Elements of building construction:

(i) Foundation - It is the part of the building which is below the ground level. It support the
structure and transmit the load of the structure to the soil.

(ii) Plinth - The structure between ground level and floor level is called plinth.

(iii) Superstructure -The structure above the plinth is called superstructure. [It include wall, doors,
windows, roofs and floors].

(iv) Masonry -Masonry is defined as an art of construction in which building units such as
building stones, cement, and sand or combination of all or some of these are arranged
systematically to provide bonds and strength.

(v) Stone Masonry — Whenever stones are used in masonry they are called as stone masonry.

(vi) Brick Masonry -Whenever bocks are used in masonry they are called as brick masonry.

(vil) Wall — Walls are combination of bricks. stones, cement and sand, which inclosed of divide
the space. They support the flour and tof They provide privacy and impart the protection against
heat, cold, sun, and rain.

(vill) Floors - These are the horizontal elements of building which divide a building into different
levels.

(ix) Roofs - It is the upper most part of the building, which protects the building against rain,
cold, sun, wind etc.

(x) Doors — Door are the movable barriers Those held in position by a door frame. These door
frames are provided in the openings of the wall which provides the access to the building or
room.

(xi) Windows — These are the opening in a wall of a building which provides natural lights,
ventilation and vision.

(xii) Stairs - It is the sequence of steps which provides ascent and descent between the floors .

(xiii) Lintel - It is a horizontal member which is placed over an opening. It acts like a beam. It
transfers the loads, acting over the openings, to the supporting walls.

(xiv) Chajja - It is a sloping or horizontal structure as overhang. Usually provided over opening on
external walls to provide protection from sun and rain.

FOUNDATIONS:

It is defined as that part of the structure that transfers the load from the structure constructed
on it as well as its weight over a large area of soil in such a way that the amount does not
exceed the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil and the settlement of the whole structure
remains within a tolerable limit.

Types of Shallow Foundations

1. Individual Footing or Isolated Footing

Individual footing or an isolated footing is the most common and economic foundation used for
building construction. Isolated footings are typically used for shallow buildings and structures to
convey and spread concentrated loads by pillars or columns. They are generally used for
ordinary buildings (Typically up to five stories).

The shapes of isolated or individual footing are either square or rectangular. The size of such
foundations is calculated based on the load on the column and the safe bearing capacity of the
soil.

The followings are the types of Isolated footing:

 Single pad footing

 Stepped footing for a column

 Sloped footing for a column

 Wall footing without step

 Stepped footing for walls

 Grillage foundation

2. Combined Footing

A combined footing is constructed when two or more columns are close enough, and their
isolated footings overlap due to the closed placement of columns or due to the low bearing
capacity of the soil. It is a combination of isolated footings, but their structural design differs.
The shape of this footing is a rectangle and is used when the columns carry loads from the
structure. There are different types of combined footings, such as

 Slab type,

 Slab and beam type,

 Rectangular,

 Raft, and

 Strap beam type.

They may be square, tee-shaped, or trapezoidal. The main objective of the combined footing is
the uniform distribution of loads under the entire footing area.

3. Wall footing or Strip footing:

It is generally used as a load-bearing wall. The width of the footing is generally 2 -3 times the
thickness of the wall. This type of footing distributed all structure load into the soil. This broader
base of the footing area provides more stability to the structure. For the construction of this
footing, different materials like Brick, Stone, R.C.C, used. It is also known as the Strip foundation.
It can also be used for retaining wall foundation.

4. Cantilever or Strap footing:

5. Raft or Mat Foundations

Raft or mat foundations are the types of foundations that are spread across the entire area of
the building to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.

It consists of a reinforced concrete slab that extends over the entire area of the building and is
supported by a grid of reinforced concrete beams.

The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the
structure on columns and walls are very high, and other shallow or pile foundations are not
suitable.

Raft foundations are economical when:

 The soil is weak, and the load has to be spread over a large area.

 The structure includes a basement.

 Columns are closely placed.

 Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.

 Differential settlement is to be prevented.

Raft foundation is suitable for buildings with large loads or poor soil conditions, as it can
distribute the load evenly and reduce the risk of differential settlement.
It is less vulnerable to the effects of shrinkage and swelling of the soil, which can cause cracks
in the building.

Raft foundation can be designed to incorporate insulation and other features that can improve
the energy efficiency of the building.

Types of Deep Foundation:

There are following types of deep foundation used in the construction of the structure.

1. Pile Foundation.

2. Pier Foundation.

3. Drilled Shaft or Caisson Foundation.

1. Pile Foundation:

Pile Foundation is the type of deep foundation, used where hard strata are available below the
limit of the shallow foundation from the ground surface.

It transmits the load from the massive structure to the hard strata below the ground surface.
The depth of this foundation is much deep below the ground surface.

It is constructed:

 Where the depth of foundation and width ratio is more than 2

 Where the bearing capacity of the soil is very low, and the soil’s condition is not
adequate to bear the heavy load of the structure.

2. Pier Foundation:

Pier foundation generally used to transmit the massive load from the structure to hard strata of
the soil. The shape of the pier foundation is cylindrical, and it is supported with the help of piles.

It is used for a heavy multi-storey structure where the load of the structure is hefty, and it is
generally used in bridges and fly-overs to resist the heavy traffic loads. It is used to transfer the
load from the end bearing pile to the hard strata of the soil.
3. Drilled Shaft or Caisson Foundation:

It is a type of deep foundation similar to pile foundation.

It is generally used for bearing the very heavy loads of the structure.

It is a cast-in-situ foundation and also available as pre-cast material.

Construction of this Foundation is done with the help of auger and used where the pile
foundation is not enough to bear the heavy load of the structure.

It is economical when the high load capacity is required.

The depth of the drilled shaft foundation is more than the pile foundation. And it is not
preferable to use in water-bearing granular soils, loose and soft clay soils.

This foundation generally used in underwater project like river, lake and sea. It is used as pier of
bridge, building and construction of the dam. It is constructed with the help of water shoring.
Footing : A part of the foundation helps to transmit the load of the structure to soil with proper
distribution of the loads and it is made of concrete and reinforced cement concrete.

“If the width of the foundation is greater than or equal to the depth of the foundation, it is a
Shallow Foundation. Alternatively, “If the depth to width ratio of the foundation is less than equal
to 2, it is called as a Shallow Foundation.

If the width of the foundation is smaller than the depth of the foundation is called the Deep
Foundation.” Alternatively, If the depth to width ratio of the foundation is greater than two is
called the Deep Foundation.” (This content will come under the heading of foundation)

PLASTERING

Applying mortar coats on the surfaces of walls, columns, ceiling etc. to get smooth finish is
termed as plastering. Mortar used for plastering may be lime mortar, cement mortar or lime-
cement mortar. Lime mortar used shall have fat lime to sand ratio of 1 : 3 or 1 : 4. If hydraulic
lime is used mix proportion (lime: sand) is 1 : 2. Cement mortar of 1 : 4 or 1 : 6 mix is very
commonly used for plastering, richer mix being used for outer walls. To combine the cost
effectiveness of lime mortar and good quality of cement mortar many use lime-cement mortar
of proportion (cement : lime : sand) of 1 : 1 : 6 or 1 : 1 : 8 or 1 : 2 : 8.

The objective of plastering are:

1. to conceal defective workmanship

2. to give smooth surface to avoid catching of dust.

3. to give good look.

5. to protect surfaces against vermit.

Requirement of good plaster are:

1. It should adhere to the background easily.

2. It should be hard and durable.

3. It should prevent penetration by moisture

4. It should be cheap.

Lime mortar is usually applied in 3 coats while cement mortar is applied in two or three coats
for the stone and brick masonry. For concrete surfaces cement mortar may be applied in two or
three coats. For concrete building blocks many times only one coat of cement mortar is applied.
The first coat provides means of getting level surface. The final coat provides smooth surface.
If three coats are used second coat is known as floating coat. The average thickness of first
coat is 10 to 15 mm. Middle coat thickness is 6–8 mm. The final coat is just 2 to 3 mm thick. If
single coat is used its thickness is kept between 6 to 12 mm. Such coats are used on concrete
surfaces not exposed to rain.
POINTING:

Instead of plastering entire surface of the masonry, special mortar finishing work is done to the
exposed joints. This is called pointing. It consists of raking the joints to a depth of 10 mm to 20
mm and filling it with richer mortar mixes. In case of lime mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 2 and
in case of cement mortar pointing mix used is 1 : 3. Pointing is ideally suited for stone masonry
because stones are having attractive colours and good resistance to penetration by water.
Pointing gives prefection to weaker part of masonry (i.e. to joints) and it adds to aesthetic view
of the masonry.
BRICK MASONRY:

Brick masonry is built with bricks bonded together with mortar. For temporary sheds mud
mortar may be used but for all permanent buildings lime or cement mortars are used.

The various types of bonds generally used in brick masonry are

1. Stretcher bond

2. Header bond

3. English bond and

4. Flemish bond.

1. Stretcher Bond: A stretcher is the longer face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In the brick
of size 190 mm × 90 mm × 90 mm, 190 mm × 90 mm face is the stretcher. In stretcher bond
masonry all the bricks are arranged in stretcher courses . However care should be taken to
break vertical joints. This type of construction is useful for the construction half brick thick
partition wall.

2. Header Bond: A header is the shorter face of the brick as seen in the elevation. In a standard
brick it is 90 mm × 90 mm face. In header bond brick masonry all the bricks are arranged in the
header courses . This type of bond is useful for the construction of one brick thick walls.
3. English Bond: In this alternate courses consist of headers and stretchers. This is considered
to be the strongest bond. Hence it is commonly used bond for the walls of all thicknesses. To
break continuity of vertical joints a brick is cut lengthwise into two halves and used in the
beginning and end of a wall after first header. This is called queen closer.

4. Flemish Bond: In this type of bond each course comprises of alternate header and stretcher.
Alternate courses start with stretcher and header. To break the vertical joints queen closers are
required, if a course starts with header. Every header is centrally supported on the stretcher
below it.

Flemish bonds may be further classified as

(a) Double Flemish Bond

(b) Single Flemish Bond.

In case of double flemish bond, both faces of the wall have flemish look, i.e. each course
consist of alternate header and stretcher, whereas single flemish bond outer faces of walls have
flemish look whereas inner faces have look of English bond .

Construction of flemish bond needs greater skill. It gives more pleasing appearance. But it is not
as strong as English bond.

If only pointing is to be used for finished wall, flemish bond may be used to get good aesthetic
view.

If plastering is going to be used, it is better to use English bond.

Purpose of flooring is to get a good hard, level and beautiful surface for living. The floors
directly resting on the ground are known as ground floors while the floors of each storey are
known as upper floors.

The selection of the type of floor often becomes problem, so following points should be
carefully considered before making final choice :

1. It should have a good appearance.

2. It should be durable.

3. It should be noiseless as far as possible.

4. It should be economical.

5. It should be easy to clean.

6. It should have low maintenance cost.

7. It should be free from dampeness.

8. It should not be too much slippery.

9. It should be hard and smooth,

Types of Floors
Following are some of the major types of floors:

1. Mud Floor:

Earthen Flooring also commonly known as Adobe flooring is made up of dirt, raw earth or other
unworked ground materials. In modern times, it is usually constructed with mixture of sand, clay
and finely chopped straw.

Mud flooring is commonly constructed in villages where by using stabilizers the properties of
the soil are enhanced by manipulating its composition by adding suitable stabilizers. The tensile
and shear strength of the soil is increased and shrinkage is reduced.

2. Brick floor:

Brick flooring is one of the types of floors whose topping is of brick. These are easy to construct
and repair but the surface resulting from these is not smooth and is rough, hence, easily
absorbs and retains moisture which may cause dampness in the building.

3. Tile floor:

The floor whose topping is of tiles is called tile floor. The tiles used may be of any desired
quality, color, shape or thickness.

4. Cement concrete floor:

The types of floors whose topping consists of cement concrete is called cement concrete floor
or conglomerate floor. These floors consists of 2.5 cm to 5cm thick concrete layer laid over 10
cm thick base concrete and 10 cm thick clean sand over ground whose compaction and
consolidation is done. These floors are commonly used these days.

5. Terrazo Floor: Terrazo finishing coat is applied over concrete flooring to get pleasing
appearance. Terrazo finish consists of 75 to 80% of surface marble chips embedded in cement
mortar.

6. Mosaic Floor : It consists of a finishing coat of small pieces of broken tiles of China glazed or
of marble arranged in different patterns set in lime-surkhi or cement mortar. The base coarse is
concrete flooring and on it 30 to 40 mm mortar layer is provided. On this mortar layer broken
pieces of China glazed or marble are set to get different attractive patterns. After 20 to 24 hours
of drying the top is rubbed with carborundum stone to get smooth and polished surface.

7. Marble Floor : Marble slabs are cut to get marble tiles of 20 to 25 mm thickness. They are laid
on floors similar to other tiles. With power driven machine surface is polished to get even and
shining surface. This type of flooring is widely used in hospitals and temples.

8. Linoleum floor :

Linoleum flooring is made of a mix of renewable natural materials. While the actual composition
will vary by manufacturer, it primarily contains a mixture of linseed oil, jute, cork powder, tree
resin and wood flours. Unlike vinyl flooring, linoleum has the design embedded throughout the
material instead of multiple layers.

 Linoleum flooring is exceptionally durable and resistant to wear and tear. With proper
care, it can last over 40 years.

 Installation of linoleum flooring is much more affordable than other flooring options.

 It’s available in a wide array of colors, patterns and styles.

 Linoleum flooring is water-resistant, making it ideal for bathrooms and kitchen floors.

 It’s made with renewable materials and unlike other flooring styles, linoleum is
biodegradable.

 Linoleum flooring does not emit volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which may have
health effects.

 It’s scratch-resistant and can camouflage wear and tear much better than vinyl flooring.

 Requires very little maintenance.

ROOF :

Roof is the upper most portion of the building which protects the building from rain, wind and
sun.

Various types of roofs used may be divided broadly into three types:

1. Flat roofs

2. Pitched roofs

3. Shells and folded plates.

1. Flat Roofs: These roofs are nearly flat. However slight slope (not more than 10°) is given to
drain out the rain water. All types of upper storey floors can serve as flat roofs. Many times top
of these roofs are treated with water proofing materials-like mixing water proofing chemicals in
concrete, providing coba concrete. With advent of reliable water proofing techniques such roofs
are constructed even in areas with heavy rain fall.

2. Pitched Roofs: In the areas of heavy rain falls and snow fall sloping roof are used. The slope
of roof shall be more than 10°. They may have slopes as much as 45° to 60° also. The sloped
roofs are known as pitched roofs. The sloping roofs are preferred in large spanned structures
like workshops, factory buildings and ware houses. In all these roofs covering sheets like A.C.
sheet, G.I. sheets, tiles, slates etc. are supported on suitable structures. The pitched roofs are
classified into

(a) Single roofs

(b) Double or purlin roofs

(c) Trussed roofs.

(a) Single Roof: If the span of roof is less than 5 m the following types of single roofs are used.

(i) Lean to roofs

(ii) Coupled roofs

(iii) Coupled-close roof

(iv) Collar beam roof

In all these roofs rafters placed at 600 mm to 800 mm spacing are main members taking load
of the roof. Battens run over the rafters to support tiles. Figure shows various types of single
roofs.

(b) Double or Purlin Roofs: If span exceeds, the cost of rafters increase and single roof
becomes uneconomical. For spans more than 5 m double purlin roofs are preferred. The
intermediate support is given to rafters by purlins supported over collar beams. Figure shows a
typical double or purlin roof.
(c) Trussed Roof: If span is more, a frame work of slender members are used to support sloping
roofs. These frames are known as trusses. A number of trusses may be placed lengthwise to
get wall free longer halls. Purlins are provided over the trusses which in turn support roof sheets.
For spans up to 9 m wooden trusses may be used but for larger spans steel trusses are a must.
In case of wooden trusses suitable carpentry joints are made to connect various members at a
joint. Bolts and straps are also used. In case of steel trusses joints are made using gusset
plates and by providing bolts or rivets or welding. Depending upon the span, trusses of different
shapes are used. End of trusses are supported on walls or on column.

3. Shells and Folded Plate Roofs: Shell roof may be defined as a curved surface, the thickness of
which is small compared to the other dimensions. In these roofs lot of load is transferred by
membrane compression instead of by bending as in the case of conventional slab and beam
constructions. Caves are having natural shell roofs. An examination of places of worships built
in India, Europe and Islamic nations show that shell structures were in usage for the last 800 to
1000 years. However the shells of middle ages were massive masonry structures but nowadays
thin R.C.C. shell roofs are built to cover large column free areas.

Folded plate roofs may be looked as slab with a number of folds. These roofs are also known as
hipped plates, prismatic shells and faltwerke. In these structures also bending is reduced and
lot of load gets transferred as membrane compression. However folded plates are not so
efficient as shells.

DOORS

The function of a door is to give access to building and to different parts of the building and to
deny the access whenever necessary. Number of doors should be minimum possible. The size
of the door should be of such dimension as will facilitate the movement of the largest object
likely to use the doors .

Types of Doors

1. Battened and Ledged Doors: Battens are 100 mm to 150 mm wide and 20 mm thick wooden
boards. Their length is that of door opening. The battens are connected by horizontal planks,
known as ledges of size 100 to 200 mm wide and 30 mm thick. Usually three ledges are used
one at top, one at bottom and the third one at mid-height. This is the simplest form of door and
the cheapest also. Battens are secured by tongued and grooved joint.

2. Battened, Ledged and Braced Doors: If doors are wide apart from using battens and ledges
diagonal members, known as braces, are provided to strengthen the door. Figure shows
a typical battened, ledged and braced door.

3. Framed and Panelled Doors: This type of door consists of vertical members, called styles and
horizontal members called rails. The styles and rails are suitably grooved to receive panels. The
panels may be of wood, A.C. sheet, glasses etc. The panels may be flat or of raised type to get
good appearance. These are very commonly used doors. They may be of single shutter or of
double shutter. Figure show few types of panelled doors. If glass panels are used they may be
called as glazed doors.
4. Flush Doors: The shutters of these doors are made of plywood or block boards. They are of
uniform thickness. These shutters are available with different attractive vineer finishes. The
time consumed in making such doors at site is quite less. These doors are suitable for interior
portion of a building. Nowadays flush doors are commonly used in residential and office
buildings. Figure shows typical flush door.

5. Louvered Doors: Whenever privacy as well as ventilation is required such doors can be used.
Louvers are the glass, wooden or A.C. sheet strips fixed in the frame of shutter such that they
prevent vision but permit free passage of air. The doors may be fully or partially louvered. Such
doors are commonly used for public bathrooms and latrines.
6. Revolving Doors: It consist of a centrally placed pivot to which four radiating shutters are
attached. The central pivot is supported on ball bearing at the bottom and has a bush bearing at
the top. The shutters may be partly or fully madeup of glass. A circular space of entrance is
provided within which shutters rotate. As shutters rotate they give entrance on one side and exit
on other side. These doors are preferred in public buildings like stores, banks, hotels, theatres
where continuous use of doors is necessary. They are very much required in entrance to air
conditioned public buildings.

7. Sliding Doors: In this type of doors, shutter slides on the sides. For this purpose runners and
guide rails are provided. Sliding shutters may be one, two or even three. Such doors are used in
banks, offices etc. The arrangement of such shutters in plan is shown in Figure.
8. Collapsible Doors: Steel channels 16 to 20 mm wide are used as verticals. They are placed
with 12 to 20 mm gap. Steel flats 16 mm to 20 mm wide and 5 mm thick are hinged to them as
shown in Figure. The rollers are provided at their top as well as at bottom so that shutter can be
pulled or pushed side ways with slight force. There may be single or double shutters. Usually
these doors are used for additional safety. They are commonly used for front doors, bank locker
rooms, school and college entrance doors.

9. Rolling Shutters: Figure show a typical rolling shutter door. It consists of a frame, a drum and
a shutter made of thin steel plates. The width of the door may vary from 2 to 3 m. The shutter
moves on steel guides provided on sides and can easily roll up. For this counterbalancing is
made with helical springs on the drum. The shutter can be easily pulled down. This type of
doors are commonly used as additional doors to shops, offices, banks, factory, buildings from
the point of safety.
Types of Windows

Windows are provided to give light and ventilation. They are located at a height of 0.75 m to
0.90 m from the floor level. In hot and humid regions, the window area should be 15 to 20 per
cent of the floor area.

Depending upon the position of windows, they may be classified as:

(a) Casement windows

Casement windows are common type of windows, provided in the outer walls. They are
providedover 50 to 75 mm sill concrete at a height of 750 to 900 mm from floor level.

(b) Bay windows

Bay windows are provided on the projected portion of walls.

(c) Corner windows

Corner windows are provided in the corner of a room. They need heavy lintels. Corner post of
window should be strong enough to take load due to deflection of lintel and impact load from
the shutters.
BrickwallWin

dowframe

Shutter
Glazing

Wall

FrameShutter Frame

(d) Clear storey windows

Clear storey windows are provided when the height of the room is much more than adjacent
room/varandah. It is provided between the gap of low height room and the top of room with
greater height.
(e) Gable windows

Gable windows are provided in the gable portion of the building. They are required in the stair
cases or in the halls with gable walls.

(f) Sky light windows

Sky light windows are provided on a sloping roof. It projects above the top sloping surface. The
common rafters are to be trimmed suitably.

(g) Dormer windows

Dormer windows are vertical windows on the sloping roof.

(h) Ventilators

Ventilators are provided close to roof level or over the door frames. They help in pushing out
exhaust air. They may be provided with two split and separated glasses or with hung shutters.

LINTELS

Lintel is a horizontal flexural member which spans over the openings in the walls for doors,
windows, ventilators, cupboards etc. The load of masonry above the opening is transferred to
the wall by flexural action of the lintel so that frames of doors, windows etc are not unduly
loaded. The end bearings for the lintel should be at least 200 mm. The width of lintels is same
as that of wall.

Lintels of various materials are used. They are:

(b) Stone

(c) Brick

(d) R.C.C. and

(e) Steel.

(a) Wood Lintel: It may be a single piece or may be assembled by joining 2 to 3 pieces.
Sometimes the wooden lintels are strengthened by steel plates at top and bottom. Such lintels
are called as flitched beams.

(b) Stone Lintels: Wherever stones are available stone beams are used as lintels. As stone is
weak in tension they can be used only for small spans. Their depth is kept about 110th span.
Stones are cut to the width of wall and dressed before using as lintels.

(c) Brick Lintels: Well burnt, good quality lintels are laid on ends or edges to form lintels. It needs
temporary form work at the time of construction. The lintel is to be cured for 7–14 days before
form work is removed. Such lintels are useful to span small openings.

(d) R.C.C. Lintels: It is possible to provide R.C.C. lintels of any span required in the building. They
can be isolated or continuous over the openings. They are provided with suitable
reinforcement—main reinforcements beings on lower side in the opening. Nowadays these
lintels are used very commonly in buildings.

e) Steel Lintels: Steel angles or rolled steel I-sections are used as lintels. Tube separators may
be provided to maintain the spacing between the sections. If the sections are opened to
atmospheric action, regular painting is necessary. Many times they are encased in concrete to
avoid maintenance problem. These lintels can be used for large openings.

STAIRS

Stairs give access from floor to floor. The space/room housing stairs is called staircase. Stairs
consists of a number of steps arranged in a single flight or more number of flights.

Based on the shapes stairs may be classified as:

(a) Straight stairs

(b) Dog legged stairs

(c) Well or open-newel stairs

(d) Geometrical stairs

(e) Spiral stairs

(a) Straight Stairs: If the space available for stair case is narrow and long, straight stairs may be
provided. Such stairs are commonly used to give access to porch or as emergency exits to
cinema halls. In this type all steps are in one direction. They may be provided in single flight or in
two flights with landing between the two flights.

b) Dog Legged Stairs: It consists of two straight flights with 180° turn between the two. They are
very commonly used to give access from floor to floor. Figure shows the arrangement of steps
in such stairs.

Landing

c) Well or Open-newel Stairs: It differs from dog legged stairs such that in this case there is 0.15
m to 1.0 m gap between the two adjacent flights. Figure shows a typical opennewel stair

Landing
d) Geometrical Stair: This type of stair is similar to the open newel stair except that well formed
between the two adjacent flights is curved. The hand rail provided is continuous.

Up

Half-
space
landing
Up H Up
G G

(e) Spiral Stairs: These stairs are commonly used as emergency exits. It consists of a central
post supporting a series of steps arranged in the form of a spiral. At the end of steps
continuous hand rail is provided. Such stairs are provided where space available for stairs is
very much limited. Figure shows a typical spiral stair. Cast iron, steel or R.C.C. is used for
building these stairs.

15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

(f ) Turning Stairs: Apart from dog legged and open newel type turns, stairs may turn in various
forms. They depend upon the available space for stairs. Quarter turned, half turned with few
steps in between and bifurcated stairs are some of such turned stairs. Figure shows a
bifurcated stair.

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