Valerie Williams

10.17.23

P:5

Chapters 9-10 – Threats to and Sustaining of Biodiversity

Read the sections indicated and answer the following questions.

Species
1.) Read the core case study on p. 236 and science focus p. 248. Summarize the case of the
honeybees. What is CCD?
Many US growers rent European honeybees from commercial beekeepers who truck bees across
country to pollinate at different bloom times. Replaces free pollination service that bees provide
because it only relies on one type of bee. Some argue this is necessary to grow enough food,
others argue this doesn't sustain biodiversity (lose sustaining other species and lose species that
pollinates most of our crops like almonds). COLONY COLLAPSE DISORDER (CCD) is a
phenomenon in which massive #s of European honeybees has disappeared in winter and not
returned in spring.

2.) What is the difference between biological extinction, background extinction and mass
extinction?
Mass extinctions occur quickly and wipe out large amounts of species at a time. It is extinction
of many species in a relatively short period of time, usually caused by global changes in
environmental conditions. In biological extinction, a species is no longer found anywhere on
earth. Background extinction rate, or normal extinction rate, refers to the number of species that
would be expected to go extinct over a period, based on non-anthropogenic (non-human) factors.
Background extinction: normal extinction of a species due to changes in local environmental
conditions (90% species).

3.) Read the case study p. 238. Summarize what happened with the passenger pigeon.
Billions to none... the extinction of the Passenger Pigeon ...
By 1914 the last remaining pigeon would die... The extinction of the Passenger Pigeon had two
major causes: commercial exploitation of pigeon meat on a massive scale and loss of habitat.
Large flocks and communal breeding made the species highly vulnerable to hunting.

4.) List four reasons why species are a vital part of Earth’s natural capital p. 240-241.
Biodiversity as Natural Capital • The Earth's biodiversity is a vital part of the natural capital that
helps keep us alive and supports our economies. With help of technology, biodiversity provides
us with food, wood, fibers, energy, and medicines.

5.) How do humans accelerate extinction (HIPPCO) p. 242?

The main reason is attributed to habitat loss, as animals are left without places to live as areas
around the planet are being taken over and changed by human presence. The greatest threat is the
“H” in HIPPCO being habitat loss, degradation, and fragmentation. Many species that have their
habitats located in island biomes are isolated. Are therefore especially vulnerable to extinction
when habitats are destroyed, disturbed, and/or fragmented.

6.) Define habitat fragmentation.

Fragmentation happens when parts of a habitat are destroyed, leaving behind smaller
unconnected areas. This can occur naturally, as a result of fire or volcanic eruptions, but is
normally due to human activity.

7.) Read and summarize the case study of the Kudzu Vine (p. 245)
Known as “mile-a-minute” and “the vine that ate the South,” this creeping, climbing perennial
vine terrorizes native plants all over the southeastern United States and is making its way into the
Midwest, Northeast and even Oregon. Kudzu is native to Japan and southeast China.
Kudzu's aggressive characteristics result in several ecological impacts including shading out
native species in forest understories, altering soil chemistry by fixing nitrogen in invaded soils,
and decreasing native biodiversity.

8.) Define Invasive Species. How can we control them?

An invasive species, also known as an exotic or nuisance species, is an organism or plant that is
introduced into a new environment, where it is not native. Physical or manual control involves
physical activities (i.e., harvesting) such as hand-pulling, digging, flooding, drawdowns (de-
watering), dredging, mulching, manual destruction or removal of nests, egg masses, or other life
stages, or shading to control invasive plants.

9.) What are the underlying causes of wild species degradation? Which are the direct causes?
Habitat loss is the primary cause of higher extinction rates. direct causes of HIPPCO:
H-Habitat destruction, degradation, fragmentation
P-population growth and increasing use of resources
P-pollution
C-climate change
O-overexploitation/overharvest
Other causes include habitat changes, over-exploitation of wildlife for commercial purposes, the
introduction of harmful nonnative species, pollution, and the spread of diseases. There are three
primary anthropogenic processes that lead to species endangerment and extinction—
overharvesting; the introduction of nonnative species, including the spread of disease; and
habitat destruction. For most endangered species in the United States today, the most serious
threat is habitat destruction.

10.) Refer to figure 9-14. What is happening to the range of the African Elephant, Indian Tiger
and Black Rhino? What can be done to increase the ranges?
Habitat Loss and Fragmentation. African elephants have less room to roam than ever before as
expanding human populations convert land for agriculture, settlements and developments. The
largest of all cats, tigers once roamed throughout central, eastern and southern Asia. But in the
past 100 years the tiger has lost more than 93 percent of its historic range and now only survives
in scattered populations in 13 countries, according to the International Union for Conservation of
Nature (IUCN). Effective conservation efforts have seen black rhino numbers inch upwards in
recent years after a long and devastating period of hunting and poaching. Even so, black rhinos
remain critically endangered, with poaching for their horns posing a constant threat to their
survival. To increase ranges, we can protect land and advocate for better and more sustainable
acts.

12.) Read p. 250-251. Summarize what is happening with the birds (HIPPCO).
Most died due to the habitat fragmentation as well as other factors such as invasive species and
pollution.

13.) Define CITES and summarize the treaty p. 252.

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora. CITES is an
international agreement, signed by 184 parties in 1973, designed to ensure that international
trade in animals and plants does not threaten their survival in the wild.

14.) Define CBD. Why is it a landmark in international law?

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is the international legal instrument for "the
conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components and the fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources" that has been
ratified by 196 nations.

15.) Explain the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973. Some say it was a failure but why
do supporters say it’s not.
The US Endangered Species Act (ESA) is our nation's most effective law to protect at-risk
species from extinction, with a stellar success rate: 99% of species listed on it have avoided
extinction.

16.) What is NMFS and what does it do? What is USFWS and what does it do? What are the
top five endangered species and top five threatened species?
NOAA Fisheries, also known as the National Marine Fisheries Service, is responsible for the
management, conservation, and protection of living marine resources within about 200 miles of
the U.S. coast. The history of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service can be traced back to 1871. We
are the only federal government agency whose primary responsibility is to manage fish and
wildlife resources in the public trust for people today and future generations. Javan Rhinos,
Amur Leopard, Sunda Island Tiger, Mountain Gorillas, Tapanuli Orangutan.

17.) How can we protect these species?

Support National Wildlife Refuges. National wildlife refuges harbor 513 endangered and
threatened species—nearly one third of total listed species.

18.) Google and explain what happened to the California Condor.

A few birds were taken to the zoos for captive breeding. But this help came too late to stop the
decline in the wild bird population, so in the mid-1980s all the remaining condors in the wild
were captured and taken to zoos. In April 1987, the last wild condor was captured.

19.) Define the precautionary principle.

The precautionary principle is a broad epistemological, philosophical and legal approach to
innovations with potential for causing harm when extensive scientific knowledge on the matter is
lacking. It emphasizes caution, pausing and review before leaping into new innovations that may
prove disastrous.

20.) Explain the need for seed banks p. 254

Globally, it's estimated that 40% of plant species are vulnerable to extinction. A seed bank is a
form of insurance, a way of maximizing the number of plant species we can save from this fate.
This is more essential now than ever before.

Forests
21.) What are the differences between an old-growth, primary and secondary forest? p. 267
In general, old-growth forests host more species than their younger, more disturbed counterparts.
They are uncut or regenerated forest that has not been seriously disturbed by human
activities/natural disasters in over 200 years and have reservoirs of biodiversity because they
provide niches for many wildlife species. In other cases, primary and secondary forests can have
a similar number of species but differ in that primary forests host rarer species that are specially
adapted to old-growth forest. Primary forests are a stand of trees resulting from secondary
ecological succession.

22.) List the natural capital (ecological and economic services) provided by forests.
In addition to providing food, fuel and fiber, forests clean the air, purification of air, and water
filter water supplies, control floods and erosion, sustain biodiversity and genetic resources, and
provide opportunities for recreation, education, and cultural enrichment.

23.) How is unsustainable logging a threat?

A forest degraded by illegal and unsustainable logging will have bare clearings, a spiderweb of
roads, ravaged vegetation and undergrowth, and trenches carved into the forest floor. Forest
degradation is also a stepping-stone to deforestation.

24.) How can deforestation lead to natural capital degradation? P. 269

Without plant cover, erosion can occur and sweep the land into rivers. The agricultural plants
that often replace the trees cannot hold onto the soil and many of these plants, such as coffee,
cotton, palm oil, soybean and wheat, can worsen soil erosion.

25. p. 274 Define BLM and USFWS.

Bureau of Land Management (BLM) and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS)