Mathematics Chapter 4

Introduction to Calculus
Batterjee Medical College

1st Semester 2023/24 Mathematics Department

Chapter Outlines

 Basic definitions
 The derivative
 Product, Quotient and the Chain rule
 Higher order derivatives
 Evaluating a derivative at a point
 Integration rules
 The definite integration
Introduction

• Calculus is the mathematical study of change,

• Two major branches, differential calculus (concerning rates of change and
slopes of curves, functions and limits), and integral calculus (concerning
areas under and between curves).
• Integration is the opposite of differentiation.
• Many physiological processes are continuous and don't move in "jumps" but
rather change continuously through time (e.g. body temperature, body
weight, brain activity, enzyme concentrations, birth rate, decay of cells
etc.).
Introduction
The Derivative

Differentiation is a method to compute the rate at which a dependent variable

y changes with respect to the change in the independent variable x.
This rate of change is called the derivative of y with respect to x.
In more precise language, the dependence of y upon x means that y is a
function of x.
This functional relationship is often denoted
𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)
The Derivative

The change in the independent variable 𝑥 is denoted by 𝒅𝒙. The change in 𝑦 is

denoted by 𝒅𝒚. The derivative of y with respect to x is written

𝒅𝒚
𝒅𝒙
this can be read as "the derivative of y with respect to x".
Another notation is
𝒚′ 𝒐𝒓 𝒇′ (𝒙)
𝒅𝒚
The derivative with respect to time is denoted by 𝒚.
𝒅𝒕
Basic Rules
Rule Illustration
Derivative There is no change in a quantity that remains
𝑑
of a 𝑐 =0 constant. So the derivative of a constant will always
𝑑𝑥 be zero.
Constant
Power 𝒅 𝒏 How to find the derivative of a variable having
𝒙 = 𝐧𝒙𝐧−𝟏 constant exponent.
Rule 𝒅𝒙
The derivative of a constant times that function is the
Constant 𝑑 𝑑𝑦
𝑐𝑦 = 𝑐 same as the derivative of the function multiplied by
product 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 the constant.

Derivative 𝑑 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 The derivative of the sum is equal to the sum of

𝑢+𝑣 = +
of a sum 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 derivatives.
Examples
Find the derivative of:
a) 𝑦 = 𝑥 6
′ 𝑑
𝑦 = 𝑥 6 = 6𝑥 6−1 = 6𝑥 5
𝑑𝑥

b) 𝑦 = 3𝑥 5 − 1

′ 𝑑
𝑦 = 3𝑥 5 − 1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
= 3 𝒙𝟓 − (𝟏)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
= 3 𝟓𝒙𝟓−𝟏 − 𝟎
= 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟒
Examples
Find the derivative of:
(c) 𝑦 = 13𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 − 𝑥 − 5
𝑑
𝑦′ = 13𝑥 4 − 6𝑥 3 − 𝑥 − 5
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝟒 𝑑 𝟑 𝑑 𝑑
= 𝟏𝟑 𝒙 −𝟔 𝒙 − 𝒙 − 𝟓
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 13 𝟒𝒙𝟒−𝟏 − 6 𝟑𝒙𝟑−𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝟎

= 52𝑥 3 − 18𝑥 2 − 1
Examples
1 8 1 4
(d) 𝑦 = − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 32
4 2

𝑑 1 8 1 4
𝑦′ = − 𝑥 + 𝑥 − 32
𝑑𝑥 4 2

𝟏 𝑑 𝟖 𝟏 𝑑 𝟒 𝑑
=− (𝒙 ) + (𝒙 ) − (𝟗)
𝟒 𝑑𝑥 𝟐 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 1
= − (𝟖𝒙𝟖−𝟏 ) + (𝟒𝒙𝟒−𝟏 ) −𝟎
4 2

= −2𝑥 7 + 2𝑥 3
Exercises
Find the derivative.

1) 𝑦 = 5

2) 𝑦 = 100𝑥

1
3) 𝑦 =
𝑥2

4) 𝑦 = 3 − 𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 4

5) 𝑦 = 𝑥 −3 + 4𝑥 −2 + 2 − 𝑥
The Product Rule

If u and v are two functions of x,

then the derivative of their product uv is given by...

𝑑 𝑑𝒖 𝑑𝒗
𝒖𝒗 = 𝒗 +𝒖
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
"The derivative of a product of two functions is the first function times the
derivative of the second, plus second function times the derivative of the
first."

𝑑
𝑢𝑣 = 𝒖𝒗 ′ = 𝒖′ 𝒗 + 𝒗′ 𝒖
𝑑𝑥
Example (Product Rule)
1) Find the derivative of
𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 6 (𝑥 2 − 1)
Solution: Here
𝑢 = 2𝑥 + 6, 𝑣 = 𝑥2 − 1

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑢′ = 2, = 𝑣 ′ = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 𝑢′ 𝑣 + 𝑣 ′ 𝑢
𝑦 ′ = 2 𝑥 2 − 1 + 2𝑥 2𝑥 + 6
= 2𝑥 2 − 2 + 4𝑥 2 + 12𝑥
= 6𝑥 2 + 12𝑥 − 2
Example (Product Rule)
Find the derivative of
𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 (2𝑥 2 + 5)
Solution: Here
𝑢 = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥, 𝑣 = 2𝑥 2 + 5

𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑢′ = 3𝑥 2 − 2, = 𝑣 ′ = 4𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑦 ′ = 𝑢′ 𝑣 + 𝑣 ′ 𝑢
𝑦 ′ = (3𝑥 2 − 2) 2𝑥 2 + 5 + 4𝑥 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥
= 6𝑥 4 + 15𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 2 − 10 + 4𝑥 4 − 8𝑥 2
= 10𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 2 − 10
Exercises
Find the derivative of the following with respect to x.

1) 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 1)

2) 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 𝑥 2 (1 − 𝑥 3 )

3) 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥(3𝑥 5 + 8𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 9)
The Quotient Rule

If the given function is in the form of a quotient i.e.

𝒖
𝒚= ; 𝑣≠0 ∀ 𝑥
𝒗
𝑑𝑦
Then the derivative is found using the following rule
𝑑𝑥

𝒅𝒚 𝒖′ 𝒗 − 𝒗′ 𝒖
=
𝒅𝒙 𝒗𝟐
Examples (Quotient Rule)
Find the derivative of
𝑥
𝑦= 2
𝑥 −1
Solution: Here
𝒖 = 𝑥, 𝒗 = 𝑥2 − 1
𝒖′ = 1, 𝒗′ = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑥 2 − 1 − 2𝑥 (𝑥)
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 2 − 1)2
𝑥 2 − 1 − 2𝑥 2
=
(𝑥 2 − 1)2
−𝑥 2 − 1
= 2
(𝑥 − 1)2
Examples (Quotient Rule)
2𝑥 3
𝑦=
4−𝑥
Solution: Here
𝑢 = 2𝑥 3 , 𝑣 =4−𝑥
𝑢′ = 2 3𝑥 2 = 6𝑥 2 , 𝑣 ′ = −1

𝑑𝑦 6𝑥 2 4 − 𝑥 − 2𝑥 3 (−1)
𝑦′ = =
𝑑𝑥 (4 − 𝑥)2
24𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 3
=
(4 − 𝑥)2
24𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3
=
(4 − 𝑥)2
Examples (Quotient Rule)
4𝑥 2
𝑦= 3
𝑥 +3
Solution: Here
𝒖 = 4𝑥 2 , 𝒗 = 𝑥3 + 3
𝒖′ = 4 2𝑥 = 8𝑥, 𝒗′ = 3𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 8𝑥 𝑥 3 + 3 − 3𝑥 2 (4𝑥 2 )
=
𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 3 + 3)2
8𝑥 4 + 24𝑥 − 12𝑥 4
=
(𝑥 3 + 3)2
−4𝑥 4 + 24𝑥
=
(𝑥 3 + 3)2
Exercises

Find the derivative of each of the following:

4𝑥+6
1) 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 +1

𝑥2
2) 𝑦=
𝑥 3 −4

2𝑥−5
3) 𝑦 =
3𝑥 2 +2
𝑥
4) 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 −𝑥−2
𝑥−1
5) 𝑓 𝑥 =
2𝑥 3 −1
Value of a derivative at a point
The derivative of a function is also a function and we can find the value of this
new function (the derivative) at any value of x, the independent variable,

Example: Find 𝑦 ′ (2), if 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 + 2𝑥 2 .

Solution:
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥 − 1 + 2𝑥 2
𝑦 ′ 𝑥 = 1 + 4𝑥
After finding the derivative, put 𝑥 = 2
𝑦′ 𝟐 = 1 + 4 𝟐 = 9
Example (Value of a derivative at a point)
Find 𝒚′ (−𝟏), if
𝑦 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 5.
Solution:
𝑦 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 5
𝒚′ 𝒙 = 6𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
Put 𝒙 = −𝟏
𝑦 ′ −𝟏 = 6(−𝟏)2 −2(−𝟏)
𝑦 ′ −𝟏 = 6 + 2 = 𝟖
Exercises (Value of a derivative at a point)

Find:

1) 𝑦 ′ (1), if 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 1)

𝑥
2) 𝑦 ′ (4), if 𝑦 𝑥 =
𝑥+4

3) 𝑦 ′ (0), if 𝑦 𝑥 = 4𝑥 6 + 3𝑥 2

4) 𝑦 ′ (𝑚), if 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2
The Chain Rule
Question: how to find the derivative of
𝒙−𝟏 𝟓
Here we have a power 5, but not of x, instead we have 𝑥 − 1 5 .
To find derivatives of such type of functions, we need the chain rule, which
states that
If y is a function of u and u is a function of x, i.e.
𝑦=𝑓 𝑢 , 𝑢 = 𝑔(𝑥)
Then
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
= .
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒙
y u x
The Chain Rule

In the above case

𝑦 = 𝑥−1 5

Here 𝑦 = 𝒖5 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒖=𝑥−1

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝒖
= 5𝒖4 , =1
𝑑𝒖 𝑑𝑥
So,

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝒖
= . = 5𝒖4 × 1 = 5𝒖4 = 5(𝑥 − 1)4
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝒖 𝑑𝑥
The Chain Rule
This means we need to
• Recognize u (always choose the inner-most expression, usually the part
inside brackets, or under the square root sign).
• Then we need to re-express y in terms of u.
• Then we differentiate y (with respect to u), and u with respect to x.
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
• Then we multiply and .
𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒙

• At the end, re-express everything in terms of x, i.e. the original variable.

Example (The Chain Rule)
Find 𝒚′ if 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑)𝟒

Solution:
Here 𝑦 = 𝒖4 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒖 = 𝑥2 + 3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= 4𝑢3 , = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
So,
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= . = 4𝑢3 × 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

= 4(𝑥 2 + 3)3 × 2𝑥

= 8𝑥(𝑥 2 + 3)3
Exercises (The Chain Rule)
Differentiate each of the following with respect to x.

1) 𝑦 𝑥 = (5𝑥 − 7)3

2) 𝑦(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 8𝑥 + 1)−2

1
3) 𝑦 𝑥 =
(4−2𝑥)4
Higher Order Derivatives
If 𝑦(𝑥) is a differentiable function of x, then its derivative 𝑦 ′ (𝑥) is also a
function, so 𝒚′ (𝒙) may also have a derivative. This will be called the second
derivative of y(𝑥) and is denoted by
𝑑 2𝑦
𝒚′′ 𝒙 𝑜𝑟
𝑑𝑥 2
Similarly, we can find the derivatives of 𝑦(𝑥) of any order if 𝑦(𝑥) is infinitely
differentiable function.
Notations:
𝑦′ 𝑥 , 𝑦 ′′ 𝑥 , 𝑦 ′′′ 𝑥 , 𝑦 4 𝑥 ,…

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑑3 𝑦 𝑑4 𝑦
𝑜𝑟 , 2
, 3
, 4
,…
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example (Higher Order Derivatives)
If 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1,
then find its all possible higher derivatives.

Solution:
𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥 5 + 3𝑥 3 + 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1
𝑦′ 𝑥 = 5𝑥 4 + 9𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 − 2
𝑦 ′′ 𝑥 = 20𝑥 3 + 18𝑥 + 8
𝑦 ′′′ 𝑥 = 60𝑥 2 + 18
𝑦 (4) 𝑥 = 120𝑥
𝑦 (5) 𝑥 = 120
𝑦 (6) 𝑥 = 0

The 6th, 7th, 8th and all other derivatives are 0.

Example (Higher Order Derivatives)
1
If 𝑦 𝑥 = , then find 𝑦 (4) 𝑥 .
𝑥
Solution:
1
𝑦 𝑥 = = 𝑥 −1
𝑥

𝑦′ 𝑥 = −1 𝑥 −1−1 = −𝑥 −2

𝑦 ′′ 𝑥 = − −2 𝑥 −2−1 = 2𝑥 −3

𝑦 ′′′ 𝑥 = 2 −3 𝑥 −3−1 = −6𝑥 −4

𝑦 (4) 𝑥 = −6 −4 𝑥 −4−1 = 24𝑥 −5

Exercises (Higher Order Derivatives)

1) If 𝑦 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 , then find 𝒚′′′ 𝒙 .

2) If 𝑓 𝑥 = 3𝑥 6 − 2𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 𝑥, then find 𝒇′′ (𝒙)
3) If 𝒚′′ 𝒙 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1, then find 𝒚(𝟒) 𝒙 .
4) If 𝑦 𝑥 = 𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 3 , find 𝒚 𝟒 (𝒙).
2
5) If 𝑓 𝑥 = , find 𝒇′′′ (𝒙).
𝑥
Integration
What is Integration?
Integration is often introduced as the reverse process of differentiation, and
has wide applications in all fields of sciences.
In the process of integration, we are actually finding the function whose
derivative is given to us i.e. our given function is a derivative and we are
interested in finding the function whose derivative is this.
Integration
The given function is 𝒇(𝒙)
𝑓 𝑥 is derivative of some function 𝒈(𝒙) i. e.
𝑑
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
And we have to find the function 𝑔(𝑥).

Notation
The integral of a function 𝑓(𝑥) is denoted by

𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑥 indicates the variable of integration.

Integration
𝑑
Since 𝒙𝟐 = 𝟐𝒙, so we have
𝑑𝑥

2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2

An interesting fact is the derivative of a constant is zero

𝑑
𝑐 =0
𝑑𝑥

So we have many possibilities

𝑑 𝟐 𝑑 𝟐 𝑑 𝟐
𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙, 𝒙 + 𝟏 = 𝟐𝒙, 𝒙 −𝟓 =𝟐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
Example
It means that the addition of a constant makes no difference for finding the
derivative. In general, we write

𝟐𝒙 𝑑𝑥 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒄.

Where c is a constant, called constant of integration.

Example (13): Find

𝟏 𝑑𝑥

𝑑
Solution: Since 𝒙 =𝟏
𝑑𝑥
This implies that 𝟏 𝑑𝑥 = 𝒙 + 𝑐
Basic Rules of Integration

𝒌 𝑑𝑥 = 𝒌 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝒇 𝒙 ± 𝒈 𝒙 𝑑𝑥 = 𝒇(𝒙) 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝒈(𝒙) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐

𝒏+𝟏
𝒙
𝒙𝒏 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝑐, 𝒌 𝒇 𝒙 𝑑𝑥 = 𝒌 𝒇 𝒙 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐
𝒏+𝟏
𝑛 ≠ −1
Example
Example (14): Find

(𝑥 3 − 5)𝑑𝑥

Solution:

𝑥 3+1
(𝑥 3 − 5)𝑑𝑥 = − 5𝑥 + 𝑐
3+1

𝑥4
= − 5𝑥 + 𝑐
4
Examples

Evaluate:

𝑥 0+1
𝟒 𝑑𝑥 = 4( ) + 𝑐 = 𝟒𝒙 + 𝑐
0+1

𝑥 5+1 𝒙𝟔
𝒙𝟓 𝑑𝑥 = +𝑐 = +𝑐
5+1 𝟔

𝑥 6+1
𝟕𝒙𝟔 𝑑𝑥 = 7 + 𝑐 = 𝒙𝟕 + 𝑐
6+1
Example
5 1
(3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 3 ) 𝑑𝑥 = (3𝑥 2 + 𝑥2 − 5𝑥 −3 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝟏
+𝟏
𝑥 𝟐+𝟏 𝑥𝑥 −𝟑+𝟏
𝟐
=3 + −5 + 𝑐
𝟐+𝟏 𝟏 −𝟑 + 𝟏
+𝟏
𝟐
3
3
𝑥 𝑥 −2
𝑥2
=3 + −5 +𝑐
3 3 −2
2

𝑥 3 2 3 5 −2
= 3 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 𝑐
3 3 2
Exercises

Evaluate each of the following:

𝐚) 7 𝑑𝑥 𝐛) (𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥

1
𝐜) 3𝑥 4 − 5𝑥 2 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝐝) 3
𝑑𝑥
𝑥
The Definite Integral

The definite integral is denoted by the following expression

The Definite Integral

i.e. we integrate the function 𝑓(𝑥) between two points, a and b (called the
limits of integration

𝒃
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑏 = 𝑔 𝒃 − 𝑔(𝒂)
𝑎
𝒂

𝑔(𝑥) is the integral of 𝑓(𝑥).

After solving the integral, first we substitute 𝑥 = 𝑏 (the upper limit) in 𝑔(𝑥) and
then 𝑥 = 𝑎 (the lower limit) in 𝑔(𝑥) and then subtract 𝑔(𝑎) from 𝑔(𝑏).
Example
Example (16): Evaluate
2
4𝑥 3 − 1 𝑑𝑥
1
Solution:

2 2
𝑥4 2
4𝑥 3 − 1 𝑑𝑥 = 4. −𝑥 = 𝑥4 − 𝑥 1
1 4 1

= 24 − 2] − [14 − 1
= 14 − 0 = 14
Example
Example (17): Evaluate:
1
2𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
Solution:

1 3 2 1 1
2
𝑥 𝑥 2 3
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = 2 + 4 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥
0 3 2 0
3 0

2 𝟑 2 𝟑
= (𝟏 ) + 2(𝟏 ) + (𝟏) − (𝟎 ) + 2(𝟎𝟐 ) + (𝟎)
𝟐
3 3
2 2 2 11
= 1 +2 1 + 1 = +2+1= +3 =
3 3 3 3
Properties of Definite Integral

Rule Example
Same upper and
𝑎 2
lower limits 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 (𝑥 2 −2𝑥 + 5) 𝑑𝑥 = 0
𝑎 2

Change of upper
𝑏 𝑎 3 2
and lower limits 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥 + 1 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏 2 3

Constant multiple 𝑏 𝑏 4 4
𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 1 1
Properties of Definite Integral

Rule Example
Integral 𝑏 2
𝑓 𝑥 ± 𝑔 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
of a sum 𝑎 0
𝑏 𝑏 2 2
or
= 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
difference 𝑎 𝑎 0 0

𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 3 7 7
Additivity 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 1 3 1
Exercises
Exercises: Evaluate the following integrals:

9
𝒂) 𝑑𝑥
1

2
𝒃) 𝑥 2 − 3 𝑑𝑥
1

1
𝒄) (𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 − 1)𝑑𝑥
−1
SELF EVALUATION
𝒅𝒚
Find the of the following functions.
𝒅𝒙
𝑥
1) 𝑦 = 9 −
2
3
2) 𝑦 =
𝑥 2 +2

3) 𝑦 = 3(5 − 2𝑥)4
4) 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 1
SELF EVALUATION

Evaluate the following integrals.

𝐚) 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 3) 𝑑𝑥

2
𝑥5
𝐛) 2
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑥

1
𝐜) 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 + 1
−1
End of Chapter 4