Chapter 1.

Curriculum Essentials

Curriculum and The Teacher

Desired Learning Outcomes

 Discuss the different curricula that exist in the schools

 Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist
 Analyze the significance of curriculum and curriculum development in the teacher's
classroom

"The Sabre-Tooth Curriculum by Harold Benjamin (1939)?” Start here and enjoy reading.

A man by the name of New-Fist-Hammer-Maker knew how to do things his community

needed to have done, and he had the energy and the will to go ahead and do them. By virtue of
these characteristics, he was an educated man. New-Fist was also a thinker. Then as now, there
were few lengths to which men would not go to avoid the labour and pain of thought . . . . New-
Fist got to the point where he became strongly dissatisfied with the accustomed ways of his tribe.
He began to catch glimpses of ways in which life might be made better for himself, his family and
his group. By virtue of this development, he became a dangerous man.....
New-Fist thought about how he could harness the children's play to better the life of the
community. He considered what adults do for survival and introduced these activities to children
in a deliberate and formal way. These included catching fish with bare hands, clubbing little woolly
horses, and chasing away-sabre-toothed-tigers-with-fire. These then became the curriculum and
the community began to prosper-with plenty of food, hides for attire and protection from threat.
“It is supposed that all would have gone well forever with this good educational system, if
conditions of life in that community remained forever the same." But conditions changed.
The glacier began to melt and the community could no longer see the fish to catch with
their bare hands, and only. the most agile and clever fish remained which hid from the people.
The woolly horses were ambitious and decided to leave the region. The tigers got pneumonia and
most died. The few remaining tigers left. In their place, fierce bears arrived who would not be
chased by fire. The community was in trouble.
One day, in desperation, someone made a net from willow twigs and found a new way to
catch fish-and the supply was even more plentiful than before. The community also devised a
system of traps on the path to snare the bears. Attempts to change education system to include
these new techniques however encountered “stern opposition.”
These are also activities we need to know. Why can't the schools teach them? But most of
the tribe particularly the wise old men who controlled the school, smiled indulgently at this
suggestion. “That wouldn't be education...it would be mere training". We don't teach fish
grabbing to catch fish, we teach it to develop a generalized agility which can never be duplicated
by mere training . . . . and so on.
“If you had any education yourself, you would know that the essence of true education is
timelessness. It is something that endures through changing conditions like a solid rock standing
squarely and firmly in the middle of a raging torent”

The story was written in 1939. Curriculum then, was seen as a tradition of organized
knowledge taught in schools of the 19th century. Two centuries later, the concept of a curriculum
has broadened to include several modes of thoughts or experiences.

No formal, non-formal or informal education exists without a curriculum. Classrooms will be

empty with no curriculum. Teachers will have nothing to do, if there is no curriculum. Curriculum is
 at the heart of the teaching profession. Every teacher is guided by some sort of curriculum in the
classroom and in schools.

In our current Philippine educational system, different schools are established in different
educational levels which have corresponding recommended curricula. The educational levels are:

1. Basic Education. This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to Grade 6 for elementary, and for
secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and 12 and for the
Senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum. The new
basic education levels are provided in the K to 12 Enhanced Curriculum of 2013 of the
Department of Education.
2. Technical Vocational Education. This is post-secondary technical vocational educational and
training taken care of by Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA). For
the TechVoc track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination.
3. Higher Education. This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate
Degrees (Master's and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on
Higher Education (CHED)

Types of Curricula in Schools

According to Allan Glatthorn (2000) as mentioned in Bilbao, et al (2008)

1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all currricula found, in our schools are recommended.
For Basic Education, these are recommended by the Department of Education (DepEd), for
Higher Education, by the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and for vocational
education by TESDA. These three government agencies oversee and regulate Philippine
education. The recommendations come in the form of memoranda or policies, standards
and guidelines. Other professional organizations or international bodies like UNESCO also
recommend curricula in schools.
2. Written Curriculum. This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum. They
come in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides among
others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher's lesson plan. The most recent
written curriculum is the K to 12 for Philippine Basic Education.
3. Taught Curriculum. From what has been written or planned, the curriculum has to be
implemented or taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum.
The skill of the teacher to facilitate learning based on the written curriculum with the aid of
instructional materials and facilities will be necessary. The taught curriculum will depend
largely on the teaching style of the teacher and the learning style of the learners.
4. Supported Curriculum. This is described as support materials that the teacher needs to
make learning and teaching meaningful. These include print materials like books, charts,
posters, worksheets, or non-print materials like Power Point presentation, movies, slides,
models, realias, mock-ups and other electronic illustrations. Supported curriculum also
includes facilities where learning occurs outside or inside the four-walled building. These
include the playground, science laboratory, audio-visual rooms, zoo, museum, market or the
plaza. These are the places where authentic learning through direct experiences occur.
5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the
teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. In the process of teaching and at the
end of every lesson or teaching episode, an assessment is made. It can either be assessment
for learning, assessment as learning or assessment of learning. If the process is to find the
progress of learning, then the assessed curriculum is for learning, but if it is to find out how
 much has been learned or mastered, then it is assessment of learning. Either way, such
curriculum is the assessed curriculum.
6. Learned Curriculum. How do we know if the student has learned? We always believe that if
a student changed behavior, he/she has learned. For example, from a non-reader to a
reader or from not knowing to knowing or from being disobedient to being obedient. The
positive outcome of teaching is an indicator of learning. These are measured by tools in
assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned
curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and critical thinking and lifelong skills.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great
impact on the behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental
pressures, societal changes, cultural practices, natural calamities, are some factors that
create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden
curriculum. Teachers must have good foresight to include these in the written curriculum, in
order to bring to the surface what are hidden.

The Teacher As A Curricularist

Desired Learning Outcomes

 Enhance understanding of the role of the teacher as a curricularist in the classroom and
school.

Curricularists in the past, are referred only to those who developed curriculum theories.
According to the study conducted by Sandra Hayes (1991), the most influential curricularist in
America include John Dewey, Ralph Tyler, Hilda Taba and Franklin Bobbit. You will learn more of
them in the later part of the module.

The word curricularist refers to professional who is a curriculum specialist (Hayes, 1991;
Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004; Hewitt, 2006). A person who is involved in curriculum knowing, writing,
planning, implementing, evaluating, innovating, and initiating may be designated as curricularist. A
TEACHER'S role is broader and inclusive of other functions and so a teacher is a curricularist.

Let us describe the teacher as a curricularist.

The teacher as a curricularist . . . .

1. knows the curriculum. Learning begins with knowing. The teacher as a learner starts
with knowing about the. curriculum, the subject matter or the content. As a teacher,
one has to master what are included in the curriculum. It is acquiring academic
knowledge both formal (disciplines, logic) or informal (derived from experiences,
vicarious, and unintended). It is the mastery of the subject matter. (Knower)
2. writes the curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of knowledge concepts,
subject matter or content. These need to be written or preserved. The teacher
writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and reference
materials in paper or electronic media as a curriculum writer or reviewer. (Writer)
3. plans the curriculum. A good curriculum has to be planned. It is the role of the
teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve as a
guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into consideration
several factors in planning 'a curriculum. These factors include the learners, the
support material, time, subject matter or content, the desired outcomes, the context
 of the learners among others. By doing this, the teacher becomes a curriculum
planner. (Planner)
4. initiates the curriculum. In cases where the curriculum is recommended to the
schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational agencies
for improvement of quality education, the teacher is obliged to implement.
Implementation of a new curriculum requires the open mindedness of the teacher,
and the full belief that the curriculum will enhance learning. There will be many
constraints and difficulties in doing things first or leading, however, a transformative
teacher will never hesitate to try something novel and relevant. (Initiator)
5. innovates the curriculum. Creativity and innovation are hallmarks of an excellent
teacher. A curriculum is always dynamic, hence it keeps on changing. From the
content, strategies, ways of doing, blocks of time, ways of evaluating, kinds of
students and skills of teachers, one cannot find a single eternal curriculum that
would perpetually fit. A good teacher, therefore, innovates the curriculum and thus
becomes a curriculum innovator. (Innovator)
6. implements the curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or written
will never serve its purpose. Somebody has to implement it. As mentioned
previously, at the heart of schooling is the curriculum. It is this role where the
teacher becomes the curriculum implementor. An implementor gives life to the
curriculum plan. The teacher is at the height of an engagement with the learners,
with support materials in order to achieve the desired outcome. It is where teaching,
guiding, facilitating skills of the teacher is expected to the highest level. It is here
where teaching as a science and as an art will be observed. It is here, where all the
elements of the curriculum will come into play. The success of a recommended, well
written and planned curriculum depends on the implementation. (Implementor)
7. evaluates the curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes
have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired results?
What do outcomes reveal? Are the learners achieving? Are there some practices
that should be modified? Should the curriculum be modified, terminated or
continued? These are some few questions that need the help of a curriculum
evaluator. That person is the teacher. (Evaluator)

The Teacher as a Knower of Curriculum

The School Curriculum: Definition, Nature and Scope

Desired Learning Outcomes

 Define curriculum from different perspectives

 Describe the nature and scope of curriculum

Curriculum is taken in its narrow view as a listing of subjects to be taught in schools or broadly as
all learning experiences that individuals undergo while in school.

The word curriculum originates from the Latin word currere referring to the oval track upon
which Roman chariots raced. The New International Dictionary defines curriculum as the whole body
of a course in an educational institution or by a department while the Oxford English Dictionary
defines curriculum as courses taught in schools or universities.
 Curriculum means different things to different people. Sometimes educators equate curriculum
with the syllabus while a few regard it as all the teaching-learning experiences which the student
encounters while in school. Numerous definitions indicate dynamism which connotes diverse
interpretations as influenced by modes of thoughts, pedagogies, philosophies, political as well as
cultural perspectives. Here are some of them.

Some Definitions of Curriculum

1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes,
formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the
auspices of the school, for the learners' continuous and willful growth in personal social
competence.” (Daniel Tanner, 1980)
2. It is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content,
learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth. (Pratt, 1980)
3. The contents of a subject, concepts and tasks to be acquired, planned activities, the desired
learning outcomes and experiences, product of culture and an agenda to reform society
make up a curriculum. (Schubert, 1987)
4. A curriculum includes “all of the experiences that individual learners have, in a program of
education whose purpose is to achieve broad goals and related specific objectives, which is
planned in terms of a framework, of theory and research or past and present professional
practice." (Hass, 1987)
5. It is a programme of activities (by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so
far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives. (Grundy, 1987)
6. It is a plan that consists of learning opportunities for a specific time frame and place, a tool
that aims to bring about behavior changes in students as a result of planned activities and
includes all learning experiences received by students with the guidance of the school.
(Goodland and Su, 1992)
7. It provides answers to three questions: 1. What knowledge, skills and values are most
worthwhile? 2. Why are they most worthwhile? 3. How should the young acquire them?
(Cronbeth, 1992)

Some Points of View of Other Curricularists

Since the concept and meaning of curriculum are shaped by a person's point of view, this
has added to fragmentation, and some confusion. However when put together, the different
definitions from diverse points of view, would describe curriculum as dynamic and perhaps ever
changing.

Points of view about the curriculum can either be traditional or progressive according to the
person's philosophical, psychological and even psychological orientations. These views can also
define what a curriculum is all about.

Curriculum from Traditional Points of View

The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur
Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.

 Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of grammar,

reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs
 (Reading, Writing, 'rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education while liberal
education should be the emphasis in college.
 Arthur Bestor as an essentialist believes that the mission of the school should be intellectual
training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual disciplines of
grammar, literature and writing. It should include mathematics, science, history and foreign
language.
 Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline, thus the subject
areas such as Science, Mathematics, Social Studies, English and many more. In college,
academic disciplines are labelled as humanities, sciences, languages, mathematics among
others. He coined the word discipline as a ruling doctrine for curriculum development.
 Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes
from various disciplines.

Curriculum from Progressive Points of View

On the other hand, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study, and specific discipline
does not make a curriculum. In its broadest terms, a progressive view of curriculum is the total
learning experiences of the individual. Let us look into how curriculum is defined from a progressive
point of view.

 John Dewey believes that education is experiencing. Reflective thinking is a means that
unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.
 Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under
the guidance of teachers.
 Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore likewise defined curriculum as a
sequence of potential experiences, set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children
and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
 Colin Marsh and George Willis also viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.

The nature of curriculum has given rise to many interpretations, depending on a person's
philosophical beliefs. Let us put all of these interpretations in a summary.

CURRICULUM is what is taught in school, a set of subjects, a content, a program of studies, a set
of materials, a sequence of courses, a set of performance objectives, everything that goes within the
school. It is what is taught inside and outside of school directed by the teacher, everything 'planned
by school, a series of experiences undergone by learners in school or what individual learner
experiences as a result of school. In short, Curriculum is the total learning experiences of the learner,
under the guidance of the teacher.

Approaches to School Curriculum

Desired Learning Outcomes

 Describe the different approaches to school curriculum

 Explain by examples how the approaches clarify the definition of curriculum
 Reflect on how the three approaches interrelate with each other

Three Ways of Approaching a Curriculum

 Curriculum can be approached or seen in three ways. It can be defined as a content, a
process or an outcome. If you examine the definitions provided by the experts in the field, there are
three ways of approaching a curriculum. First, is to approach it as content or a body of knowledge to
be transmitted. Second, is to approach it as a product or the learning outcomes desired of learners.
Third, is to approach it as a process or what actually happens in the classroom when the curriculum
is practiced.

1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge

It is quite common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline, subject matter, or
concepts to be included in the syllabus or a books. For example, a primary school mathematics
curriculum consists of topics on addition, multiplication, subtraction, division, distance, weight and
many more. Another example is in secondary school science that involves the study of biological
science, physical science, environmental science and earth science. Textbooks tend to begin with
biological science such are plants and animals, physical science with the physical elements, force and
motion, earth science with the layers of the earth and environmental science with the interaction of
the biological and physical science and earth's phenomena, climate, vegetation followed by
economic activities such as agriculture, mining, industries, urbanization and so forth.

If curriculum is equated as content, then the focus will be the body of knowledge to be
transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method. There can be a likelihood that teaching
will be limited to the acquisition of facts, concepts and principles of the subject matter; however, the
content or subject matter can also be taken as a means to an end.

All curricula have content regardless of their design or models. The fund of knowledge is the
repository of accumulated discoveries and inventions of man from the explorations of the earth and
as products of research. In most educational setting, curriculum is anchored on a body of knowledge
or discipline.

There are four ways of presenting the content in the curriculum. These are:

1. topical approach, where much content is based on knowledge, and experiences are
included;
2. concept approach with fewer topics in clusters around major and sub-concepts and their
interaction, with relatedness emphasized;
3. thematic approach as a combination of concepts that develop conceptual structures,
and
4. modular approach that leads to complete units of instruction.

Criteria in the Selection of Content

There are some suggested criteria in the selection of knowledge or subject matter. (Scheffer,
1970 in Bilbao, et al 2009)

1. Significance. Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalization

that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum. It is significant if content
becomes the means of developing cognitive, affective or psychomotor skills of the
learner. As education is a way of preserving culture, content will be significant when this
will address the cultural context of the learners.
2. Validity. The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes
obsolete with the fast changing times. Thus there is a need for validity, check and
 verification at a regular interval, because content which may be valid in its original form
may not continue to be valid in the current times.
3. Utility. Usefulness of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are
going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have been useful in the past,
but may not be useful now or in the future. Questions like: Will I use this in my future
job? Will it add meaning to my life as a lifelong learner? Or will the subject matter be
useful in solving current concerns?
4. Learnability. The complexity of the content should be within the range of experiences of
the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning. Appropriate
organization of content standards and sequencing of contents are two basic principles
that would influence learnability.
5. Feasibility. Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources
available, expertise of the teachers and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of
learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Arę
there opportunities provided to learn these?
6. Interest. Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents
meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and future life of the
learners? Interest is one of the driving forces for students to learn better.

The selection of the subject matter or content, aside from the seven criteria mentioned earlier,
may include the following guide in the selection of the CONTENT.

Guide in the Selection of the Content in the Curriculum

1. Commonly used in the daily life

2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration
5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines

BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content

In 1952, Palma proposed the principle of BASIC as a guide in addressing CONTENT in the
curriculum. B.A.S.I.C. refers to Balance, Articulation, Sequence, Integration and Continuity. In
organizing content or putting together subject matter, these principles are useful as a guide.

Balance. Content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth. This will guarantee that
significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed within
the time allocation.

Articulation. As the content complexity progresses with the educational levels, vertically or
horizontally, across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be provided. This will
assure no gaps or overlaps in the content. Seamlessness in the content is desired and can be assured
if there is articulation in the curriculum. Thus, there is a need of team among writers and
implementers of curriculum.

Sequence. The logical arrangement of the content refers to sequence or order. This can be
done vertically for deepening the content or horizontally for broadening the same content. In both
ways, the pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known, to the unknown, what is current to
something in the future.
 Integration. Content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. It has some ways
of relatedness or connectedness to other contents. Contents should be infused in other disciplines
whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified view of curriculum instead of
segmentation. Contents which can be integrated to other disciplines acquire a higher premium than
when isolated.

Continuity. Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was before,
to where it is now, and where it will be in the future. It should be perennial. It endures time. Content
may not be in the same form and substance as seen in the past since changes and developments in
curriculum occur. Constant repetition, reinforcement and. enhancement of content are all elements
of continuity.

2. Curriculum as a Process

We have seen that the curriculum can be approached as content. On the other hand, it can also
be approached as a process. Here, curriculum is not seen as a physical thing or a noun, but as a verb
or an action. It is the interaction among the teachers, students and content. As a process, curriculum
happens in the classroom as the questions asked by the teacher and the learning activities engaged
in by the students. It is an active process with emphasis on the context in which the processes occur.
Used in analogy of the a recipe in a cookbook, a recipe is the content while the ways of cooking is
the process.

Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not a package of
materials or a syllabus of content to be covered. The classroom is only part of the learning
environment where the teacher places action using the content to achieve an outcome. Hence the
process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern of teachers to emphasize critical
thinking, thinking meaning-making and heads-on, hands-on doing and many others.

As a process, curriculum links to the content. While content provides materials on what to teach,
the process provides curriculum on how to teach the content. When accomplished, the process will
result to various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the content and process
is called the Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK. It will address the question: If you have this
content, how will you teach it?

This section will not discuss in detail the different teaching strategies from where learning
experiences are derived. Rather, it will describe how the process as a descriptor of curriculum is
understood. The content is the substance of the curriculum, how the contents will be communicated
and learned will be addressed by the process.

To teachers, the process is very critical. This is the other side of the coin: instruction,
implementation, teaching. These three words connote the process in the curriculum. When
educators ask teachers: What curriculum are you using? Some of the answers will be: 1. Problem-
based. 2. Hands-on, Minds On 3. Cooperative Learning 4. Blended Curriculum 5. On-line 6. Case-
based and many more. These responses approach curriculum as a Process. These are the ways of
teaching, ways of managing the content, guiding learning, methods of teaching and learning and
strategies of teaching or delivery modes. In all of these, there are activities and actions that every
teacher and learner do together or learners are guided by the teacher. Some of the strategies are
time-tested traditional methods while others are emerging delivery modes.

When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.

 1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve
the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired
learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners' desire to develop the cognitive,
affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as
cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective
process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important processes in the implementation of
the curriculum.
3. Curriculum as a Product

Besides viewing curriculum as content that is to be transmitted, or process that gives action
using the content, it has also been viewed as a product. In other words, product is what the students
desire to achieve as a learning outcomes.

The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to
function effectively and efficiently. The real purpose of education is to bring about significant
changes in students' pattern of behavior. It is important that any statement of objectives or intended
outcomes of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. Central to
the approach is the formulation of behavioral objectives stated as intended learning outcomes or
desired products so that content and teaching methods may be organized and the results evaluated.
Products of learning are operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.

Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the achieved
learning outcomes. There may be several desired learning outcomes, but if the process is not
successful, then no learning outcomes will be achieved. These learned or achieved learning
outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has meaningful experiences in the curriculum. All of
these are result of planning, content and processes in the curriculum.

Lesson 3: Curriculum Development: Processes and Models

Desired Learning Outcomes

 Explain and summarize the curriculum development process and models

Curriculum Development Process

Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and

procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic. A change for the better means
alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive changes,
development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. Usually it is linear and follows a logical
step-by-step fashion involving the following phases: curriculum planning, curriculum design,
curriculum implementation and curriculum evaluation. Generally, most models involve four phases.
 1. Curriculum planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It also includes the
philosophy or strong education belief of the school. All of these will eventually be translated
to classroom desired learning outcomes for the learners.
2. Curriculum designing is the way curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and
organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences or activities
and the selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved learning
outcomes. A curriculum design will also include the resources to be utilized and the
statement of the intended learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum implementing is putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum
design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. The teacher is the facilitator of
learning and, together with the learners, uses the curriculum as design guides to what will
transpire in the classroom with the end in view of achieving the intended learning outcomes.
Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. It involves the activities that
transpire in every teacher's classroom where learning becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been
achieved. This procedure is on- going 'as in finding out the progress of learning (formative)
or the mastery of learning (summative). Along the way, evaluation will determine the factors
that have hindered or supported the implementation. It will also pinpoint where
improvement can be made and corrective measures, introduced. The result of evaluation is
very important for decision making of curriculum planners, and implementors.

Curriculum Development Process Models

1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles

Also known as Tyler's Rationale, the curriculum development model emphasizes the planning
phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. He posited four
fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the following questions:

1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?

2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?

Tyler's model shows that in curriculum development, the following considerations should be
made:

1. Purposes of the school

2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience

2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach

Hilda Taba improved on Tyler's model. She believed that teachers should participate in
developing a curriculum. As a grassroots approach Taba begins from the bottom, rather than from
the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented seven major steps to her linear model which are the
following:

1. Diagnosis of learners' needs and expectations of the larger society

2. Formulation of learning objectives
 3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it

3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model

Galen Saylor and William Alexander. (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four
steps. Curriculum is “a plan for providing sets of learning opportunities to achieve broad educational
goals and related specific objectives for an identifiable population served by a single school center.”

1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major
educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. Each major goal
represents a curriculum domain: personal development, human relations, continued
learning skills and specialization. The goals, objectives and domains are identified and
chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, and views of the different
stakeholders.
2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning
opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided. Will the curriculum
be designed along the lines of academic disciplines, or according to student needs and
interests or along themes? These are some of the questions that need to be answered at
this stage of the development process
3. Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum is now ready for implementation.
Teachers then prepare instructional plans where instructional objectives are specified
and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired
learning outcomes among students.
4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive
evaluation using a variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. It should involve
the total educational programme of the school and the curriculum plan, the
effectiveness of instruction and the achievement of students. Through the evaluation
process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the goals of
the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.

All the models utilized the processes of (1) curriculum planning, (2) curriculum
designing, (3) curriculum implementing, and (4) curriculum evaluating.

Lesson 4: Foundations of Curriculum Development

Desired Learning Outcomes

 Describe the foundations of curriculum development

 Explain how each foundation influences the curriculum development

Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations

Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong
belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers' classrooms or
learning environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like: What are schools for?
What subjects are important? How should students learn? What methods should be used? What
outcomes should be achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John
Dewey influenced the use of “learning by doing”, he being a pragmatist. Or. to an essentialist, the
focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic are essential subjects in the
curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate only those presented by Ornstein
and Hunkins in 2004.

A. Perennialism
 Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect
 Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking HOTS)
 Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring
 Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran, Classics) and Liberal Arts
B. Essentialism
 Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent
 Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
 Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects
 Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy
C. Progressivism
 Aim: Promote democratic social living
 Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners
 Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered. Outcomes-based
 Trends: Equal opportunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education
D. Reconstructionism
 Aim: To improve and reconstruct society. Education for change
 Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms
 Focus: Present and future educational landscape
 Trends: School and curricular reform, Global education, Collaboration and
Convergence, Standards and Competencies
2. Historical Foundations

Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to us the
chronological development along a time line. Reading materials would tell us that curriculum
development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book “The Curriculum.” Let us see
how each one contributed to curriculum development during his own time. Here are eight among
the many, we consider to have great contributions.

Persons Contributions / Theories and Principles

 He started the curriculum development movement.
 Curriculum is a science that emphasizes students'
needs.
 Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.
 Objectives and activities should group together when
tasks are clarified.
Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)

 Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and

emphasizes students' needs.
 Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter
or content relates to objectives.

Werret Charters (1875-1952)

 Curricula are purposeful activities which are child-

centered.
 The purpose of the curriculum is child development and
growth. He introduced this project method where
teacher and student plan the activities.
 Curriculum develops social relationships and small
group instruction.
William Kilpartick (1875-1952)

 Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child-

centered.
 With the statement of objectives and related learning
activities, curriculum should produce outcomes.
 Emphasized social studies and suggested that the
teacher plans curriculum in advance.
Harold Rugg (1886-1960)

 Curriculum is organized around social functions of

themes, organized knowledge and learner's interest.
 Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.
 Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is
developed around social functions and learners'
interests.
Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
  Curriculum is a science and an extension of school's
philosophy. It is based on students' needs and interest.
 Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject
matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and
values.
 The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum
aims to educate generalists and not specialists.
Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)

 She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical

foundations of concepts development and critical
thinking in social studies curriculum.
 She helped lay the foundation for diverse student
population.

Hilda Taba (1902-1967)

 He described how curriculum change is a cooperative

endeavor.
 Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the
professional core of planners.
 Significant improvement is achieved through group
activity.
Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
 3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements
of the learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of
education are: How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level
of students' participation in learning the various contents of the curriculum? In this module, we shall
consider three groups of learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-
information processing theories and humanistic theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.

3.1 Association and Behaviorism

3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Persons Contributions / Theories and Principles

 He is the father of the Classical Conditioning Theory, the

S-R Theory
 The key to learning is early years of life is to train them
what you want them to become.
 S-R Theory is a foundation of learning practice called
indoctrination.

Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

 He championed the Connectionism Theory.

 He proposed the three laws of learning:
o Law of readiness
o Law of exercise
o Law of effect
 Specific stimulus has specific response.
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

 He proposed the Hierarchical Learning Theory. Learning

follows a hierarchy
 Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.
 He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.
Robert Gagne (1916-2002)

Persons Contributions / Theories and Principles

 Theories of Jean Piaget
o Cognitive development has stages from birth to
maturity:
Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperational stage
(2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11) and
formal operations (11 - onwards)
 Keys to learning
o Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)
o Accommodation (learning modification and
adaptation)
o Equilibration (balance between previous and
Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
later learning)
 Theories of Lev Vygotsky
o Cultural transmission and development:
Children could, as a result of their interaction
with society, actually perform certain cognitive
actions prior to arriving at developmental stage
o Learning precedes development
o Sociocultural development theory
 Keys to Learning
o Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead
Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) to development
o The child is an active agent in his or her
educational process.

 Gardner's multiple intelligences

o Humans have several different ways of
processing information and these ways are
relatively independent of one another
o There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-
mathematical, musical, spatial,
bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal,
Howard Gardner and naturalistic
  Emotion contains the power to affect action.
o He called this Emotional Quotient.

Daniel Goleman

3.1 Humanistic Psychology

Persons/Symbols Contributions / Theories and Principles

 Gestalt Theory
o Learning is explained in terms of “wholeness” of
the problem.
o Human beings do not respond to isolated
stimuli but to an organization or pattern of
stimuli.
 Keys to learning
o Learning is complex and abstract.
o Learners analyze the problem, discriminate
between essential and nonessential data, and
perceive relationships.
o Learners will perceive something in relation to
the whole. What/how they perceive is related
to their previous experiences.
Gestalt

o He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory and

classic theory of human needs.
o A child whose basic needs are not met will not
be interested in acquiring knowledge of the
world.
o He put importance to human emotions, based
on love and trust.
 Key to learning
o Produce a healthy and happy learner who can
accomplish, grow and actualize his or her
Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
human self.
  Nondirective and Therapeutic Learning
o He established counselling procedures and
methods for facilitating learning.
o Children's perceptions, which are highly
individualistic, influence their learning and
behaviour in class.
 Key to learning
o Curriculum is concerned with process, not
Carl Rogers (1902-1987) product; personal needs, not subject matter,
psychological meaning, not cognitive scores.

Social Foundations of Curriculum

Persons/Symbols Contributions / Theories and Principles

 Society as a source of change

 Schools as agents of change
 Knowledge as an agent of change

Schools and Society

 Considered two fundamental elements-schools and civil

society-to be major topics needing attention and
reconstruction to encourage experimental intelligence
and plurality

John Dewey (1859-1952)

 Wrote the book Future Shock

 Believed that knowledge should prepare students for
the future
 Suggested that in the future, parents might have the
resources to teach prescribed curriculum from home as
a result of technology, not in spite of it. (Home
Schooling)
 Foresaw schools and students worked creatively,
Alvin Toffler collaboratively, and independent of their age.
 In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational philosophies,
historical developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of these foundations
are interrelated to each.

REFERENCE:

BILBAO, PP., DAYAGBIL, FT., CORPUZ, BB., CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT FOR TEACHERS,
2015