appropriate.
6) Verifying: Ascertain the validity of the interview findings.
7) Reporting: Communicate findings of the study based on scientific criteria.
Social Survey
Social survey is the most commonly used research technique in Management. It is a methodical
gathering of social data from a sample of the target population through standardized interviews or
questionnaires. The data thus collected is collated and systematically analyzed quantitatively. It
provides descriptive information about the variables studied, correlations between two or more
variables, and causal analysis.
Importance and scope of social survey:
a) Collection of data related to the social aspect of communitySocial survey studies individuals as
members of society and in this way studies social circumstances and problems.
b) Study of social problems, labor class and its problems- In social survey social problems of the
labor class like illiteracy, poverty, in sanitation, unemployment, drinking, crime, juvenile
delinquency, prostitution, labor problems etc, are studied.
c) Practical and utilitarian view point- Studies of social survey are made from a practical and
utilitarian view point in order that Characteristics of Social Survey suggestions for constructive
programs in solving different problems may be offered.
d) Search for causal, relationship- Every social event has some reason or the other, so social survey
is also done to find out the reasons behind the incident.
e) Re –testing of social theories- one of its main objectives is to retest social theories.
f) Formulation and testing of Hypothesis
Characteristics of social survey
1. Study of social phenomena and problems
2. A methodology of Social research
3.Relating to a specific geographical area
4. Use of Scientific method
5. Cooperative process
6. Study and treatment of problems
Subject matter of social survey:- Broadly the subject matter of social surveys are divided into
1. Demographic features-Demographic features come under the purview of organisation and
working of family regarding such information as household composition, marital status are family
planning programmes etc. the social conditions to which people are subjective this includes
occupation, incomes, a housing amenities many of social action as conditioned by the social
condition i.e. Social environment in which people live. So social condition are helpful to get the
following information and there upon to establish the casual relationship to study the family
relation. One would require information on the location the extent of relationship with elders etc.
2. Social activities-Social activities such as expenditure pattern, radio listening newspaper reading
social mobility information for example to know the expenditure putter of a group of family house.
It requires to the survey or following knowledge on expenditure habit say, expenditure towards
family, clothing, education, cigarettes, cinema and other.
3. Opinion and attitude – Under this category are included surveys which are conducted to know
the views, attitudes,values, and mental conditions of the people on various topics. Surveys
conducted to get public opinion about referendum, untouchability, widow marriage, election
related vote, etc are included under it
Preparation of budgets
Budgets should provide the sponsor with an accurate assessment of all cost items and cost amounts
that are deemed necessary and reasonable to carry out your project. They should be based upon
your description or the statement of work. Budget justification provides more in-depth detail and
reason for each cost and is often considered by reviewers as a good indicator of the feasibility of
the research.

BASIC COMPONENTS OF A RESEARCH BUDGET

A research budget contains both direct costs and indirect costs (overhead), but the level of detail
varies from sponsor to sponsor. The first step in developing a budget is to carefully read the
guidelines of the funding opportunity being pursued.

There is no magic formula available for developing a budget but there are some basic steps to
follow in order to develop an accurate budget:

1. Define project tasks, timelines and milestones and determine the actual resources and costs
required to complete these. Consider whether contingencies are needed (and confirm they
are eligible expenses).
 2. Determine the eligible expense categories and maximum amount allowed by the sponsor.
Adjust scope of the project to make sure proposed activities fit within the allowance.
3. Categorize these costs (e.g., salaries, supplies, equipment…) per year, in some cases by
quarter.
4. Ensure that project scope and budget match. Include indirect costs of research as permitted
by sponsor and the University policy.

TWO MODELS OF BUDGET DEVELOPMENT

The examples below developed by the University of British Columbia demonstrate two ways to
include indirect costs in your budget.

 Price model: Indirect cost is built into each budget line item.
 Cost model: Indirect cost of research is presented as a separate line item.

Unless the sponsor specifies in writing that they require the indirect costs of research to be
presented as a separate line item (Cost Model), the indirect cost should be built into each budget
line item (Price Model). Indirect costs are normally included in the price of goods and services
worldwide.

OTHER FACTORS AFFECTING YOUR BUDGET

In-kind and cash contributions, like other costs to the sponsored project, must be eligible and must
be treated in a consistent and uniform manner in proposal preparation and in financial reporting.

CASH CONTRIBUTIONS

Cash contributions are actual cash transactions that can be documented in the accounting system.
Examples of cash contributions include:

 allocation of compensated faculty and staff time to projects, or

 the purchasing of equipment by the university or other eligible sponsor for the benefit of
the project.

IN-KIND CONTRIBUTIONS

In-kind contributions are both non-monetary or cash equivalent resources that can be given a cash
value, such as goods and/or services in support of a research project or proposal. It is challenging
to report on in-kind contribution, please make sure the numbers you use are well supported,
consistent and easy to quantitate.

Examples of an in-kind contribution may include:

 Access to unique database or information

 Professional, analytical, and other donated services
 Employee salaries including benefits for time allocated to the project
 Study materials, technologies, or components
 Patents and licenses for use
 Travel
 Use of facilities (e.g., lab or meeting spaces)
  Partner organization time spent participating in the project
 Eligible infrastructure items

Staff and its training:

Training new research staff is a crucial task for any research manager who wants to ensure the
quality, efficiency, and productivity of their research projects. However, training can also be
challenging, time-consuming, and costly, especially if you have a large or diverse research team.
How do you design and implement an effective training program that meets the needs and
expectations of your new research staff? Here are some tips and best practices to help you.

Assess the skills and knowledge gaps

Before you start training, you need to identify the skills and knowledge gaps of your new research
staff. This will help you tailor your training content, methods, and objectives to their specific needs
and goals. You can use various tools and methods to assess the gaps, such as surveys, interviews,
tests, or self-evaluation. You should also consider the level of experience, education, and
background of your new research staff, as well as the requirements and expectations of your
research project.

Define the learning outcomes and objectives

Once you have assessed the skills and knowledge gaps, you need to define the learning outcomes
and objectives of your training program. These are the specific and measurable results that you
want your new research staff to achieve after completing the training. You should align your
learning outcomes and objectives with your research project goals, as well as the standards and
expectations of your research field and organization. You should also communicate your learning
outcomes and objectives clearly and transparently to your new research staff, so that they know
what to expect and how to evaluate their progress.

Choose the appropriate training methods and materials

The next step is to choose the appropriate training methods and materials for your new research
staff. There are many options available, such as online courses, workshops, seminars, webinars,
mentoring, coaching, peer learning, or self-directed learning. You should consider the advantages
and disadvantages of each method, as well as the availability, accessibility, and cost of the
materials. You should also balance the theoretical and practical aspects of your training, and
provide opportunities for your new research staff to apply their learning to real-world scenarios
and problems.

Implement and monitor the training program

After choosing the training methods and materials, you need to implement and monitor the training
program for your new research staff. You should plan and schedule your training sessions
carefully, and ensure that they are relevant, engaging, and interactive. You should also provide
feedback, guidance, and support to your new research staff throughout the training process, and
encourage them to ask questions, share ideas, and collaborate with each other. You should also
track and measure the performance and outcomes of your training program, using various
indicators and metrics, such as attendance, completion, satisfaction, retention, or improvement.

Evaluate and improve the training program

The final step is to evaluate and improve the training program for your new research staff. You
should collect and analyze the data and feedback from your training program, and compare them
with your learning outcomes and objectives. You should also solicit and listen to the opinions and
suggestions of your new research staff, as well as other stakeholders, such as your research
partners, clients, or funders. You should then identify the strengths and weaknesses of your
training program, and make the necessary adjustments and improvements to enhance its
effectiveness and efficiency.

References:
https://www.simplilearn.com/what-is-data-collection-article
https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/
https://www.mbaknol.com/
https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/
https://www.linkedin.com/advice/0/how-do-you-train-new-research-staff-skills-research-
management