Drainage Engineering

Lesson 1
Water logging- causes and impacts

CONTENT
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 Drainage Engineering

Course Name Drainage Engineering

Lesson 1 Water logging- causes and impacts

Content Creator Name Pravin M Ingle

University/College Name Dr. Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth,Dapoli

Course Reviewer Name Rohitashw Kumar

University/College Name Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and

Technology of Kashmir, Srinagar

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Objective:
1) To get the familiar with basic terminology related to drainage
2) To make students familiar with salinity and water logging situations
prevailing in agricultural lands and measures to mitigate them.
1.1 What is Waterlogging?
Generally, the term ‘waterlogging’ refers to the condition of a land (soil)
in which the water table comes within or very near the root zone due to
which crop yields decrease below the normal yield or the land cannot be
used for cultivation. The soil becomes waterlogged when the water fills
up all the pore space present in the soil profile, and it remains
waterlogged when drainage facility is inadequate or absent. This type of
waterlogging is quite common in irrigated agricultural lands and is known
as ‘subsurface waterlogging’ or simply ‘waterlogging’. In other words
waterlogging may be defined as the saturation of soil with water. Soil is
regarded as waterlogged when it is nearly saturated with water much of
the time such that its air phase is restricted and anaerobic conditions
prevail.
According to FAO (FAO, 1973), waterlogged areas are those where soils
are temporarily saturated or where the water table is too shallow such
that capillary rise of groundwater encroaches upon the root zone and
may even reach the soil surface. Moreover, waterlogging also occurs
when water is stagnant on the land surface for considerable time due to
absence of a proper outlet and insignificant infiltration. This type of
waterlogging is known as ‘surface waterlogging’.
1.2 Classification of Waterlogging
The working group on problem identification in Irrigated Areas,
constituted by the Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India
(MOWR, 1991) adopted the following norms for the identification of

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waterlogged areas: (i) Waterlogged Area: Water table within 2 m from

the land surface.
(ii) Potential Area for Waterlogging: Water table between 2-3 m from the
land surface.
(iii) Safe Area: Water table below 3 m from the land surface.
The above categorization does not consider the time of the year or type-
cropping season in relation to the water table depths and runoff
accumulation over the cropland. Crops vary greatly in their rooting depth
and susceptibility to waterlogging. The dry season crops are more
susceptibility to waterlogging than the wet season crops. Therefore, it will
be useful if the categorization of waterlogged areas is linked with the
crop season or time of the year.
The common approaches to express the water table depth from the soil
surface are: (a) pre-monsoon (April/May) depth to water table, (b) post-
monsoon (October/November) depth to water table, (c) seasonal
(monsoon/winter/summer) or annual average depth to water table, and
(d) sum of the number of days when water table is shallower than a
specified depth. Out of these four approaches, the first two are the
simplest approaches to express the water table depth from the soil
surface.
A deep water table at pre-monsoon reduces the chances of soil
salinization and ensures successful crop production during monsoon
(Kharif) season. A deep water table in the post-monsoon period helps
maintaining timeliness of field operations for the winter (Rabi) season
crops. Keeping these facts in view, the following norms are suggested for
the classification of different categories of waterlogged areas in India and
other South Asian countries (Bhattacharya and Michael, 2003):

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1..2.1 Waterlogged Area

Water table is within 2 m from soil surface during pre-monsoon
(April/May) or water table is within 1 m from soil surface during post-
monsoon (October/November).
1.2.2 Critical Area for Waterlogging
When the water table is between 2 and 3 m from the soil surface during
pre-monsoon and/or between 1 and 2 m during post-monsoon, it is
considered as critical. In a critical area, waterlogging condition may
develop within a short period of time if suitable measures are not
adopted. Such measures are location specific and may comprise providing
a drainage system, land development and scientific management of
irrigation water.
12.3 Potential Area for Waterlogging
In monsoon Asia, irrigated areas with water table between 3 and 5 m
during pre-monsoon may be considered as potential areas for
waterlogging.
1.3 Impacts of Waterlogging
The physical effects of waterlogging are:
(i) Lack of aeration in the root zone,
(ii) Difficulty in soil workability, and
(iii) Deterioration of soil structure.
(iv) If the waterlogging prolongs for considerable time, it produces its
chemical effect, which is known as soil salinization. Both waterlogging
and soil salinity adversely affect the growth and yield of crops. The extent
of crop damage depends upon the magnitude, duration and frequency of
the waterlogged condition and the degree of soil salinity.

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Fig. 1.2: General relationship between crop yield and constant water
table depth during growing season in the Netherlands. (Source: Schwab
et al., 2005)

Fig. 1.3: Influence of water table depth on nitrogen supplied by the soil.
(Source: Schwab et al., 2005)
1.3.1 Salt Build-up in Soils
Soluble salts in the parent rocks which have weathered to form soil,
seawater intrusion and high evaporation are the major natural causes for
the salinization of agricultural lands. Under a monsoon climate much of
the accumulated salts are washed or leached out during the rainy season.
However, high evaporation during the remaining dry and hot months in
the year draws up the saline groundwater at shallow depths towards the
land surface. The salts are left behind after the water evaporates (Fig.
1.4). Furthermore, important anthropogenic causes for salinity
development are the use of poor quality water for irrigation and the
excess application of irrigation water.
Salt problem is a major cause of decreasing agricultural production in
many of the irrigated areas. Irrigation with water of low salinity but with
dominant anion and migration of sodic salts in arid climate promote
salinity.
(i) The main causes of soil salinity and sodicity (alkalinity) are:
irrigation mismanagement;
(i) poor land levelling;
(ii) leaving land fallow during dry periods especially in regions of
shallow water table;
(iii) improper use of heavy machinery resulting in soil compaction;
(iv) leaching without adequate drainage, and

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(v) Adoption of improper cropping patterns and crop rotations. In

irrigated agriculture, scientific management of water and land is the
key to avoid waterlogging and salt problems.

Fig. 1.4: Surface salt due to evaporation from shallow and saline
groundwater (Najafgarh Block of Delhi).

(Source: Bhattacharya and Michael, 2003)

Salinity is a major problem in many non-irrigated areas also where

cropping is based on limited rainfall. In rain fed agriculture, surface
drainage is required to prevent waterlogging and flooding of low lands,
which lead to soil salinity hazards. Salinity in dryland areas has been a
threat to land and water resources in many parts of the world. In rain fed
agricultural lands of coastal areas, seawater intrusion is the main cause of
salinization during dry periods. In semi-arid areas of the world, the
scarcity and the variability of rainfall and high potential
evapotranspiration affect the water and salt balance in the soil. Low
humidity, high temperature, and high wind velocity induce upward
movement of soil solution resulting in a high concentration of salts at the
land surface and within the root zone. In arid regions, various types of
Sodium, Magnesium and Calcium salts are concentrated mainly in

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Chloride and Sulphate forms. In less arid regions, Sodium salts in the
Carbonate and Bicarbonate forms enhance the formation of sodic soils
due to the adsorption of Sodium in the soil exchange complex.

References

 Bhattacharya, A.K. and Michael, A.M. (2003). Land Drainage:

Principles, Methods and Applications. Konark Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.
 Bower, B.T. and Husfschmidt, M.M. (1984). A conceptual
framework from analysis of water resources management in Asia.
Natural Resources Forum, 8(1): 343-356.
 FAI (1998). Fertilizer Statistics. The Fertilizer Association of India
(FAI), New Delhi, India.
 FAO (1973). Drainage of Salty Soils. FAO Irrigation and Drainage
Paper 16, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome.
 ICID (1979). Amendments to the Constitution, Agenda of the
International Council Meeting at Rabat. International Commission
on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), Morocco, ICID, New Delhi, India,
pp. A-156-163.
 Lok Sabha Secretariat (1996). Fourth Report of the Standing
Committee on Agriculture of the 11th Lok Sabha. New Delhi, India.
 Michael, A.M. and Ojha, T.P. (2006). Principles of Agricultural
Engineering. Volume II, M/s Jain Brothers, New Delhi, India.
 MOWR. (1991). Report of the Working Group on Problem
Identification in Irrigated Areas with Suggested Remedial Measures.
Ministry of Water Resources (MOWR), Government of India, New
Delhi.

Schwab, G.O., Fangmeier, D.D., Conservation Engineering. Fourth Edition,

John Wiley and Sons (Asia) Pte. Ltd., Singapore.