CHAPTER ONE

1. COMMUNICATION: AN OVERVIEW
1.1 Concept of Communication
Introduction
What is communication?
The word communication has been derived from the Latin word “communes” which means
“common” thus, communication is the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver.
According to this communication is the concept of transferring of information and the
exchanges of message, ideas and the understanding between the people for the purpose of
achieving common meaning.
Generally, the word communication means the act or process of giving or exchanging of
information, signals, or messages as by talk, gestures, or writing.
Technically speaking, in the act of communication, we make opinions, feelings, information,
etc known or understood by others through speech, writing or bodily movement.
Definition of Communication
The following definitions can help us to understand the meanings of communication from
different perspectives.
According to Murphy and Peack definition “communication is a two way process of
exchanging idea or information between human being.” This means Communication is the
sum total of all things one person does when he/she wants to create outstanding in the minds
of the other which includes systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and
understanding.
Based on koontz and O’Donnell” Communication is the process of conveying messages
(facts), ideas, attitudes and opinions from one person to another person.”
H.W Cumming defined communication as an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions
by two or more person.
Communication is the process of people sharing opinion, ideas and feelings with each other
in commonly understandable ways. (Hamilton and Parker).
It is defined in the Merriam-Webster’s dictionary as “a process by which information is
exchanged between individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or
behavior.” Merriam-Webster online dictionary. (2008).

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 According to Lasswell (1948) classic definition of communication, he defines
communication as: who (source or sender), says what (message), in which channel
(medium), to whom (audience or receiver), with what effect.
Communication is the life blood of any organization and its main purpose is to effect change
to influence action.
In any organization the main problem is maintaining effective communication process. The
management problem generally results in poor communication. Serious mistakes are made
because orders are misunderstood.
To summarize, communication has been defined as:
 A process of passing information and understanding
 A two way process of reaching mutual understanding
 The act of making one’s ideas and opinions known to others.
 The process of imparting ideas and making oneself understood by others
 The transmission and accurate replication of ideas ensured by feedback for the purpose of
eliciting actions.
 A systematic and continuous process of telling, listening and understanding.
The Communication Situation
How communication exists? Communication exists when:-
The sender or transmitter who desirous of passing some information
The receiver, the whom the message or information is passed on
The receive should partly or wholly understand the message passed on to him
There should be some kinds of feedback, the receiver should respond to the message
The channel of communication, the way how the message is transmit
How we communicate?
We communicate in several ways:
1. Written communications—like:- letters, memos, reports, e-mail, faxes
2. Oral communications—like:- one-on-one meetings, phone conversations, speeches, video
conferencing, group meetings
3. Nonverbal communications—like:- Body language (eye contact, facial expressions ), physical
appearance etc…
Some of the silent messages people convey through nonverbal communication consist of:

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 a) Eye contact—indifference, wandering
b) Facial expressions: smile (agreement), frowns (disagreement, surprise
c) Body language: folded arms (closed to suggestions); sitting upright (confidence, pride)
d) Tone and volume of voice: emotions conveyed through pitch, etc.
e) Physical appearance: clean, well dressed etc…
Therefore non-verbally may communicate more than our spoken words.
Why We Communicate
People communicate for different reasons. Those include:
 To inform (E.g.:- to provide information on a new product line)
 To request (E.g.:- request information on a product)
 To persuade E.g.:- (convince someone to buy a product, deal with an organization)
 To build goodwill (E.g.:- congratulations, thank you)

There are at least three general types of communication goals:

1) Self Presentation Goals (who we are and how we want to be perceived),
2) Relational Goals (how we develop, maintain, and terminate relationships),
3) Instrumental Goals (how we manipulate others, gain compliance, manage interpersonal
conflict, use and recognize interpersonal influence strategies (anchoring and contrast effects,
reciprocity, commitment, liking, social proof, authority, and scarcity etc.)
COMMUNICATION STYLES
In general terms, interpersonal communication can be classified as either one-way or two-way.
One-way communication occurs when the sender transmits information in the form of
direction, without any expectation of discussion or feedback.
For example, a manager may stop by an employee's desk to inform him that a certain project
will be due the following day. One-way communication is faster and easier for the sender—
because he or she does not have to deal with potential questions or disagreement from the
receiver—but tends to be overused in business situations.
In contrast, two-way communication involves the sharing of information between two or
more parties in a constructive exchange.

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For example, a manager may hold a staff meeting in order to establish the due dates for a
number of projects. Engaging in two-way communication indicates that the sender is receptive to
feedback and willing to provide a response.
LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication can be categorized into four different types, depending on the nature of the
interaction.
Intrapersonal communication is a type of communication whereby a person interacts with
himself/herself. This type of communication is intrinsic or reflective. Intrapersonal
communication is communication that occurs in your own mind. It is the basis of your
feeling, biases, prejudices, and beliefs.
 Examples are when you make any kind of decision.-What to eat or wear.
 When you think about something- what you want to do on the weekend or when you
think about other person.


Interpersonal communication is a type of communication where there is one-to-one

interaction or interaction among a small group. This is the most commonly used/practiced
form of communication. Interpersonal communication is the communication between two
people but can involve more in informal conversations.
 Examples are when you are talking to your friends. A teacher and students discussing
an assignment. A patient. A manager and a potential employee during an interview.

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Small group communication is a type of communication where interaction between
different groups takes place. Small group communication is communication within formal
or informal groups or teams. It is group interaction that results in decision making, problems
solving and discussion within an organization.
 Examples would be a group planning a surprise birthday party for someone. A team
working together on a project.

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One-to-group communication-involves a speaker who seeks to inform, persuade or
motivate an audience.
 Example-are a teacher and a class of students. A preacher and congregation.

Mass communication is a type of communication where a large body (millions of people) of

people is addressed. Mass communication is the electronic or print transmission of

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 messages to the general public. Outlets called Mass communication included things like
radio, television, film and printed materials designed to reach large audiences.

Basics for Communicating Effectively

The following are basics for communicating effectively:
Determine the purpose of your communication: Why is the communication necessary?
Identify the audience: Who is the receiver of the communication?
Consider what the audience needs to hear.
Develop a clear, concise, correct and logical message.
Maintain a positive attitude. (Attitude in writing can be reflected in the word choice).

To give information to others and to gain information from them, ask yourself the
following questions.
What? Decide what to communicate.
When? Decide when to communicate.
Why? Decide why you are communicating.
Fit the communication Make it relevant to your audience.
How? There are lots of ways to communicate.
Review, Review the effectiveness of each method from time to time,
For developing your communication ability/skill, you must do three things:
1. Analyze good and bad examples of communication (many examples, both good and bad) can
be found in the text.

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2. Use the principles and techniques of good communication (7c’s).
3. Practice creating your own communications (practice, practice and again practice)
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICATION
The following are some of the characteristics of communication
a) Communication is a process.
b) Communication is symbolic-gestures, sounds, letters, numbers and words represent an idea
meant to communicate.
c) Communication is contextual-the meaning may vary depending on contexts
d) Communication is purposive- it is done to share meaning, to impart information or
influence.
e) Communication is two way process.
f) Communication involves people.
What Is Contemporary Business Communication?
In an increasingly diversified and interconnected world, contemporary business communication
too is changing. Contemporary Business Communication is a theory-based "skills" course
designed to acquaint you with the theoretical and practical knowledge of essential
communication and management skills needed in business. Our aim is for you to think critically
about how and why you communicate as well as give you practical strategies and skills to
communicate with your business well. A fundamental objective of Contemporary Business
Communication is to link effective written and oral communication.
What is a business communication?
Business communication is the process by which people seek to share meaning (business
information/idea) via the transmission of symbolic message. This definition contains the
following points.
 It involves people trying to understand, how people relate to each other
 It involves shared meaning, people agreement on some terms (ideas)
 Involves symbols, which can be gesture, sounds, words, letters, numbers, etc.
Business communication is the process by which people seek to share meaning via the
transmission of business messages.
According to Kotler business communication is an interactive dialogue between the company
and its customers.

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Business communication plays the role of developing employee’s attitude in promoting
coordination of performance and job satisfaction in doing jobs.
The term business communication is used for all messages that we send and receive for official
purpose like running a business, managing an organization, conducting the formal affairs of a
voluntary organization and so on.
Business communication is marked by formality as against personal and social communication.
The success of any business to a large extent depends on efficient and effective communication.
It takes place among business entities, in market and market places, within organizations and
between various groups of employees, owners and employees, buyers and sellers, service
providers and customers, sales persons and prospects and also between people within the
organization and the press.
Business Communication is goal oriented. The rules, regulations and policies of a company
have to be communicated to people within and outside the organization. Business
Communication is regulated by certain rules and norms.
The objectives of business communication
The main objective of all communications in an organization is the general welfare of the
organization. Communication can be used for any or more of the following objectives:
i. To inform: the first and foremost objective of any communication is to inform. In today’s
world, information is power. Communication brings power through information. The
dissemination of information converse a wide range of areas, both internal and external. People
within the organization have to be kept informed about the organizational goals, objectives,
procedures, processes, systems plans, priorities and strategies. Equally important is the objective
of ensuring effective external communication with customers, prospects, competitors, suppliers
and the public, about products and services, plans, happenings, events and achievements. Some
of the expels of communication media used for this purpose by organizations are;
 Interoffice memo/notice announcing meetings
 Telephone calls a customer makes to ask the price of a commodity,
 Employee handbooks explaining a new benefit
ii. To educate: Another objective of communication in an organization is to educate, i.e.., to
disseminate knowledge and develop skills and attitudes among the people working in the
organization. There is also a need to familiarize them with the systems, procedures and

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processes. This process of education may extend to customers as well. This may be done
through; personal conversation in which a co-worker is requested to serve as a volunteer in fund-
raising activities; sales letter announcing clearance of merchandise; report to management on the
need to purchase a new computer , etc.
iii. To train: communication is an integral component of any training program. Business
organizations need to train people to achieve proficiency in specific skills. They have to provide
working knowledge and attitudinal inputs through training programs to employees at various
hierarchical levels. Training sessions involve teaching instruction, demonstration, practice and
discussion. The process of communication is integral to each of these.
iv. To motivate: people in any business organization have to be motivated to pursue goals and
achieve higher levels of performance, high levels of morale and motivation are a must to ensure
high levels of productivity and efficiency on a sustainable basis.
Communication provides the means to keep the motivation levels high. Talks, lectures, films,
meetings, workshops and non-verbal messages are among the means used to motivate people.
v. To integrate: Large business organization has different business units, department and
territorial divisions. Each of them pursues different goals, sub-goals and target sections.
Communication provides the means for an integrated approach in pursuing organizational goals.
Effective communication is vital to ensure that people working in different functional and
geographical areas are integrated. Communication binds together people working for a common
objective and helps team-building.
vi. To promote: promotional efforts are a must for any organization to fully achieve its
objectives. One of the marketing promotions relates to various activities. Such as advertising
publicity and public relations through effective communication. In the marketing concept the
customer is said to move from stage to stage till the translation is completed. They move
progressively from the state of awareness of the need for a product to the knowledge of the
product, and thereafter to a state of product preference. The needs of the customers develop into
effective demand for products, resulting in the purchase of the product or availability of the
service. Promotional aspects of the service are particularly relevant in a service industry like
banking or insurance. For this they have to organize effectively promotional measures, which
seek to inform, educate, persuade and actualize the clients/markets.

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vii. To Facilitate: effective communication is to facilitate organizational activities. Like
organizational decision making: decision making is spread across all the functional areas
personnel, marketing accounting, production and maintenance. Day-in day-out, people in
organizations keep taking decisions at various hierarchical levels. People at higher levels in the
organization command respect depending upon their decision making abilities. Any such
decision making, however, depends on the availability of adequate and timely inputs. It calls for
facts, figures, analysis, deliberation, classification, confirmation and evaluation. Communication
both oral and written in general facilitates decision making in any business organization.
1.2 Significance of Communication
As everyone knows that communication is very important to understand each other, to exchange
Ideas, and to express your thoughts. Communication plays a vital role in the success of everyone
life. Organizations are totally reliant on communication, which is defined as the exchange of
ideas, messages, or information by speech, signals, or writing. Without communication,
organizations would not function.
The ability to communicate is important in all aspects of life. In business, having excellent
communication skills is requested by employers recruiting and promoting individuals. A
successful applicant should have excellent communication skills, both oral and written. The
ability to communicate effectively with others is named by many employers as a top attribute of
the successful business person.
If your communication skills are poor, others tend to question your abilities. Accuracy in
speaking, spelling, punctuation, and grammar reflect on your abilities. Employees are judged on
their competence in these areas. Your communication skills reflect on your organization’s image
as well as your image.
Presenting yourself well in both oral and written communication projects a favorable image of
both you and your organization. Or develop goodwill or positive image.
Effective communication can be contributed for the organization on the following manner:-
 Develops an attitude that promotes the coordination of performance and job satisfaction.
 To perform and operate any personal and organization activities.
 Provide valuable information for on organization and employees.
 Effective communication promotes the spirits of understanding and cooperation.
 Support a business organization to be competitive.

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 Helps for meetings of personal responsibilities.
 To evaluate or collect information such as performance evaluation record, quality control
reports, budget performance reports.
 To instruct workers by means of instructional manuals, oral directions
 Clear up problems- eliminate or reduce misunderstanding in the organization and overcome
grievance.
 Served to persuade information for the other party or organization
 Communication facilitates customer relation, labor relation, marketing process, public
relation, sales, teaching, researches, promotion etc…
The following points highlight the importance of communication:
A. Connection:- is the most important factor between sender and receiver. Without connection,
no one can build any relationship with others. And most importantly, communication helps one
to connect with others.
B. The Basis of Coordination:-The manager explains the organizational goals, achievement,
interpersonal relationships and organizational goals to the employees.
C. Growing Specialization:- An increase in departments has headed to the requirement of
specialization inside the organization.
D. Competition-Due to globalization and liberalization, intense competition has resulted
between public, private, and foreign banks.
E. Decision Making:- Proper communication provides information that is necessary for decision
making for the managers.
F. Trade Union Movement:- Basically, trade unions are very powerful and strong. Consulting
and regular exchange of information helps to maintain a healthy relationship between them.
G. Human Relations:- To develop confidence and mutual trust, it is important for both
employees and management to communicate with each other.
H. Public Relations:-Every organization wants to keep it’s stakeholders, government, customers
and the other section of the society informed about its products and contribution to the society. It
helps to build goodwill for the organization.
I. Personal:- Good communication skills are required for every successful job. The ability to
communicate in an effective manner is equally important for promotion in a career. A manager

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should be a good public speaker and every employee should have the proper sense of
communication to maintain their interpersonal relationships.
J. Interpersonal relationships- Communication is the key to sharing a good relationship with
your family members. Through Communication, family members share their sorrow, happiness,
thoughts and stories. It helps you to share a good relationship with your family.
1.3 Communication in Value chain Management
Effective communication can make the value chain faster, more efficient and more effective than
ever before. When standards, best practices, and priorities are communicated properly, every
touch point along your value chain is essentially improved. Every last resource is being used to
its maximum potential to align what the value chain is capable of with your long-term objectives
as a business. People are working smarter, not harder, and both you and your stakeholders are
enjoying the benefits - particularly in terms of cost-savings.
When you consider the fact that the number of entities in the value chain has increased over the
years, it makes clear communication at all levels even more important. Without communication,
you take a problem and turn it into a much bigger and more expensive one in an instant.
Therefore for achieve maximum productivity; enhanced communication needs to be introduced
throughout the entire value chain – including suppliers, traders, processors and retailer.

Fig. 1.1 Role of communication in value chain management

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Advantages of Effective Communication in Value Chain Management
For a value chain management professional effective communication is a crucial element in the
job. The communication with co-workers, clients and customers etc need to be managed
effectively to make the value chain achieve success.
The following are some of the advantages of effective communication in the value chain.
Increasing Productivity
If the communication is effective then there will not be any need for repeated communication.
There will not be any necessity for clarifying often and wasting time. It is necessary to make the
communication clear by making the subordinates and superiors understand the matter effectively.
Setting priorities and assigning tasks will become easier and this will lead to increased
productivity.
Improving the Morale
When the communication between a value Chain Manager and worker is clear it boosts the
morality of the workers and improves their performance. If the communication between the
management and employees are effective then the confidence of the employees will increase.
Expectations of the employees will be fulfilled through clear communication which will improve
the morale of the employee.
Developing a Team
When the communication between the value chain Managers and employees become clear it can
contribute to the building of a successful team. If the expectations and goals of both employees
and management become aligned it will lead to a strong team.
Employee Recognition
Every manager should learn how to properly recognize employees in the workplace.
Recognizing an employee for their hard work shows that you value their contributions to the
organization. Again, this is another communication strategy that will motivate employees to do
better.
Employee Coaching
Finally, there is the discipline of employee coaching. Successful managers should be having in-
depth conversations with employees about performance about once every quarter at least.

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 Communication is Motivating - Communication is a life force. If employees know
where they stand in the work place, and they feel comfortable in that environment, they
will be motivated to do good work

Effective communication is essential for management to successfully perform its functions.

Following points need interaction with employees for successful running of an organization
 Organizations policy and future plans
 Achievement of higher productivity
 Industrial safety, health and welfare measures
 Personal growth prospects
 Smooth Working of a Business Firm
 Basis of Managerial Function
 Maximum Production and Minimum Cost
 Prompt Decision and its Implementation
 Building Human Relations
 Job Satisfaction and Good Morale
 Contacts with external Parties.
Communications can also be said to fulfill the following functions in an organization.
 Instructive Function
 Influence Function
 Integration Function
 Informing Function
 Evaluation Function
 Directing Function
 Teaching Function
 Image Projection Function
 Interview Function

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 CHAPTER TWO
2. PROCESSES OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and nonverbal message.
Communication is considered effective when it achieves the desired reaction or response from
the receiver.
As a process business Communication is the system by which a message goes to the sender from
the receiver in an organized way. According to Mr. Kreitner, Business Communication process is
a chain made up of identifiable links.
According to S.K. Kapur, “The Communication process is the method by which the sender
transfers information and understanding to the receiver.” so, we can define Business
Communication as the method by which sender and receiver exchange necessary information.
Communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information.
The process of communication has six components: context, sender/encoder, message,
medium/channel, receiver/decoder, and feedbacks.
2.1 Elements of Communication
Have you ever wondered why some people can communicate so well while others fail to get their
message across? What are the elements that must be present in the communication process
before it can be successful and effective? Well, communication has been defined as the act of
giving, receiving or exchanging information, ideas and opinions so that the “message” is
completely understood by both parties.
Business communication has six components: Context, sender/encoder, message,
medium/channel, receiver/decoder, and feedbacks.
1. Context
 Every message, whether oral or written, begins with context. Context is a broad field that
includes country, culture, organization, and external and internal stimuli.
 Another aspect of context is the external stimuli
 Internal stimuli have effect on how you translate ideas into a message.
 Your attitudes, opinions, emotions, past experiences, likes and dislikes, education, job
status and confidence
2. Sender / Encoder
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Sender is the person who initiates the process of communication. He generates an idea in his
mind regarding production invention, innovation, request, order, enquiry etc. So, he is the first
factor of communication process and his function is to generate an idea. Therefore, it is
necessary that the idea should be clear, and convertible into message. For this purpose, the
sender needs to apply his knowledge and imaginative power.
 While sending a message, you are the “encoder”, the writer or speaker, depending on
whether your message is written or oral.
 express your message so that the receiver(s)
 react as you desire
 You decide which symbols best convey your message and which message channel will be
most effective among the oral and written media (letter, memo, telephone, etc)
3. Message
The idea in the mind of sender is transformed into words that is called message. The sender
decides on the length, style, organization and tone of the message. The message may be
presented in many ways, depending on the subject, purpose, audience, personal style, mood and
cultural background.
The message is the main idea that you wish to communicate; it is of both verbal (written or
spoken) symbols and nonverbal (unspoken) symbols. First decide exactly what your message is.
Also consider the receiver of your message.
4. Medium/Channel
Channel: is the medium through which the encoded message is transmitted. The channels of
communication may be written, verbal, or use of gestures.
The message vehicle is the means by which the message is transmitted. The vehicle may be:
i) Face-to-face- This includes one-to-one contact personally in discussion or several people
in discussion, committee meetings, etc.
ii) Written Statements-Which may include memos, status reports, recommendations, tax
reports, letters, etc.
iii) Advertisement-Which may include radio, television, newspaper, magazine, billboard
direct mail etc.
iv) Telephone telegraph, e-mail, fax
Factors used to determine the message vehicle are:

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  Urgency – telephone call or personal visit, not a letter.
 Importance – fax instead of a telephone to have a record.
 Delicacy of the message – if the message is sensitive, face-to-face conversation than
sending memo or a letter is better.
 Cost Considerations
o When the message is intended for a large number of people.
o a news item or an advertisement instead of telephone calls, telegrams or
personal letters.
 Future reference to information
If the message may need to be referred to later:
o a written vehicle (letter, memo, report, and so on) or
o a tape recording is best.

5. Receiver / Decoder
Receiver is the person who gets the message from the sender, decodes it, understands it and
interprets it.
 The receiver / decoder of your message are your reader or listener.
 influenced by nonverbal factors such as touch, taste, and smell
6. Feedback
Having understood the message, the receiver responds to the sender in yes or no or asks further
questions. This process is called feedback.
 Feedback can be oral or written; it can also be an action, such as receiving in the mail an
item you ordered. Sometimes silence is used as feedback, though it is not very useful.
Senders need feedback in order to determine the success or failure of the communication.
2.2. The process of communication
Communication is a two way process of exchanging ideas or information. A complete
communication process undergoes eight key stages as detailed below:

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Fig.2.1 The model of communication process

1. Sender’s thoughts:-
The very first step in the process of communication is generation of thought in the sender’s
mind. These thoughts may be about a request, order, inquiry production or any other such
activity.
The source of communication is the sender.
The communication process begins when the sender has an idea to be communicated.
The idea will be influenced by complex factors surrounding the sender.
The sender must begin by clarifying the idea and purpose. What exactly does the sender
want to achieve? How is the message likely to be perceived? Knowing this information
provides a higher chance of successful communication
2. Message
The message is the information one wants to communicate. It is the reason communication is
needed. For effective communication to take place, the message must be clear. It is necessary to
ensure that the message is accurate and useful in order to go into the next stage without a hitch or
distortion.
3. Encoding:-

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The thought generated in the mind of sender is ambiguous and unable to be communicated
unless it is put into a receivable form. This step is known as encoding where the sender converts
his thought into a message by means of a language. For example, a sender thinks about having a
job. Now, he will put his thought on a paper. That is called job application. In his way, his
thought becomes a message.
It is a process of putting the message into a format that can be sent, and that is easily
understandable by the receiver. The message should be encoded clearly and in a simple way for
it to be understood clearly. For example, the sender should use a language that the receiver can
understand.
4. Channel/Transmission
Channel: is the medium through which the encoded message is transmitted. The channels of
communication may be written, verbal, or use of gestures. Verbal channels include face-to-face,
telephone and videoconferencing. On the other hand, written channels of communication include
emails, reports, letters, and social media posts. The choice of medium or channel determines the
effectiveness of the message transmission. The channel chosen should be appropriate so that the
message reaches the right receiver(s) in the right form.
5. Decoding and Understanding
The fifth stage is the process in which the receiver interprets the message in order to
understanding the meaning. Decoding – When the message reaches the receiver, the message
must be decoded into its intended meaning. Therefore, the receiver must translate the words,
symbols, and gestures as the sender intended. Because no two people interpret information in the
exact same way, incorrectly decoding a message can lead to misunderstanding. Successful
decoding is more likely when the receiver creates a receptive environment and ignores
distractions. Alert receivers strive to understand both verbal and nonverbal cues, avoid
prejudging the message, and expect to learn from the communication.
Having received the message from the sender, the receiver attempts to understand and interpret
the message. This process of converting the language of message into thoughts is known as
decoding. For instance, the receiver, having received job application, reads the application and
understands the message conveyed by the applicant.
6. Receiver and Reception

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In the sixth stage, the receiver tries to make sense of the message. The receiver is the person for
whom the message is directed to. Communication is a matter of comprehending the sent message
and thus requires a certain level of (KSA); Knowledge, Skills and Abilities .The KSA of the
receiver therefore is paramount in the successful comprehension of the message. Each person
receives the message differently according to his /her own expectation, opinion, and perspective.
The individual experience influence message received. Misunderstanding between sender and
receiver occurs when the receiver interprets the message in a different way as intended by the
sender. Therefore, the sender should put the ideas and feelings of the receiver into consideration
before sending the message. In our example, the sender wanted to inform the receiver about his
thought of having a job. Now the sender has got this idea.
7. Feedback
The seventh stage of the communication process is the response from the receiver. After
decoding and understanding the message, the receiver provides feedback. The importance of this
stage of the communication process is that it shows whether the message was encoded and
decoded accurately, and that the receiver has understood its meaning. Without feedback, the
communication process is not complete. The message has to be received and acted on for it to be
considered a complete process.
Process of communication is incomplete until the receiver responds to the sender. This
response may be negative, positive, or for further enquiry. It means when the receiver of
job application welcomes or regrets the sender, the process of communication is deemed
to be complete.
8. Noise/Context
The final stage of the communication process is interference or context that may affect the
dissemination of information.
Context: – The conditions, surrounding communication with others. Physical Setting – Where
and when the communication occurs. Location, seating arrangement, time of day, room size,
and lighting all affect the process. Psychological Climate – The attitudes and feelings we have
about ourselves and the other people involved in the communication.
Noise and Interference: – Any intended or unintended stimulus that affects the fidelity of a
sender’s message. External Noise – Includes sounds or visual stimuli that draw our attention

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away from the intended message. Internal Noise – Includes our own thoughts or feelings that
prevent us from processing the sender’s message.
2.3 Barriers to Communication
The noise and barriers of communication are explained as follows:
(i) On sender’s side: - Noise and barriers may take place during the process of encoding.
Some of them may be caused by distraction, lack of concentration, typing mistake, poor
language etc.
(ii) In the medium: - Some barriers are caused by medium such as poor transmission on T.V.
and radio misprinting in newspapers etc.
(iii) On receiver’s side: - The receiver can also create certain barriers to the receiving of
message such as poor reading ability, emotions, lack of concentration etc.
(iv) Barriers Involving Values, Attitudes etc…
A receiver’s attitude toward a message can determine whether it is accepted or rejected. The
effectiveness is influenced also by the values, attitudes, and opinions of the communicators.
People react favorably when they receive agreeable message. Receivers’ views of the
information will affect their response. This response could be what the sender desires or just the
opposite.
(v) Barriers related to close mind:- Some people hold rigid views on certain subjects. They
maintain their rigid views regardless of the circumstances. Such a closed minded person is very
difficult to communicate to.
(vi) Physical Barriers: - Communication does not consist of words alone. Another set of
barriers is caused by your own physical appearance, your audience, or the context of the
document or the presentation. Your ideas, however good and however skillfully imparted, are at
the mercy of various potential physical barriers.
Barriers to Effective Communication
Any factor that impels the exchange of information between a sender and receiver is a barrier to
communication,
The following are some of the most common barriers of effective communication:
a) Differing perceptions:-Individual variation is one common source of communication
barriers. People who have different backgrounds of knowledge and experience often
perceive the same phenomenon from different perspectives.

22
 b) Language differences: - For a message to be properly communicated, the words used
must mean the same thing to the sender and the receiver. The same symbolic meaning
must be shared. Jargons must be avoided.
c) Noise: - Any factor that disturbs confuses or otherwise interferes with communication.
Noise leads to information distortion.
d) Emotionality: - Emotional reactions such as Unger, love, defensiveness, hate, jealousy,
fear, and embarrassment influence how we understand others messages and how we
influence others with our own messages.
e) Inconsistent Verbal and Nonverbal Communication
The message we send and receive are strongly influenced by such nonverbal factors as body
movements, clothing, the distance we stand from the person we are taking to, our posture,
gestures, facial expression, eye movement and body contact.
f) Distrust: The credibility of a message is to a large extent a function of the credibility of
the sender in the mind of the receiver. A sender’s credibility is in turn determined by a
variety of factors.
g) Filtering: - Is the act of interpreting information only having better conditions.
Overcoming Barriers to Communication
Overcoming barriers is a two-step process. First one must learn to recognize the various types of
barriers that can occur. Second, one must act to overcome the barriers.
a) Overcoming differing perceptions
The message should be explained so that it can be understood by those with different views and
experiences.
b) Overcoming differences in language
The meanings of unconventional or technical terms should be explained; single, direct and
natural language should be used.
c) Overcoming noise
Noise is best dealt with by eliminating it. As a whole it is good to avoid distracting
environments. When noise is unavoidable, increase the clarity and strength of the message.
d) Overcoming emotionality
Before a crisis, try to understand your subordinate’s emotional reactions and prepare yourself to
deal with receivers. Also think about your own moods and how they influence others.

23
e) Overcoming inconsistent verbal and nonverbal communication
Gestures, clothes, posture, facial expression and other powerful nonverbal communications
should agree with the message.
f) Overcoming distrust
Overcoming distrust is to a large extent the process of creating trust.
2.4. Interpersonal Communications and Teamwork
Interpersonal communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and
meaning through verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication.
 Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two or more people.
 Examples are when you are talking to your friends. A teacher and student discussing an
assignment.
It is also an area of study. Communication skills are developed and may be enhanced or
improved with increased knowledge and practice. During interpersonal communication, there is
message sending and message receiving. This can be conducted using both direct and indirect
methods. Successful interpersonal communication is when the message senders and the message
receivers understand the message.
It’s essential that people in the organization know they will be called upon to join others in
making important decisions and contributing new ideas. Change is the norm in business today,
and people must now give even more of their talent and energy, communicate effectively with
others, gain support for ideas, and create collaborative relationships across the organization in
order for the business to be successful.

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 CHAPTER THREE
3. PRINCIPLES OF EFFCTIVE COMMUNICATION
Introduction
To composed effective message you need to apply some specific principles. These principles the
closely with the basic concepts of communication process and there are important for both
written and oral communications .They provides guidelines for choice of content and style of
presentation adapted to the purpose and receiver of your message called the seven “C’”.
Principles of Business Communication there are some guidelines or principles that are to
be considered and followed to make Communication effective.
Among them seven are fundamental and relevant and these are clarity, completeness,
conciseness, courtesy, correctness, consideration and concreteness. These principles are
popularly known’s as 7Cs of Business Communication.
The 7 C’s of effective communication, also known as the seven principles of
communication are a useful way to ensure good business communication. The 7 C’s of
Effective Communication provide a useful a result of which both written and verbal
communication pass off in a clear, simple, target group-oriented and well-structured
manner.
The 7 C’s of Communication is a checklist that helps to improve the professional
communication skills and increases the chance that the message will be understood in exactly
the same way as it was intended.
We, as communicators must keep these seven principles in mind to make Business
Communication successful.
Remind: - There are 7 C’s of effective communication which are applicable to both written
as well as oral communication.
3.1 THE SEVEN C’s IN BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
1. CORRECTNESS:
Normally it is assumed that correctness only refers to spelling, punctuation and grammar etc. but
business Communication is something more than that.
The fact of the message might be in correct language. Any incorrect or partial Business
Communication or message may lead the receiver misinterpret the message. Before transmitting
any message, the transmitter might be sure that it contains correct facts, it is transmitted at the

25
correct time and it is of correct style. Any mistake in the subject matter of Business
Communication not only creates confusion in the mind of the receiver but also in signifies the
objectives of Business Communication. In fact, you should not send any message unless you
are absolutely sure of its correctness and if you are not sure about it, you should verify it
immediately.
Following guideline should be considered for achieving correctness.
a) Use the correct level of language
b) Include only accurate facts and figures
c) Maintain acceptable writing mechanics/techniques
(a) Use the Correct Level of Language:
There are usually three levels of language that is formal, informal and sub-standard. Sub standard
level of language is the language of business letters, memos and reports. Formal language is used
for writing research papers and legal documents etc. Informal level of language is not used in
any type of communication because it either refers to the street language or unacceptable
language.
(b) Include Only Accurate Facts and Figures:
The writer of a business message should specifically be careful when he/she is quoting any fact
or figure. The situation is more critical when the reader acceptance on the accuracy of facts and
figures. An incorrect figure may lead even to the loss of customer, because customer might feel
that he/she is not dealing with business on such like business owner people.
For example: - If a bank manager provides a wrong balance figure to his/her account holder, the
result might be unsuccessful for the bank.
(c) Maintain Acceptable Writing Mechanics:
Writing mechanics include a number of considerations. For instance, use of grammar rules,
sentences structure, composition, punctuation, spelling and all other considerations.
For example: - For writing business letter, the writer must consider the letter writing style with
writing principles.
For correctness, keep the following suggestions in your mind:
 Check your message or writing from grammatical and linguistic viewpoints
 Use none discriminatory words like chair-person instead of chair-man, police officer,
sales person, camera operator instead of sexist words

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  Check accuracy of figures, facts and words
 Send your message at the correct time
 Send your message in the correct style.
2. CONCISENESS:
Briefness in expression effectively wins the attention of the reader. A message should be as long
or as short as is necessary to tell the story effectively. A message must include everything
necessary and at the same time exclude anything unnecessary. Sometimes a two page message
may seem short, while a ten line message may seem too long. Therefore, conciseness is a prime
requirement.
Discussion Point
How a two page message may seem short, while a ten line message may seem too long?

Following points should be considered for achieving conciseness.

a) Omitting trite expressions.
b) Avoid unnecessary repetition.
c) Include relevant facts.
(a) Omitting Trite Expressions:
Trite expressions are also called stereo typed expressions. They are usually longer and relatively
meaningless because of over use.
For Example:
Trite: In accordance with your request of recent date, we are enclosing herewith our cashier’s
check in the amount of Birr 20,000, representing a withdrawal of said saving A/c. No. 3595.
Improved: According to your request of April 25, check of birr 20,000 is enclosed.
(b) Avoid Unnecessary Repetition:
Skillful business writers avoid unnecessary repetition by rewording their message and trying to
reduce it by almost 50%. In other words first draft of the message is never final and it always
requires a second reworded reduced draft before dispatched to the receiver.
For Example:
Wordy: I have your letter of October 14 and wish to say that we will be glad to give you a
refund for shirt you purchased here last week.
Improved: You can avail refund for the shirt you purchased last week.
(c) Include Only Relevant Facts:

27
Relevant facts refer to those necessary facts which should be present and should never be
compromised for achieving conciseness.
The following four rules may help to achieve conciseness in the message:
 Include only relevant facts
 Avoid repetition
 Avoid trite and wordy expression
 Organize the message well
3. CLARITY:
Clarity refers to a clear understanding of the message by the receiver. In other words the receiver
should not face any problem in getting the meaning of the message.
In Written Business Communication the clarity of thought and the clarity of expression are of
two important things. It is also important in oral and non-verbal messages.
The clarity could be achieved by the following techniques.
a) Choose words that are short, familiar and conversational.
b) Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
c) Achieve appropriate readability.
d) Include examples, illustrations etc.
(a) Choose Words that are Short, Familiar and Conversational:
The vocabulary of English language is so rich that a number of words are possible for a single
occasion. In today’s business English, analysts suggest that it’s better to use such words in
business writing, which are normally used in day to day conversation. Therefore, it is always
better to avoid difficult and high sounding words.
For Example:
The bank statement shows an Overdraft of birr 10,000. (Clarity level is poor)
The bank statement shows an excess withdrawal of birr 10,000. (Clarity level is good)
(b) Construct Effective Sentences and Paragraphs:
(c) Achieve appropriate Readability:
(d) Include Examples, Illustrations etc.:
Examples and illustrations work as supplementary tools for the writer. Examples help the reader
to understand meaning of the message.
Remind: - For clarity, the following guidelines can be followed:

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  Select short, familiar and easy words
 Avoid ambiguous words and jargons
 Use short and effective sentence and paragraphs
 Avoid excessive use of infinitive
 Put appropriate examples, illustration and visual aids where applicable
4. COMPLETENESS:
Completeness of facts is vitally necessary in Business Communication. Incomplete
communication can irritate the reader and it can also lead the receiver to misinterpret the
message. So, a message should be organized in such a way that the receiver can understand its
meaning easily and properly.
Following points are considered for the ‘C’ of completeness.
a) Answer all questions asked.
b) Give something extra. When desirable
c) Check for five W’s.
(a) Answer all Questions Asked:
If in the product related inquiry the prospective customer has asked four questions, it is much
necessary to answer all the four questions. Even if a single question is missed and not answered,
the inquirer is having all the reasons to believe that the person giving reply is a careless person or
he/she is not interested in answering the questions or there is something wrong which he/she is
willing to hide.
(b) Give Something Extra When Desirable:
Normally a good marketing technique applied by managers is to offer something extra apart from
original questions asked. This something extra may be the point of sale for the producer because
customer would like to buy from such a manufacturer who is offering something extra, which
others are not offering.
(c) Check for 5 W’s:
Five W’s to Who, What, When, Where and Why.
For example: - To order merchandise, we should make clear: - What we want? When we need
it? Where it is to be sent? How the payment will be needed?
Remind: - The sender of a message must be aware of 5Ws:
 Who is the receiver of the message?

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  What does the message contain?
 Where the receiver is to be reached?
 When the receiver is to be reached?
 Why the sender is sending the message?
5. CONCRETENESS:
Concreteness means being specific, definite and vibrant message rather than vague and general.
The message must be concrete or exact so that the receiver can read it easily or hear clearly.
Concreteness adds conviction to the message. It is easy for the reader to believe on concrete
messages. Concreteness also increases credibility of the sender of message.
Following points should be considered for achieving concreteness.
a) Use specific facts and figures.
b) Put action in the verb.
c) Choose vibrant image building words.
(a) Use Specific Facts and Figures:
Use of fact and figures play a vital role especially when describing a product or service.

For Example:
General: These brakes stop car within short distance.
Specific: The hydraulic pressure brakes stop a car with a distance of two feet as soon as they are
applied.
(b) Put Action in the Verb:
The basic function of the verb is to describe action of a noun or pronoun. Therefore, should be
taken that the action should always be represented by verb and an action is found in a noun, it
should be converted into verb.
For Example:
Noun: They held meeting in the office.
Verb: They meet in the office.
(c) Choose vibrant Image Building Words:
Vibrant image building words are generally used for creating an impression upon the reader, so
that the reader should start building an image of the product or service in his/her mind. Such
words are used in sales and sales promotion letters.

30
For Example: This is a very good computer. That is 800 MHz processor speed, 20GB HD,
64MB RAM and Intel genuine processor.
Remind: - The following guidelines can help writing concrete message:
 Use specific facts and figures
 Use action or active verb
 Select vivid, lively and handsome words
 Tell exactly what you want to tell
 Avoid irrelevant information
6. CONSIDERATION:
Consideration means preparing every message keeping the receiver in mind. While encoding
the message the sender should try to put himself/herself in the place of the receiver. Or it refers
to giving importance to the other person whether he/she is a reader audience, viewer or listener.
For achieving consideration following points are considered.
a) You attitude
b) Show readers interest
c) Apply integrity in the message
d) Emphasize the positive
(a) You Attitude:
You attitude means writing a business message from the point of view of the customer or at least
showing that the customer is very important.
For Example:
I - Attitude: We allow 5% discount on Cash Payment.
You - Attitude: You can enjoy 5% discount on Cash Payment.
(b) Show Readers Interest:
People are basically selfish in their nature. They are only interested in themselves and they
always look for some material benefit. Therefore business messages should always be drafted in
such a manner to offer something to the customer, which is of interest for him/her.
Mind it customers are not interested in the producer or service provider. Their focus of
concentration is their own self. A customer will be a loyal customer, if he/she is obtaining some
benefit on a regular basis.
(c) Apply Integrity in the Message:

31
Integrity refers to character in the business message. This would come by being honest and
truthful with the customer. Never make such a promise, which can be fulfilled never give false
hopes to the customer and also never bluff the customer.
(d) Emphasize the Positive:
Most of the statements even in business messages could be written from angles. One is the
positive angle and the other is the negative one. It is always better to highlight positively rather
than negatively.
For Example:
Negative: We do not refund if the refund item is soiled and unsalable.
Positive: We do refund if the returned item is clean and saleable.

Remind: - Follow the rules mentioned below to ensure consideration to your audience:
 Use “You view point” instead of “I” or “We of point”
 Avoid insensitive you like, you have failed to
 Show reader benefit or interest
 Emphasize on positive, pleasant facts
 Write only what you honestly feel to be correct
7. COURTESY:
While communicating, we must create friendliness with all those to whom we send message.
Friendliness is inseparable from courtesy and Courtesy demands a considerate and friendly
behavior toward others.
Because
There is a popular proverb regarding courtesy “Courtesy costs nothing but wins everything”
Surviving in today’s business world requires courtesy on the part of producer or seller. A rude
producer or service provider cannot succeed in the buyer’s market. That is why famous slogan of
‘Customer is always right’ invented.
To achieve courtesy following points should be considered.
a) Be tactful.
b) Omit expressions that can irritate.
c) Answer/mail promptly.
d) Grant and apologize.
(a) Be Tactful:
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Tact means handling customer with a right technique. Otherwise, if customers are not handled
properly, business may suffer.
For Example:
Tactless: Your letter is not complete I cannot understand it.
Tactful: If I understand your letter correctly, you want to say that…….
(b) Omit Expressions that Can Irritate:
Irritating expressions are disliked by all and customers are not any exception.

For Example:
(i) You have failed
(ii) You have no choice
(iii) You neglect
(iv) You claim that
(c) Answer / Mail Promptly:
It is a matter of business courtesy that all mails should be answered promptly. A late reply may
give an impression that the manufacturer is not interested in the customer.
(d) Grand and Apologize:
It is always advisable to give some favor to the customer if he asked for it, and if some mistake is
committed, it is better to apologize.
Remind: - The communicating parties should always keep this in mind. The following
principles may help to promote courtesy:
 Answer the message promptly
 Omit irritating expressions
 Apologize sincerely for an omission or mistake
 Thank generously for a favor

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 CHAPTER FOUR
4. TYPES AND MODELS OF BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
4.1 Internal & external Communication
4.1.1 Internal Communication
What is an Internal Communication?
According to Lesiker and Pettit, “Internal communication consists of the structured
communication within the organization that directly relates to achieving the organization’s work
goal.”
According to Bovee and others, “Internal communication is the exchange of message among
organizational members.”
According to S. P. Arora, “Information exchanged among executives, officials and employees
of a same organization is known as internal communication.”
So, internal communication is the process of exchanging information among the people of
different level or internal participants within the same organization.
Effective internal communication function can boost morale, help create happier employees who
are more productive, and allow management to develop ambassadors of the corporation and its
brands. Through the use of digital and social media, companies have found ways to enhance
communications with employees and create a two-way dialog rather than the more traditional
top-down communications in which senior management simply tells everyone what to do.
Nature of internal communication
Some important natures of internal communication are as follows:
1. Direction: There are some special directions of internal communication which are:
(a) Downward (high superior to subordinates) (b) Upward (subordinates to superiors) (c)
Horizontal (officials to officials of same rank).
2. Formality: Internal communication follows proper formalities as well as informal channels.
3. Specific purpose: The purpose of internal communication is to ensure effective and efficient
management as well as smooth operations of the concern.
4. Frequency: One of the important features of internal communication is frequency of
occurrence. It is associated with same day-to-day operations. The nature of information of
internal communication is almost same in respect of everyday activities.

34
5. Scope: The scope of internal communication is limited. Because, internal communication
cannot take the form of mass communication as it is confined within the same organization.
4.1.2 External communication
What is External Communication?
It is a transmission of information between a business and another person or entity in the
company's external environment. Or
The communication that is occurred among the organizations is called the external
communication. Every organization is required to maintain a relation with other organizations or
people with a view to achieving goals. So, when a business organization exchanges information
with other business organizations, government offices, banks, insurance companies, customers,
suppliers, leaders and general people and so on, it is known as external communication.
Communication that takes place outside the organization is called external communication. The
letter, proposal, pamphlets, annual report for external body, telephone call, or personal
conversation, interviews with the news media etc… those are some ways of external
communication.
Effective external communication can create a desire for a firm’s product or services, encourage
collections, motivate performance, and in general, create goodwill.

Fig.4.1 Aspects of External Communication

Generally from fig. 4.1 above you can see that, the organization can make external
communication with several and different external bodies according to the organization external
relation rules and regulations.

35
The objective of external communication
The objectives of an ideal external communication are as follows:
1. Community relations: Every business organization has to maintain a relation with the
common people of the society so as to achieve the organizational goals. External communication
helps to keep a link with the people.
2. Collection of information: The main objective of external communication is to collect the
information from outside the organization.
3. Contracts with customers: Every organization should know the taste, liking and disliking of
its customers to increase the sale of its products or services. So, external communication is
necessary to contract with customers.
4. Relations with suppliers: Every organization has many suppliers form that it collects raw
material or finished goods to run the business. So there must be a good relation between the firm
and its suppliers.
5. Relation with financial institutions: One of the most important objectives of external
communication is to keep a link with banks, insurance and other financial institutions.
6. Relation with government: Every organization should obey the rules and regulations of the
government. So, through external communication it can keep the relation with government
agencies.
7. Shareholder relation: Shareholders are the owners of the company. The board of directors is
liable to inform all the business affairs to the shareholders. External communication is a must in
this regard.
8. Others: (a) to keep the relation with regulatory bodies (b) To keep the images of the company
(c) To keep the international relations etc.
The Differences between Internal and External Communication
The differences between internal and external communication can be drawn clearly on the
following grounds:
1. Internal Communication refers to the communication which takes place among the
participants within the business organization. On the contrary, external communication is a
communication that occurs between the organization and other individuals, groups or
organizations.

36
2. Internal communication can be formal or informal but external communication is mostly
formal and highly documented.
3. Internal communication aims at transmission of information between various business units
and departments. Conversely, external communication focuses on maintaining relationship or
exchanging information with the parties external to the business.
4. The participants of internal communication are employees and the company’s management.
As against this, the parties to external communication include customers, shareholders,
investors, clients, general public, suppliers, creditors, etc.
5. Both internal and external communications are regular but the frequency of internal
communication is relatively higher than that of external communication.
6. Internal communication flows within the organization, whereas the external communication
flows in the vast business environment.
No Internal communication external communication
1 which takes place among the participants occurs between the organization and other
within the business organization. individuals, groups or organizations
2 Can be formal or informal but Mostly formal and highly documented.

3 Aims at transmission of information Focuses on maintaining relationship or

between various business units and exchanging information with the parties
departments. external to the business.
4 The participants of internal the parties to external communication include
communication are employees and the customers, shareholders, investors, clients,
company’s management. general public, suppliers, creditors, etc.

5 Both internal and external but the frequency of internal communication

communications are regular is relatively higher than that of external
communication.
6 Internal communication flows within the whereas the external communication flows in
organization, the vast business environment.

4.2 Types of Communication

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The formal communication network information follows the official chain of command
according to organizational structure.

Fig. 4.2 Formal flow of Communication

According to fig.4.2 above, when the president office send new production standard document to
VP of production, this kind of formal communication called downward communication.
When the VP of production unit is send monthly report to president office. Such communication
called upward communication. And also when the VP of human resource department is
communicates with VP of finance about employee salary range and this type of communication
was called horizontal or lateral communication.
The messages which are circulating on regulated, preset channels, of an organization are creating
the formal communication. The content of the communication is related to the organization’s
activity, to the work and to anything which is related to those. The formal communication can
consist in verbal messages, nonverbal messages, written, under the shape of letters, telephone
messages, radio messages, and printed internal notes. Even some gestures can consist in formal
communication. The messages are transmitted by the authorized ones: on official channels, these
arrive to the ones who need to react, to people or machines which need to know the content of
these messages.
Usually, all formal communications are recorded and kept in the organization’s evidence. Are
retained copies of these by the transmitter, by the receiver, by all of the desks from the
organization which need to know and keep the information?

38
Examples of formal communications are given by work commands, reports and financial
evidence, reports over sells / inventory, statements referring to the company’s policies, post
descriptions, etc.
The formal communication network is formed out of formal channels, created by setting a formal
system of responsibilities according to the hierarchical structure of the organization. The perfect
network is the one which contains communication channel from bottom up, downwards and
horizontally. Often the direction of horizontal communication is missing or it is inefficient and in
this way the accuracy of the information decreases. The situation is appearing because of the lack
of permanent circulation of the information between departments, although this is vital for the
organization in conditions of existent competition, or the lack of specialists in organizational
communication.
Remind:-
 A formal communication channel transmits information such as the goals, policies and
procedures of an organization. Messages in this type of communication channel follow a
chain of command. This means information flows from a manager to his subordinates and
they in turn pass on the information to the next level of staff.
 An example of a formal communication channel is a company's newsletter, which gives
employees as well as the clients a clear idea of a company's goals and vision. It also includes
the transfer of information with regard to memoranda, reports, directions, and scheduled
meetings in the chain of command.
 A business plan, customer satisfaction survey, annual reports, employer's manual, review
meetings are all formal communication channels.
In an organization, there are four types of formal communication. Such as:-
1. Downward communication
2. Upward communication
3. Horizontal /Lateral communication and
4. Diagonal communication

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Fig. 4.3 Formal flow of communication entire organization
a. Down Ward Communication
Communication that flows from a higher level in an organization to a lower level is a downward
communication. In other words, communication from superiors to subordinates in a chain of
command is called a downward communication. This communication flow is used by the
managers to transmit work related information to the employees at lower levels. Employees
require this information for performing their jobs and for meeting the expectations of their
managers.
Downward communication is used by the managers for the following purposes:-
 Providing feedback on employees’ performance.
 Giving job instructions.
 Providing a complete understanding of the employees’ job as well as to communicate
them how their job is related to other jobs in the organization.
 Communicating the organization’s mission and vision to the employees.
 Highlighting the areas of attention.
Organizational publications, circulars, letter to employees, group meetings etc are all examples
of downward communication.
In order to have effective and error-free downward communication, managers must:
 Specify communication objective.
 Ensure that the message is accurate, specific and unmistakable.

40
  Utilize the best communication technique to convey the message to the receiver in right
form.
The objectives of Downward Communication are:
To train subordinates in performing the job.
To motivate employees to improve their performance.
To know how effectively a person is performing his job.
To explain organizational policies, programmes and procedures.
To give instructions about what to do and how to do.
To highlight the areas of attention
b. Upward Communication
Upward communication relates to communication being made by Junior person to senior. This
generally follows the reporting channel of command. The communication relates to reporting
production levels, sales performance, reaction to certain orders and instructions. Communication
that flows to a higher level in an organization is called upward communication.
 The communication reflects motivational condition of the employees.
 The flow of information from bottom to top helps the top management to know the actions,
attitude, opinion and feelings of people.
 Management must evolve an “Open door” system and employees should feel that their
superiors are always available to share their opinion, ideas and views that can be effectively
used for decision making.
 The upward communication process is non-directive in nature,
 Effective upward communication is possible only when organizations empower their
employees and allow them to participate freely in decision-making. Through this type of
communication employees can communicate information to their superiors freely and can
voice their opinion.
 It provides feedback on how well the organization is functioning. The subordinates use
upward communication to convey their problems and performances to their superiors.
 The subordinates also use upward communication to tell how well they have understood the
downward communication.
 It can also be used by the employees to share their views and ideas and to participate in the
decision-making process.

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 Upward communication leads to a more committed and loyal workforce in an organization
because the employees are given a chance to raise and speak dissatisfaction issues to the
higher levels.
 The managers get to know about the employees’ feelings towards their jobs, peers,
supervisor and organization in general. Managers can thus accordingly take actions for
improving things.
 Complaint and Suggestion Box, Job Satisfaction surveys etc all help in improving upward
communication.
 Other examples of Upward Communication are performance reports made by low level
management for reviewing by higher level management, employee attitude surveys, letters
from employees, employee-manager discussions etc.
c. Horizontal Communication
Communication that takes place at same levels of hierarchy in an organization is called lateral
communication, i.e., communication between peers, between managers at same levels or
between any horizontally equivalent organizational members.
People communicate with others at their own level, in their own departments or other
departments, to solve problems and to share experiences.
The main objectives of horizontal communication are developing teamwork, and promoting
group coordination within an organization.
The advantages of horizontal communication are as follows:
 It is time saving.
 It facilitates co-ordination of the task.
 It facilitates co-operation among team members.
 It provides emotional and social assistance to the organizational members.
 It helps in solving various organizational problems.
 It is a means of information sharing.
 It can also be used for resolving conflicts of a department with other department or
conflicts within a department.
d. Diagonal Communication or crosswise communication

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Communication that takes place between a manager and employees of other workgroups is
called diagonal communication. It generally does not appear on organizational chart.
 For instance - To design a training module a training manager interacts with Operations
personnel to enquire about the way they perform their task.
 For example: - The Accounts people of an organization visiting different employees in
various departments for their auditing, bonus for workers etc. such kinds of communication
fall under diagonal communication.
 Vertical communication occurs between various hierarchies. It maybe upward or downward.
For example manager to employee, general manager to managers, foreman to machine
operator, head of the department to cashiers, etc.
4.3. Informal Communication
Informal communication arises out of all those channels that fall outside the formal channels
and it is also known as grapevine. It is established around the societal affiliation of members of
the organization. Informal communication does not follow authority lines as in the case of
formal communication.
Informal communication takes place due to the individual needs of the members of an
organization and exists in every organization. Normally, such communication is oral and may be
expressed even by simple glance, sign or silence. Informal communication, is implicit,
spontaneous multidimensional and diverse. It often works in group of people, i.e. when one
person has some information of interest; he passes it on to his informal group and so on.
An organization can make efficient use of informal channels to fortify the formal channels of
communication. It acts as a valuable purpose in expressing certain information that cannot be
channeled via the official channels. It satisfies the people desires to identify what is happening in
the organization and offers an opportunity to express dreads, worries and complaints. Informal
communication also facilitates to ameliorate managerial decisions as more people are involved in
the process of decision-making.
In spite on many advantages, informal communication has certain disadvantages. Informal
communication contains facts, deceptions, rumors and unclear data. The informal channels of
communication may transmit completely imprecise information that may harm rather than help
an organization. In addition, it is impossible to fix the responsibility for its origin or flow of

43
information. However, for the efficient working of any organization both formal and informal
communications are required.

An example of an informal communication channel is lunchtime at the organization's

cafeteria/canteen. Here, in a relaxed atmosphere, discussions among employees are encouraged.
Also managers walking around, adopting a hands-on approach to handling employee queries is
an example of an informal communication channel. Quality circles, team work, different training
programs are outside of the chain of command and so, fall under the category of informal
communication channels.
4.4. Forms of Communication
There are two forms of communication. Those are verbal and non verbal communication.
A. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication stands for both the spoken and written word used in the communication
process. It can be further divided into oral and written communication.
i. Oral communication: a face-to-face interaction between the sender and receiver.
Presentations, meetings, seminars are part of oral communication.
Telephonic communication can also be included in this category.
ii. Written communication: sender uses the written mode to transmit his messages. Reports,
letters, memos, e-mails come under this category.
Verbal Communications as a Process
Communication is an ongoing process involving an exchange of information and meanings
between senders and receivers, both knowingly and unknowingly; you are simultaneously
sending and receiving messages and also communicating internally.

B. Non-Verbal Communication
How Do Our Bodies Talk? -----------------------------------------

"Most people do not know what they are doing with their bodies when they are talking and no
one tells them." (EKMAN &FRIESEN, 1968)
For brainstorming
What do you observe from this picture?

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a._____________________ b.____________________ C.____________________
d._____________________ e._______________________ f._______________________
WHAT IS NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION (NVC)?
Traditional studies of communication have focused almost exclusively on the verbal forms of the
discourse. From the first encounter to their separation, two people examine each other with all
their senses and exchange verbal and non-verbal messages. Non-verbal communication (NVC)
clearly plays an important role in human interaction.
"Non-verbal communication is those attributes or actions of humans, other than the use of words
themselves, which have socially shared meaning, are intentionally sent or interpreted as
intentional, are consciously sent or consciously received, and have the potential for feedback
from the receiver" (BURGOON,J.K.; SAINE,T.J, 1978)
Nonverbal communication consists of that part of a message that is not encoded in words. The
nonverbal part of the message tends to be less conscious and often reveals the sender’s feelings
and preferences more spontaneously and honestly than the verbal part. If the verbal message
does not match the nonverbal communication, people tend to believe the nonverbal message.
Four types of nonverbal messages
1. Personal (to the individual)
2. Common to a group of people or culture
3. Universal (to humankind)

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4. Unrelated to the message (random)
The Four types of nonverbal messages
1. Personal Nonverbal communication involves kinds of nonverbal behavior that are unique to
one person. The meaning is also unique to the person sending the message. For example,
someone may work while talking; another person may work in silence. One person may laugh
due to nervousness or fear, while another may cry.
2. Cultural nonverbal communication, by contrast, is characteristics of, or common to, a group
of people. It is learned unconsciously by observing others in the society group. In
Aboriginal culture, for example, eye contact is less acceptable than it is European culture.
3. Universal nonverbal communication is behavior that is common to humankind. It shows
happiness, sadness or deep-seated feelings – for example, a smile or tears.
4. Unrelated nonverbal communication, such as a sneeze, is unrelated to the verbal message. It
can distract from the verbal message, but has little effect on the meaning of the verbal part of the
message.
Remind: - The following are the widely recognized sub-codes of non-verbal communication.
 facial expression
 eye contact
 gestures
 posture
 bodily contact (touch)
 spatial behavior
 clothes and other aspects of appearance
 non-verbal vocalizations
 Smell etc…
The role of non-verbal communication in human interaction may be summarized as follows:
 Intentionally or unintentionally, consciously or unconsciously, people send and receive
non-verbal messages.
 We make important decisions and judgments about people and situations based on these
messages.
 People’s emotional state is best communicated through their non-verbal messages.

46
  We make judgments about the verbal messages in light of accompanying non-verbal
cues.
 We use the non-verbal elements to present ourselves to people and to alter their thinking
and behavior.
 NVC has a major role in facilitating cross-cultural interaction.
Principles of Nonverbal Communication
 supplements or replaces verbal communication
 regulates interaction
 establishes relationship-level meanings
 (responsiveness, liking, power)
 reflects & expresses cultural value
Guidelines for Improvement of your Nonverbal Communication Skills
 Self-awareness
 Being aware of the ways in which you communicate, and realizing different people have
different ways of using nonverbal communication
 monitor behavior, take note of your posture, movements, and objects
 ask friends for feedback
 videotape yourself in a conversation or speech
 Expand your range of nonverbal activities
 by expanding your own vocabulary for sending messages, you will expand your ability to
decode the messages of others
 Remember that good communication focuses on the receiver of the message
 You can send appropriate signals to amplify or intensify your verbal messages

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 CHAPTER FIVE
5. PUBLIC RELATION
5.1. Meanings
What is Public Relations?
Public relations (PR) are the practice of managing the flow of information between an
individual or an organization and the public.
The aim of public relations by a company often is to persuade the public, investors, partners,
employees, and other stakeholders to maintain a certain point of view about it, its leadership,
products.
Definition “Public relations are a planned process to influence public opinion, through sound
character and proper performance, based on mutually satisfactory two-way communication.”
The phrase “public-relations‟ has two words namely, “public‟ and “relations‟.
"Public"
A “public‟ is a group of individuals having similar or common interests; an association of
persons having the same interests, problems, circumstances, expectations and goals. It is
generally such sources that opinions emanate.
Public is a varied creature that comes in many forms and sizes. It has multitude of wants and
desires. Public has its likes and dislikes sometimes even very strong likes and dislikes.
In this sense “publics‟ are customers, employees, suppliers, lenders, shareholders, special
interest groups, government, middlemen and so on. Thus, public is any group of people who
share common interests having common problems.
"Relations"
Human wants to create the need to establish relations with one another. The representative
wants of the individuals will profoundly affect their relationship. To understand any
relationship, therefore, one must understand the wants of those involved.
'Relationships are of all possible types. We have relationship by ran-superior to inferior,
inferior to superior, and equal to equal. We have relationship by sentiment-benevolent,
Friendly, suspicious, jealous, hostile.
A relationship may be active, or it may be passive it may be good or it may be bad, or it may
be neutral. At any rate, the relationship is there to be accepted, ignored or altered, as desired.

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 The word ‘relations‟ is the result of mutual understanding derived from the process of
sharing of the common interest. It is human wants that create need to establish relations with
each other. The wants of two individuals affect profoundly their relationship. Therefore, to
understand any relationship one must understand the wants of those who are involved. By
integrating these two elements namely “public‟ and “relations‟, one gets “public- relations‟ a
profession forming part and parcel of managerial function.
"Public Relations is distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain
mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an
organization and its publics; involves the management of problems or issues; helps
management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion; defines and emphasizes
the responsibility of management to serve the public interest; helps management keep abreast
of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning system to help anticipate
trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication as its principal tools."
Among the many competing definitions of public relations, J. Grunig and Hunt’s is the most
widely cited definition of public relations: Public relations is “the management of
communication between an organization and its publics.”
The component parts of Grunig and Hunt’s famous definition of public relations are as follows:
Management: The body of knowledge on how best to coordinate the activities of an
enterprise to achieve effectiveness.
Communication: Not only sending a message to a receiver but also understanding the
messages of others through listening and dialogue.
Organization: Any group organized with a common purpose; in most cases, it is a business,
a corporation, a governmental agency, or a nonprofit group.
Publics: Any group(s) of people held together by a common interest.
They differ from audiences in that they often self-organize and do not have to attune to
messages; publics differ from stakeholders in that they do not necessarily have a financial stake
tying them to specific goals or consequences of the organization. Targeted audiences, on the
other hand, are publics who receive a specifically targeted message that is tailored to their
interests.

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5.1.1. Functions of public relations
Public Relations is establishing the relationship among the two groups (organisation and
public).
Art or Science of developing mutual understanding and goodwill.
It analyses the public perception & attitude, identifies the organization policy with public
interest and then executes the programmes for communication with the public.
Public relations help our complex, pluralistic society to reach decisions and function
more effectively by contributing to mutual understanding among groups and institutions.
It serves to bring private and public policies into harmony.
Public relations serves a wide variety of institutions in society such as businesses, trade
unions, government agencies, voluntary associations, foundations, hospitals, schools,
colleges and religious institutions. To achieve their goals, these institutions must develop
effective relationships with many different audiences or publics such as employees,
members, customers, local communities, shareholders and other institutions, and with
society at large.
The managements of institutions need to understand the attitudes and values of their
publics in order to achieve institutional goals. The goals themselves are shaped by the
external environment. The public relations practitioner acts as a counselor to management
and as a mediator, helping to translate private aims into reasonable, publicly acceptable
policy and action.
Some possibilities that would call for public relations
Promotional Opportunity: To inform the new service / policy which call for Public
Relations to make wider publicity.
Competitive: To overcome the resistance (pre-set mind condition).
Controversy: To eliminate the contradictory conditions in between the organization and the
public.
Adverse publicity: To inform the truth or correct issues and thereby removing the
misunderstanding.
Catastrophe: Announcement of any unfavorable issues.
Crisis: Whenever threats arises.

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Advantages of PR
Credibility
Cost
Avoidance of Confusion
Lead Generation
Ability to reach specific groups
Image Building
Disadvantages of PR
Difficult to quantify PR benefits
Lack of control
“Deft‟ management required
Role of PR manager
Advocate: The public relations manager is the chief advocate for the company. He must
focus all energy on building an organization that will be deemed a good corporate citizen.
Communicator: The public relations manager crafts communications policies and oversees
the development of all statements and news releases for the company. Communications must
be clear, concise and relevant to the audience.
Problem Solver: The public relations manager is the ultimate spin doctor. It is her job to put
the best face on news and information that could discomfit or malign the company's
reputation.
Roles and Objectives of PR
One of the major functions of public relations is shaping the image. It generates positive
publicity for a company, an individual or a government and enhances its reputation.
 The Government uses Public Relations to keep the public informed about the activity of
government agencies, explain policy, and manage political campaigns.
 The Companies use it to handle relationship with many groups affected by a company’s
product and policies: consumers, shareholders, employees, and the managing body.

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 Good public relations not only create a favorable image but can help the entity to achieve the
desired objectives. It makes a significant contribution in helping to form an organization’s
ideas about what it is, what it should do and what its publics want and expect from it.
Major Roles of Public Relations Management are:
1. Communication Management: Communication plays a key role in maintaining a
satisfactory, long-term, trusting relationship with publics and stakeholders.
One of the major role of Public Relations is managing the flow of information between an
individual or an organization and the public. It develops communication objective in line with
organization’s overall objectives and sets a two-way communication process facilitating
exchange of information between key publics and management.
2. Reputation or Image Management: Public Relations function of an organization shapes its
image. In consultation with the management, it crafts an overview of how the company wants to
be perceived, and how it is going to project a positive image. Planning and implementing of
policies, procedures and strategies that demonstrate an organization’s commitment to public and
social responsibility, ethical behavior affects reputation of the organization.
3. Issues Management: Public Relations identify and analyses problems, issues and trends that
can affect an organization. It also develops strategy and executes programme to deal with the
issues. Research, study of public policy matters and business environment monitoring are part of
PR.

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4. Crisis Management: PR plays a critical role in protecting reputation of an organization when
there is negative or unfavorable reports and adverse publicity, which if left unchecked might
negatively affect organization. PR not only establishes policies and procedure to face an
emergency affecting the public, but also responds to the crisis situations through effective
communication to mitigate concern of public.

5. Relationship Management: Another important Role of Public Relations is to identify key

publics and establishing strategies for building and maintaining mutually beneficial relationships
with those publics.
6. Media Relations: Media play an important role in Public Relations Management. PR
establishes an effective relationship with media to get favorable publicity to influence public and
change their behavior in the desired direction.
7. Risk Management: Public Relations help organizations to identify potential danger and risk
factors and alerts the management. It also suggests the necessary changes to avoid the risk.
8. Strategic Management: Public Relations serves on the management team helping the
organization develop sound policies that are in the best interests of the public as well as the
organization.
The Broad Objectives of Public Relations Function are:
Establishing, maintaining and projecting the organization’s corporate character and identity
Creating and sustaining awareness about the Company, its goals, products and services.
Winning trust and confidence of various stakeholders and getting their acceptance

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 Responding to criticism of the organization
Establishing an effective channel of communication between public and the organization
Getting Cooperation from various stakeholders for achieving business objectives
Generating positive publicity in media
Earning awards, certification and endorsement from various organization, individuals or
associations
Reinforcing the by maintaining positive relationships with key audiences, and thereby aiding
in building a strong image
Reactive vs. Proactive PR
 Reactive PR must react or respond to a public relations issue or problem.
 Proactive PR allows organizations to plan and execute public relations activities on their own
timeline.
PR Skills
 Writing
 research
 interpersonal communication
 media and cultural literacy
 critical thinking
 business knowledge
The Public Relations Process
Effective public relations are accomplished through a process known as RACE (Research,
Action, Communication, and Evaluation).
There are four fundamental questions asked in the RACE process.
 The RACE formula
Research
 What is the problem or situation?
. Action (program planning)
 What is going to be done about it?
. Communication (execution)
 How will the public be told?
Evaluation

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  Was the audience reached and what was the effect?
1. Research
The first step in the public relations process:
 Clearly define problem/situation (situational analysis)
 .S.W.O.T. (Organizational analysis)
 .Audience Analysis (needs, wants, desires, VALs)
Value of Research
 . Clarify/Direct Strategy
 . Achieving Credibility with Clients/Management
 . Measuring Results
2. Action (planning)
 Goals/Objectives
 Themes/Key Messages
 Strategies/Tactics
 Calendar
 Budget
 Evaluation
3. Communication
 Implementation of tactics
 Visible part of a public relations plan
 Comes AFTER research and planning
4. Evaluation/Measurement
 Measuring production
 Measuring awareness
 Measuring attitude change
 Measuring behavior change (ultimate objective)
The phase of Public Relations process
The first phase of Public Relations process is identifying and listing out the information or
message to the communicator.
The second phase of Public Relations is process to ascertain the existing image or awareness
level about the issue in the target group or common public.

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 The third phase of Public Relations is developing of communication objectives and
priorities.
The fourth phase of Public Relations is deals with developing the message and choosing the
media to transit.
The fifth phase of Public Relations is the implementation of the message and media,
coordination or the dissemination of message.
The sixth phase of Public Relations is communication process to check whether message
reached properly and the expected action or behavior or knowledge on image factors.
The seventh phase of Public Relations, in case the message did not reach properly identified
the reason for the ineffectiveness and rectification of the same and disseminate the revised
message.
5.2. Components of public relations
Components of Public Relations: Public relations as a bridge of meaning between the
organization and the public’s first, it has certain elements. These are:
1. Human Relations:
PR is getting along with the people or “publics‟ both internal and external. No individual is
rational. Each person who works in an organization has to get along with others. He is expected
to understand and know thoroughly another and demonstrate interest in his progress as one does
his own.
2. Empathy: Empathy is the power of understanding feeling of others. For instance feeling sorry
for others is sympathy. Empathy is the primary pre requisite for-a-satisfying exposure in
relationships where a certain degree of depth of understanding is expected. That is to feel one‟s
feeling stepping into the boots of another who is affected.
3. Persuasion: There are two ways of changing the mind of another or others namely by
persuasion and by force. The persuasion is positive and hence results in positive outcome and
force is negative and, therefore, the outcome will be not encouraging. If you compel any person
to do something instead of persuading, that act can be despotism as it is against the principles of
normal conduct sanctioned by society. Instead, if one convinces the other to do and is able to win
his heart and head it is highly appreciated, accepted and acted up without opposition.

4. Dialogue: Dialogue is a conversation with some purpose. Dialogue is a reasonable exchange

of ideas bringing into being a new form of knowledge; the use of dialogue is for influencing

56
behavior, selling goods or inspiring ideas. Any dialogue involves „conciliation; and
„compromise‟ when one speaks to an unfavorably disposed group or a person, the first effort is
to conciliation people or person and breakdown prejudice.

5.3. The Need for Public Relations

As we advancing socially and economically, the society is getting sophisticated and every
individual need latest information to live on this digital age. He certainly would not be able to
live will without using the numerous possibilities of information offered from today through
various media. It is a naked truth that in this fast moving increasingly automated world men and
women can no longer exist in complete isolation.
The pace of technology is so fast that one is becoming more interdependent on other. Thus,
information is the breath of this digital age where outsourcing is the maximum.
There are four fundamental forces that answer the question why PR. These are:
1. Communication: Technically, the means of communication have reached the stage of
perfection and sophistication and there is no end for this. Finance, the force behind all activities,
has made possible for majority of people to exchange information. The level of education and
understanding the importance of it by people is fast increasing which increases exchange of
information between the people.

2. New Information Order: If one thins, whether we are all correctly informed is really very
difficult to say. Good many books, discussions in academic circles, in radio and television, and
countless lectures excluding those in “Information Society” and “New Information Order”, as far
as one is aware, a correct reply is yet to be received.

3. Information Load: Information load is also called message load or quantity. Those people
who do not believe in others will attract our attention to the flood of information to which we are
all exposed today. The correct answer to this is that this flood is largely without direction and
that it is inaccurate and incomplete. The information must be prepared. The relevant information
must be separated from trivial matter and should be popped up in right direction. What one needs
is a fair means of information which eliminates or awakened suspicious, that builds up better
understanding and creates much needed confidence. This is what is called as PR.

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4. Mutually and Understanding: By definition, PR where mutuality is founded on interaction
between consideration for public opinion, and the need of the communicator or organization to
inform or establish contact.
Understanding is created by providing clear insight into, and reporting on all the essential
matters. Confidence is cultivated by bringing the aim of the organization into harmony with
public interest that wins and maintains goodwill among general public.
From these points one thing is clear that the purpose of this activity for and with the public is to
act and not to react; to create an atmosphere of mutual confidence through and active
information policy the passive part of which consists in answering all types of queries; to inform
the public and exert influence towards the inside as a form of corporate and social counter-
control to establish direct or indirect connections with the public in order to fulfil a kind of
interpreter’s function towards the public and to control communicative reaction.
The desired effect can only be attained if the information or message is true, authentic, verifiable,
legal, clear and readily understandable, and is also in conformity with day-to-day practice of
living and experiencing.
5.4. The publics
Publics-A group of similar individuals; an assortment of persons having the same interests,
problems, circumstances, goals; it is from such persons that opinion emanates.
Public is a varied creature; it comes in many forms and sizes. Public has a multitude of wants
and desires; it has its likes and dislikes, some- times, strong likes and strong dislikes.
Employers make for a public and employees another public; the government is a public and
citizens constitute another public, and so on, each of these groups is a public of the sort, tries to
attract a different audience with its own tools and techniques.
5.5. Media relations
In present information age, the mass media play an essential role in conveying information to
people and forming opinions. According to Argenti (2003), “the media is both a constituency and
a conduit through which investors, suppliers, retailers and consumers receive information about
and develop images of a company”. The media include magazines, television, radio, newspapers,
and the Internet.
 Media relations refers to working with journalists and media outlets in order to reach wider
target audience. It is about establishing and maintaining mutual understanding, goodwill, co-

58
 operation, respect and support between an organization and the mass media to communicate
the organization’s goals, ideas, intent, achievements, policies and other newsworthy message.
 Supa and Zoch state that “media relations is the systematic, planned, purposeful and mutually
beneficial relationship between a public relations practitioner and a mass media journalist.”
 According to Tench & Yeomans, media relations can be defined as ‘managing relationship
with media - all the writers, editors, and producers who contribute to and control what
appears in the print, broadcast, and online media’.
 Unlike advertising and marketing, media relationship helps in getting third party
endorsements of the product, service, organization or individual in question and using the
third party to disseminate the information to the target audiences.
 Organizations seek publicity in media when there is:-
 Launching of a new product/service
 Launching of promotional campaigns/activities
 Awards received by the organization
 Opening of new outlets
 Sponsored events
 Participation in social activities
 Community Engagement
 Disasters, strikes or organizational closures
Public Relations Vs Media Relations
 Many people consider media relations and public relations as same thing. But in practice,
both are different, even though they are very closely related.
 Public relations are the art and science of connecting and communicating various publics
with whom an organization may have a relationship. There exist different publics, which may
include employees, customers, government, industry, investors, shareholders, communities,
general public, vendors, suppliers, members, and the media.
 However, Media relations is the interaction with reporters, journalists and editors in print,
electronic , and online media in order to communicate information about an organization.
Simply put, a media relation is a sub-category of public relations with a focus on the media.
The Importance of media relations
Media plays a critical role in shaping image of an organization or individual before the public.

59
It acts as an intermediary between an organisation and its target public. Media Relations helps in
maintaining good and healthy relations with journalists and media owners to get a favourable
coverage in print, online or electronic media. In this way organisations build public support as
they are able to reach out to their audience with a positive communication. In other words,
publicity in the media either about organisation or products, services offered it could play a
major role in positioning a company’s reputation and identity.
Media Relations is an important part of Public Relations Function because:
 Media has a significant influence in forming public perception and opinion.
 Positive news coverage has higher credibility in comparison to paid advertising.
 The cost of coverage in the news media is substantially lower in comparison to the
advertising cost.
 Coverage in news media has implicit third party endorsement of the journalist or writer,
helping in establishing the reputation
 It helps in managing negative news in case of adverse situations, saving reputation of the
organisation.
 Negative coverage in media damages organisations’ reputation and image.
As we know media relations constitute major part of Public Relations function. Effective media
relations helps in achieving overall PR objective. A diverse range of techniques and tools are
used for effective media relations to reach the target audience with accurate and effective
message.
Why is media important in Public Relations?
 Media Helps in multiplying the message
 Media Reaches a wide audience at local, regional, national and international levels
 Media can draw attention of Government officials, Parliamentarians/ Legislators, decision
makers and opinion leaders
 Media can influence public opinion in positive and negative direction

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 CHAPTER SIX
6. MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION
6.1 Overview of media of communication
The term media is being used in a broad sense, to include the methods, channels or
circumstances under which communication occurs. A medium is defined by a generally
accepted set of rules for structuring and exchanging messages.
This ground rules today apply to electronic technology as well as writing, speaking and various
forms of interactions to exchange messages.
Some media ground rules are: (Paul.R.1996 p.139).
 Whoever is talking may continue to talk until he/she appears to be finished.
 No speaker should talk for “very long’ at a time, which may vary from a few seconds to
two or more minutes ,depending on the circumstances
 Nobody may interrupt the speaker unless he /she agrees to be interrupted
 When a silence occurs ,each participant has an equal opportunity to begin talking, that is,
nobody is intentionally excluded
 Nobody who is talking g by change the subject without getting permission from other
participants
6.2 Oral Communication
Oral Communication is the process of conveying or receiving messages with the use of spoken
words. This mode of communication is highly used across the world because of rapid
transmission of information and prompt reply.
Oral communication can either be in the form of direct conversation between two or more
persons like face to face communication, lectures, meetings, seminars, group discussion,
conferences, etc. or indirect conversation, i.e. the form of communication in which a medium is
used for interchange of information like telephonic conversation, video call, voice call, etc.
The best thing about this mode of communication is that the parties to communication, i.e.
sender or receiver, can notice nonverbal cues like the body language, facial expression, tone of
voice and pitch, etc. This makes the communication between the parties more effective.
However, this mode is backed with some limitation like the words once spoken can never be
taken back.

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Oral communication is the process of verbally transmitting information and ideas from one
individual or group to another. Oral communication can be either formal or informal.
Examples of informal oral communication:
 Face-to-face conversations
 Telephone conversations
 Discussions that take place at business meetings
 Video phones and video conferences etc…
Examples of formal types of oral communication include:
 Presentations at business meetings
 Classroom lectures
 Commencement speeches given at a graduation ceremony etc…
Reminding Point:-
 The oral communication brings back immediate feedback
 It has a conversational nature with shorter words and sentences
 It stresses on interpersonal relations
 This medium needs less technical details
 Its sentence structures are simple
6.2.1 Speech
It is one form of formal oral communication.
Preparing an oral presentation/speech
Preparing an oral presentation is much like preparing to write. You must determine your purpose,
analyses you audience, and then organize your ideas and prepare an outline.
Your purpose-determine the purpose of your presentation by asking “what do I want my
listeners to know, to be able to do, to believe after I am finished?
Your listener- you cannot hope to communicate effectively with your listeners unless you know
who they are. Are they co-workers, customers, clients, management, or fellow members of a
professional organization?
This will help you to know how much knowledge of your subject your listeners already possess
and then also help you recognize other factors that might improve your communication with your
listeners.

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In preparation an oral presentation, you should pay particular attention to the size of your
audience; Facial expressions and gestures that would be effective.
Your outline-the development of your subject when speaking differs slightly from the
development when writing.
Put your most important ideas into your opening and closing, where your listeners are more
likely to remember then.
Presentation or speech Guidelines
BEFORE THE PRESENTATION
Understand: Be very familiar with the material you are presenting. Do the research you need to get your
facts straight.
Decide: What are your objectives for the presentation? Your audience will only go away with a few key
messages, so choose your objectives wisely and carefully.
Plan: Who is your audience? What type of presentation is best to reach this audience? Would activities be
better than straight lecture? Think carefully as you plan out your presentation.
Practice: Rehearse your presentation. Practice using the audiovisual aids you will be using during the
presentation.
Be Early: Arrive earlier than the appointed time so that you can make sure the room is set up
appropriately and all audiovisual equipment is working.
DURING THE PRESENTATION
KISS: Keep It Short and Simple.
Make Your Points Strong: Get to the main conclusions and recommendations quickly.
Use Visuals: Use bullet lists, graphics, charts, and tables where possible to support your key points (make
sure overhead transparencies and flipcharts have large enough pictures or text for your audience to see
easily).
Make Eye Contact: Look at the audience while you talk. Don't bury your head in your notes.
Build in Extra Time: Allow additional time for your audience to ask questions and discuss points either
during the presentation or afterwards.
AFTER THE PRESENTATION
Evaluate: Have participants fill out an evaluation form so you can learn what you did well and what
needs improvement.
Be Kind to Yourself: Don't worry if the presentation didn't go exactly as you planned! You will improve
each time you make a presentation!

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Successful Oral Presentation
An oral presentation creates mutual understanding between audience and speaker so you will
have to give yourself some time to improve your oral presentation skills.
6.2.2 Telephone Conversation
Telephone is a good channel for making sales pitches with customers, solving problems and
exchanging ideas. Telephone can enable you to communicate quickly and personally with people
all over the world. Because you cannot see the person with whom you are speaking, pay careful
attention to both your speaking and listening skills.
Guidelines for telephone usage
A. Answering calls
 Answer promptly
 Identify yourself or your organization
 Screen calls before transmitting them, ask who is speaking
 Transfer call correctly
 Repeat major ideas
 Write down complete message, if call is for somebody else
 Make sure the person answering the telephone has your correct name and telephone
number
 Indicate a time and date when the call can be returned
B. Conversing
 Prepare a list of major points before hand
 Hold the receiver 2-3 cm away from your mouth
 Speak slowly and a little more loudly than usual
 Get to your point quickly
 Maintain a friendly, personal tone
 Pick-up verbal clues, for example when somebody is busy
 Get feedback on ideas or plans
 Make sure you understand any agreements
 At the end of the call, summarize major ideas or plans
Advantage of telephone conversation:

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  They provide two-way communication
 Immediate feedback can be obtained
 Problems can be sorted out quickly
 Information can be received quickly
Disadvantage of Telephone conversation:
 There is no written record of the communication
 Verbal messages came sometimes be misunderstood
6.2.3 Face to face conversation
Face-to-face communication is usually in the form of meeting, which can be with one person or
many people. Face –to- face communication can also be a one- to- one conversation or an
external chat.
Advantage of face to face conversation: - .
 face-to face communalisation ensure everyone gets the same message at the same time
 everyone can look at any paper work and discuss any issues accordingly
 feedback can be given and receive
 problems can be sorted out quickly
Disadvantage of face to face conversation:
 in big meetings there is no way of telling whether everybody is listening
 people are not always available for meetings
 not everyone is willing to speak up at meetings
6.2.4 Active listening
It is the most important type of listening. The receiver absorbs all that is being said and also
makes an attempt to verify all that he/she has been listening to. When it combined with sensitive
listening it can result in the best kind of listening with the receiver moving in accordance with
the intent of the speaker.
A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left unsaid or only
partially said. Effective listening involves observing body language and noticing inconsistencies
between verbal and non-verbal messages. For example, if someone tells you that they are happy
with their life but through gritted teeth or with tears filling their eyes, you should consider that
the verbal and non-verbal messages are in conflict, they maybe don't mean what they say.

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Listening is Not the Same as Hearing
Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear, whereas listening requires more than that: it requires
focus. Listening means paying attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of
language and voice, and how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it means
being aware of both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends
on the degree to which you perceive and understand these messages.
Active listening is a skill that can be acquired and developed with practice. However, active
listening can be difficult to master and will, therefore, take time and patience. 'Active listening'
means, as its name suggests, actively listening. That is fully concentrating on what is being said
rather than just passively ‘hearing’ the message of the speaker. Active listening involves
listening with all senses. As well as giving full attention to the speaker, it is important that the
‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to be listening - otherwise the speaker may conclude that what they
are talking about is uninteresting to the listener.

According to James, A. & Paul, R.Timm (1996) Active listening requires effort:
 Resist distraction: - This point emphasise the importance of concentration.
 Be create interest:-Do your best to find areas of interest between you and the speaker
 Stay alert:-force yourself to stay alert, even if the speaker is slow and boring.
 Listening for them rather than for isolated facts. Too often people get hopelessly lost as
listeners because they focused in conceptual facts and details, and miss the speaker’s
main point.
 Attentively to take note
 As a listener, take primary responsibility for the success of two-way communication.
Active listening involves 4 phases.

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You can do many different things to improve your listening skills. Here are some additional
tips:-
- Remember that your listeners may not process information into the same way you do.
Different people s has different learning styles.
 Take notes: - Writing dawn major ideas and important facts may help you to listen and
remember more effectively. However, its importance for you to be selective.
 Don’t try to write down everything.
 Show your interest: - it is discourteous to fidget or look bored. If you have committed to
listen to the speaker, then gives your full attention and show that you are listening.
6.2.5 Interviews
What is an interview?
An interview is a face-to-face inter personal event in which at least one person has planned to
achieve a specific goal, that means interview is a special event, have a specific purpose, usually
planned and it tends to be structured.

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Characteristics of an Interview:
Interviews involve two sides; the interviewer and the interviewee. An interview is essentially an
exchange of information what distinguishes it from informal conversation.
Interview differs from informal conversation by the following features:-
 Is planned
 Is prearranged
 Is structured
 Is controlled by the interviewer(it means knowing how to motivate the interviewee to
reply fully to questions)
 Has a predetermined purpose
 Takes place between two or more people of different status
Style and the structure of the interview
There are two style and structure of interview. Such as:-
Directive interviews are controlled and organized by the interviewer. E.g. Employment
interviews
Non-directive interviews involve the participants and the organization in setting the goals and
process of the interview. E.g. The information interview
There are six type of interview
1.The employment interview: It is sometimes called the job search interview and the selection
interview. It is an interview in which the participant exchanges information in order to make an
employment decision. This type of interview occurs every time recruiter visits a campus to
search for a few employees.
2.The performance appraisal interview: It is sometimes called a counselling interview. It is a
work related interview in which the supervisors give the employee feedback about his or her job
performance and consults with the employee performance appraisal to discover & solve common
problems with employees to motivate employee.
3.The information interview: It can work in to two ways, one is the information seeker
organize the interview, in the other way the information giver organize the interview.
4.Persuasive interview: Occurs whenever one person seeks to change the thinking or behavior
of another person. The most persuasive interview in the sales & a sales representative explain the
feature & benefits of a product or service in order to make purchase decision.
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5. A grievance interview: Interview sometimes occurs in organization. Such interview entitled
by employee in order to focus up on a matter of employee discontent in academic or company
community. For Example: - Students sometimes require grievance interview to complain about
how they were treated in a class room or to challenge their course grade.
6. An Exit interview: Is designed and conducted by managers when value employees decide to
leave their companies. The goal of an exit interview is to identify any change that must be made
in the administrative structure or procedure or in the common climate of your organization .
Types of job related interview
o The single interview: It is conducted by a single interviewer responsible for interviewing all
applicants and selecting the new staff member.
o The series interview: It is conducted by a number of interviewers in turn. Each interviewer is
looking for a particular area of expertise and evaluates each applicant in this area of expertise.
Guidelines for job interview
1. Pre-interview stage:
Undertake the analysis of the job. Identify the tasks performed on the job and the activities, skills
and personal attributes necessary to carry out the job. Create a job specification or description if
one does not exist. The job specification is the basis for the essential and desirable quantities
listed in the advertisement as well as the basis for your questions in the interview. Determine the
style and the structure of the interview.
2. Preparing the questions:
Prepare a fixed set of questions that ask about the interviewee’s qualifications, previous job
experience, carrier ambitions, goals, and attitudes towards the organization’s products or
policies. Aim to create clear, specific questions that will adequately establish the applicant’s
capacity to meet the demands of the job. Questions should also be relevant, unambiguous and
free from bias, so that no one particular group in society is favored or others disadvantaged.
3. Conducting an interview:
Once you prepared the content of the interview you are ready to conduct the interview.
Nondirective techniques use minimal questions, creating a conversational and to encourage the
applicant. Directive techniques include open-ended questions and specific probing questions to
focus on a particular topic and gain further information or clarification.
4. Open the interview:

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Create an open, friendly and trusting environment and aim to put the interviewee at ease.
Through
 Greet the applicant by name and introduce yourself and the panel by name and job
designation.
 Show the interviewee to a chair and perhaps offer refreshments.
 Some interviewers like to talk about topics of general interest such as local events or
sport to make the applicant feel at ease; however take care not to side-track too far from
the interview’s purpose.
 State the interview’s purpose and intended result. Be specific and avoid generalities.
 Let the interviewee know if you intend to take notes and explain the length of time
allotted to the interview.
The body of the interview: Use simple questions initially to help the applicant build confidence.
 Progress further through the interview with questions on work experience, education and
personal details.
 Throughout the interview, your purpose is twofold: to obtain specific information from
the applicant and to achieve an interview process that is comfortable for the applicant. So
take notes to jog your memory.
 Some interviewee responses may be inadequate, irrelevant, poorly organized or
inaccurate. Listen carefully and with empathy. On occasion, you may need to vary the
type of question, to clarify information or to allow the applicant to elaborate.
 As an interviewer it is your responsibility to give applicants accurate job information, to
answer their questions and to allow scope to discuss their abilities.
 Close the interview courteously.
The interviewer should summarize what has taken place during the interview to avoid any
misunderstandings or communication barriers. At the end of the interview, indicate any further
action that needs to be completed. Indicate clearly that the interview is over and thank applicants
for their application and for attending the interview.
5. After the interview
The interviewer or the panel evaluates each applicant and the results of the interview.
 Maintain the confidentiality of the interview and the documents presented at the
interview.

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  Record or complete notes on all important points immediately after the interview.
 You are trying to form an objective opinion based on the information provided by the
interviewee and any other information available. At this stage interview evaluation sheets
or rating scales are very helpful.
Goals of a job interview
In conducting a job interview, you want to attract and choose the best applicant for the position.
 Gather information from interviewees to help predict their future performance
 Inform applicants about the job and the organization
 Determine applicants’ ability to work with others and ‘fit’ into the organizational culture
6.2.6 Meetings
Meetings are necessary to coordinate individual efforts, collaborate on joint projects, acquire
support for ideas, sell ideas, solve problems collectively, and make consensus-based decisions.
Essentially, meetings are a gathering of two or more persons to collectively accomplish what one
person cannot.
First, one needs to decide if a meeting is necessary. Before scheduling or attending your next
meeting, clearly define the objectives for yourself or the group if you are the person responsible
for the meeting.
To help you think through your objectives, ask yourself the following four questions:
 Why am I scheduling or attending this meeting?
 What do I want to accomplish or gain?
 What information will be exchanged or decisions made?
 Who will be attending that I need to meet or gain their support?
How to Organize Effective Meeting?
Good meetings aren't accidents - they are the result of good planning. The time you spend before
will result in major benefits later by efficiently using the meeting time and accomplishing
objectives.
When deciding to hold a meeting, you should also decide who should attend and what the
purpose of the meeting is. To help in planning meetings, below is a checklist of major elements
essential for meeting effectiveness.
Purpose:

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Plan meetings with purpose, Define the purpose or objective of the meeting (e.g., to reach
consensus on how volunteer leaders should allocate their time).
Participant:
Who needs to attend this meeting to accomplish the purpose?
Structure:
How should the meeting be organized to best accomplish the purpose? Some techniques may
include: guest speakers, videos, brainstorming sessions, panel sessions, discussion groups,
demonstrations, etc.
Whatever technique is selected, it should have the greatest impact on the participants to attain the
meeting objective.
Location and Time
Select a meeting place that best matches the participant's needs, the objective, and the meeting
structure.
When planning where to meet, give consideration to size, comfort, accessibility, adequate
parking, room acoustics, equipment needs, etc. Choosing a meeting time depends on the
availability of participants and meeting facilities. The anticipated length of the meeting should
also be a factor in deciding when to schedule the meeting.
Agenda
A meeting agenda should be prepared and distributed to participants at least three days prior to
the meeting day. An agenda is crucial to meeting success in three ways:
1) It clarifies the objectives so people understand the meeting purpose and tasks;
2) Distributing the agenda prior to the meeting helps participants plan and prepare to make an
effective contribution; and
3) During the meeting, the agenda provides direction and focus for the discussion.
There are a variety of agenda styles but essentially they should contain at least the
following elements:
A. Title (e.g., evaluation review meeting),
B. Time (e.g. 8:00-10:00 a.m.)
C. Date,
D. Location,
E. Discussion items, and

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F. Names of persons responsible for covering each item.
Responsibilities:
There should be a mutual understanding of not only the meeting purpose, but also individual
assignments and how they fit into the total program. Those meetings that are more focused on
brainstorming or creativity may require little or no individual assignments. In task-oriented or
policy deciding meetings, it is best to prepare a written summary of assigned duties so
individuals know what their responsibility is for the meeting.
Confirmation:
If it is a first meeting or if the meeting is on a new day or time individually contact all
participants at least three days before the meeting day. Contact can be as simple as sending
everyone a friendly reminder through office e-mail, phone calls, or a post card reminder through
the mail. For regularly scheduled meetings, choose a location and meeting time and try not to
change it.
HOW TO RUN EFFECTIVE MEETINGS?
The meeting leader or facilitator is responsible for setting the meeting tone, keeping the
discussion on track, and making sure everyone has a fair chance of being heard. The leader or
facilitator should also summarize relevant points and tie things together when the discussion
jumps around between interrelated topics.
A well-planned meeting will significantly reduce surprises and meeting confusion, there is no
guarantee everything will run smoothly, even with the best planning.
Here are some suggested guidelines on how to run effective meetings:
I. Begin on time and end on time –
If you begin a meeting five to seven minutes after it was scheduled, you are starting late. Starting
a meeting late sends the message that it's okay to be late and it shows a lack of respect and
appreciation for those who make the effort to arrive on time. Some people may have back-toback
meetings. Ending on time shows respect for participant’s and valuable time.
II. Use the Agenda –
Review the agenda with participants at the beginning of the meeting and ask them if any changes
need to be made on time allocations or discussion content. Continually refer back to the agenda
throughout the meeting to keep discussion centered on the stated purpose and specified agenda
items.

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III. Establish and Use Ground Rules
Ground rules are explicit rules that the group agrees to follow to help them facilitate productive
discussions. Whether the group formulates the ground rules or the meeting leader/facilitator
presents them, all group members should reach consensus on following the ground rules. Ground
rules lay out the expectations of "the way things should be done at meetings."
Ground rules are used to facilitate group interaction, not to restrict it. The group can change the
ground rules or add new ones based on group needs.
Examples of some typically used ground rules include: arrive and start on time; stick to the
agenda; everyone participates; be realistic when accepting follow-up tasks; focus on interests,
not positions; separate people from the problem; respect different viewpoints; share
responsibility for following the ground rules.
• Control dominating individuals - Make sure each individual has a fair chance of expressing
ideas and opinions. Do not let one person dominate the discussion. Of equal importance is to
ensure that quiet participants are expressing their ideas and opinions. This may require the leader
or facilitator to directly call on the quiet member and ask them for their opinion or for any ideas
they would like to share.
IV. Summarize –
Conclude the meeting by summarizing the discussion, decisions made, tasks delegated,
deadlines, and any action required by participants. Depending on the time available, either
address bin items or place them on the agenda for the next meeting. Include in the summary any
review plans for follow-up or the need to schedule any succeeding meetings. The responsibility
for the success and effectiveness of the meeting ultimately rests equally with everyone in the
group. A well-planned agenda, posted ground rules, and using a bin are the three most important
keys to running effective meetings. Meetings can be fun and productive. It's easy to get caught
up in the pressure of the meeting and lose sight of perspectives. Stress diminishes creativity and
spontaneity and generally lowers the quality of results achieved by the group. So relax and
remember that the best results come from groups who are able to laugh together, discuss their
mistakes, and take pride in their efforts.
6.3 Written Communication
Definition of Written Communication

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The communication in which the message is transmitted in written or printed form is known as
Written Communication. It is the most reliable mode of communication, and it is highly
preferred in the business world because of its formal and sophisticated nature. The various
channels of written communication are letters, e-mails, journals, magazines, newspapers, text
messages, reports, etc.
There are a number of advantages of written communication which are as under:
Referring the message in the future will be easy.
Before transmitting the message, one can revise or rewrite it in an organized way.
The chances of misinterpretation of message are very less because the words are carefully chosen.
The communication is planned.
Legal evidence is available due to the safekeeping of records. Etc…
But as we all know that everything has two aspects, same is the case with written communication
as the communication is a time consuming one. Moreover, the sender will never know that the
receiver has read the message or not. The sender has to wait for the responses of the receiver. A
lot of paperwork is there, in this mode of communication.
Reminding Point:-@ Written Communication
 This medium is more formal with focus on contents
 It can convey any amount of technical information
 It is best for permanent record
 This medium uses longer words and longer sentences.
 It brings delayed feedback
6.3.1 Curriculum Vitae
What is a CV?
Your CV, short for curriculum vitae, is a personal marketing document used to sell yourself to
prospective employers. It should tell them about you, your professional history and your skills,
abilities and achievements. Ultimately, it should highlight why you’re the best person for the job.
A CV is required when applying for a job. In addition to your CV, employers may also require a
cover letter and a completed application form.
What information to Include in a Curriculum Vitae
1. Name, professional title and contact details (address)

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The first part of your CV aligns at the top of the page, should contain your name, professional
title and contact details.
When it comes to your contact details, your email addresses and phone number(s) are essential.
Once upon a time, it was customary to include your full address on your CV. Today, you simply
need to list your town and county.

Remind: - When to develop Personal profile ask yourself the following questions.
i. Who are you?
ii. What can you offer the company?
iii. What are your career goals?
2. Education and qualifications. Take care to include the names of institutions and dates
attended in reverse order; Ph.D., Masters, Undergraduate.

3. Work experience/employment history.

The most widely accepted style of employment record is the chronological curriculum vitae.
Your career history is presented in reverse date order starting with most recent.
Achievements and responsibilities are listed for each role. More emphasis/information should be
put on more recent jobs.

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4. Skills.
Include computer skills, foreign language skills, and any other recent training that is relevant to
the role applied for.
5. Hobbies and interests:
If you feel that your CV is lacking, you can boost your document by inserting a hobbies and
interests section at the end. Be careful though; avoid listing hobbies that don’t add value to your
CV or are run-of-the-mill, like reading. Draw on interests that make you stand out or are relevant
to the job.
6. References: Like including an address on your CV, adding your referees to the end of your
CV is no longer standardized. You can include a line that reads ‘references available on request’,
but if you don’t have room, it’s acceptable to remove it altogether.
What Not to Include
There is no need to include your photo, your salary history, the reason you left your previous
position.
How Long Should a CV Be?
Good curriculum vitae should ideally cover no more than two pages and never more than three.
Aim to ensure the content is clear, structured, concise and relevant. Using bullet points rather
than full sentences can help minimize word usage.

6.3.2 Business letter writing

Definition of Business letter

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Business letters are purposeful internal & external communications designed to communicate
business messages or information between letter producer (Sender) and reader (receiver) or
supplier and potential customer.
To communicate with others through business letters, especially outsiders, the letter should be
creating a good impression to get a positive response. In order to achieve this, they must be
attractively displayed, and unblemished by error, in grammar, punctuation and spelling. A good
business letter is good promotion for a company or any other type of organization.
Reasons for writing business letters
The two main reasons for writing a business letter such as:-
1. When record keeping is important, any time you want a proven record , for instance in case
of:
Transactions, agreements or financial terms
To verify what was decided during a (telephone) conversation
Confirming the terms of any oral agreement
Orders, bills, terms of insurance, employment agreements and any financial transactions
2. To provide convenient and inexpensive means of communication without personal contact,
for instance
To send the same message to a large number of people
To communicate with people in distant parts of the country
To communicate routine messages- is there unnecessary information
Characteristics of good letter
In planning and writing business letter, remember that a business letter should be
Courteous/Polite: - it should be written in polite (good) manner.
When revising and editing don’t delete the courteous words.
Clear: - it should be easy to understand.
Complete: - it should also have all information that the reader must know.
Concise: - it should provide a lot of information in a few words.
Avoid wasting words, avoid wordiness; choose words with care and use them with
economy; be brief and clear.
Correct: - it should also be written without mistakes.
Standard Parts of the Business Letter

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Most business letters have the following parts:
1. Heading
The heading of the letter usually is placed in the upper right hand section of the paper. The letter
should immediately announce its sender. It gives the name and the address of the writer (sender).
This information is useful in replying.
The heading may be indented or blocked. In hand written letter the lines of heading should be
intended with each line begin a little to the right of the preceding line.
2. Date and reference number
Usually the date and reference number is written two lines below the last line of the letterhead.
3. Inside address
The person or firm to whom you send a letter is called the inside addressee (Receiver address).
The name and the address of the addressee comprises the inside address. Before a person’s name
use Mr., Mrs., or alike
It is written on the upper left hand side of the letter, a few lines below the date.
4. Salutation

The salutation is written below the inside address and begins at the left margin. The salutation
greets the reader and it’s followed by a colon
The usual salutation in letters to a business firm is Dear gentlemen. In the letter to a man, a
salutation may be Dear Ato. In a letter to women it may be Dear W/t, and W/ro.
5. Subject
The subject of the message is written after two space of salutation and it is considered to be the
title/topic of the message.
6. Body
The body, which begins two lines under the subject, contains the message of the letter. The
writer’s message should follow the rules of good English composition. The paragraph however,
usually is shorter than those in other types of writing.
7. Complimentary close
If the letter begins with a formal salutation (Sir, Dear Sir) it will close with “Yours faithfully”.

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If it begins with a personal name Dear Mr. Tolla, it will close with “Yours sincerely”. Yours
truly or cordially are also used.
Informal closes as Warm regards, Best regards/wishes are also used. A comma is used after
complimentary close.
8. Signature
Always type your name after the handwritten signature and the position in the firm. It is better to
give courteous title (Mr, Miss, etc.) to avoid confusion.
9. Enclosure(s)
An enclosure or attachment notation is included to remind the reader to check for additional
pages of information. The enclosure is typed single or double space below the signature.
10. Copy Notation
When persons other than the addressee will receive a copy of the message, it is noted by writing
‘C’, ‘PC’, ‘Copy’ or ‘CC’ followed by the names of these persons just below the reference
initials or the enclosure notation.
How to write a business letter?

Your institution’s name

Your institution’s address

Date of letter

Reference number

Recipient’s name

Recipient’s title

Recipient’s institution

Recipient’s institution address

Salutation

Subject of the message

People read business letters quickly. Therefore, get to the point in the first paragraph—the first sentence,

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if possible. In other words, state what you want up front.

Consider one and half space b/n sentences on your letters and use Times new roman font type with 12’’
font size. Skip double space between paragraphs. Because people read business letters quickly, use
shorter sentences and paragraphs than you would in a longer document. Sentences should average fewer
than twenty words, and paragraphs should average fewer than seven lines.

Space your letter on the page so that it does not crowd the top. However, if possible, keep your letter to
one page.

Final paragraphs should tell readers what you want them to do or what you will do for them.

Sincerely,

You’re Signature

Your Name and Title of the job

Enclosure

C:c: Name to receive copy (Send copies to anyone whose name you mention in the letter or who
would be directly affected by the letter.)

Despite the fact that there are a lot of letter styles that can be employed in business letter writing,
this section is confirmed to the discussion of only four contemporary styles which are in practical
use in most business establishment and governmental agency involved in business. These are
semi-blocked, full-blocked and indented styles.
From these letter styles the blocked and semi-blocked once are widely applied as headed letters
are being used in most business organization now days.
It is also important to note that the blocked and semi-blocked styles are preferable used in the
production of personal letters.
On the other hand the full -blocked style predominantly used in financial institutes, education
sectors, business and service rendering organizations in Ethiopian & Western countries such as
England & Scotland. And also the indented style is mostly used in hand written letters.

6.3.3 Memorandum (memo)

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What is interoffice memorandum (Memo)?
It is another form of written communication and derived from Latin word “memorare” meaning
‘a thing to be remembered. Memos are used to communicate with other employees, may be
located – whether in the same office, in the same building, or in a branch office.
The memorandum or ‘memo’ is a very flexible form used within an organization for
communication at all levels and for many different reasons. It performs internally the same
function as a letter does in external communication by an organization, it is used for briefings or
instructions, brief messages or ‘notes’ and any kind of internal communication that is more
easily or clearly conveyed in writing (rather than face-to-face or on the telephone).
Flow of Memo entire the organization: - A memorandum may be send upwards,
downwards or sideways in the organization. It may be sent from one individual to another, from
one department to another or from one individual to a department or larger body of staff.

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When to write memo remember who your recipient is, what is his status, his background,
education, practical experience etc.
Please check yourself
Assuming yourself to be the purchase officer of the Woliso Soap factory, woliso, prepare a
memo to be written to the Section Heads of your organization informing them about the new
procedure they should follow for sending the departmental requisitions.

6.3.4 Business Report Writing

Introduction
Writing an effective business report is a necessary skill for communicating ideas in the business
environment. Reports usually address a specific issue or problem, and are often specially made
when a decision needs to be made. They present the author’s findings in relation to the issue or
problem and then recommend a course of action for the organization to take. The key to a good
report is in-depth analysis. Good writers will show their reader how they have interpreted their
findings. The reader will understand the basis on which the conclusions are drawn as well as the
rationale for the recommendations.
As effective business report writer you must consider the following points:-
1. Planning your business report
As in all writing, planning is vitally important. Ask yourself the following key questions, when
to plan business report:
 What is the purpose of this report?
Keep in mind that the purpose of a business report is generally to assist in decision making. Be
sure you are clear on what decision is to be made and the role the report plays in this decision. It
might be useful to consider the purpose in this way: As a result of this report, my reader/s will …
For example:
As a result of this report, my reader/s will know:
- How well our recycling program is doing
- How to increase participation in it.
 Who are the readers of this report?

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Consider the main reader/s, but also secondary readers. The main reader for the recycling report
alluded to above is the director of the recycling program. Secondary readers might be the
facilities management team on campus, the finance team, etc.
Try to understand what the readers already know, what they need to know, and how they will use
this report. You will need to give enough information to satisfy all these potential readers. You
will need to use headings carefully so that different readers can use the report in different ways.
 What are the report’s main messages?
Taking into account the information above, think carefully about the main message/s you
need to convey, and therefore what information is required. Ask yourself: What are the
required pieces of information I need to include?
What are the additional pieces of information I need to include?
 How will the report be structured?
- First to determine the approach of the business report. Basically there are two main types of
business report approach. Such as: Deductive approach and Inductive approach.
In case of Deductive approach, presents the conclusions or recommendations near the beginning
of the report, and the report provides justification for these recommendations.
But in case of inductive approach leads the reader through the discussion first and reveals the
conclusions and recommendations at the end of the report.
The next step is to construct an outline, or structure, for your report. Check for a logical flow,
and check your outline against your purpose, your reader/s, and the report’s relevant information
requirements.
2. Structuring your business report
A business report may contain:
 A covering letter or memorandum
Often a letter is attached to a report to officially introduce the report to the recipient. If the recipient
is outside the organization, a letter format is appropriate; if the recipient is inside the organization, a
memorandum/memo is appropriate.
The covering letter or memorandum should:
Remind the reader of their request for the report
State the purpose of the report
Acknowledge any assistance

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 Indicate future actions to be taken.
 A title page
The title page should be brief but descriptive of the project. It should also include the date of
completion/submission of the report, the author/s, and their association/organization.
 An executive summary
The executive summary follows the title page, and should make sense on its own. The executive
summary helps the reader quickly grasp the report’s purpose, conclusions, and key
recommendations. You may think of this as something the busy executive might read to get a
feel for your report and its final conclusions. The executive summary should be no longer than
one page. The executive summary differs from an abstract in that it provides the key
recommendations and conclusions, rather than a summary of the document.
 A table of contents
The table of contents follows the executive summary on a new page. It states the pages for
various sections. The reader receives a clear orientation to the report as the table of contents lists
all the headings and sub-headings in the report.
 An introduction
The introduction sets the stage for the reader. It gives the context for the report and generates the
reader’s interest. It orients the reader to the purpose of the report and gives them a clear
indication of what they can expect.
The introduction should:
􀀀 briefly describe the context
􀀀 identify the general subject matter
􀀀 describe the issue or problem to be reported on
􀀀 state the specific questions the report answers
􀀀 outline the scope of the report (extent of investigation)
􀀀 preview the report structure
􀀀 Comment on the limitations of the report and any assumptions made.
 Findings and discussion
The discussion is the main part of your report and should present and discuss your findings. It
should give enough information, analysis, and evidence to support your conclusions, and it
should provide justification for your recommendations. Its organization will depend on your

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purpose, scope, and requirements, but it should follow a logical and systematic organization. The
discussion should be subdivided into logical sections, each with informative, descriptive
headings and a number.
Where your report’s purpose is to recommend the best solution to a problem, you should show
clear analysis of all options. You should explain any analytical framework you used, such as
SWOT or cost benefit analysis. This analysis of options can often be presented effectively in
tables.
 Conclusions
A business report usually needs both conclusions and recommendations. The difference between
conclusions and recommendations in a report lies in the orientation to time. Conclusions
typically relate to the present or past situation.
When writing conclusions:
interpret and summarize the findings; say what they mean
relate the conclusions to the report issue/problem
Limit the conclusions to the data presented; do not introduce new material
number the conclusions and present them in parallel form
be objective: avoid exaggerating or manipulating the data.
 Recommendations
Recommendations are oriented to the future: what changes are recommended, or what actions are
recommended for the future? They are specific, action-oriented suggestions to solve the report
problem.
When writing recommendations:
make specific suggestions for actions to solve the report problem
avoid conditional words such as maybe and perhaps
present each suggestion separately and begin with a verb
number the recommendations
describe how the recommendations may be implemented
arrange the recommendations in an announced order, such as most important to least
important.
 A list of references

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Whenever you use information from other sources, references must be provided in-text and in a
list of references.
 Appendices
If material is important to your discussion and is directly referred to, then it should be included in
your discussion proper. However, you might want to use appendices to include supplementary
material that enhances understanding for the reader. You might use appendices to provide details
on the process or analysis you underwent (or which was required by your supervisor or lecturer).
When you choose to include information in appendices, you should refer to it clearly in your text
(refer Appendix A). A single appendix should be titled APPENDIX. Multiple appendices are
titled APPENDIX A, APPENDIX B, etc. Appendices appear in the order that they are mentioned
in the text of the report.

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