Instrumentation Lecture3 - 5

MTS 336 – Instrumentation and Measurements
Department of Mechatronics Engineering

▪ Dr. Muhammad Mubasher Saleem
Week No. 3 to 5
Quiz No. 1
 List basic elements of a typical measurement system.
 Write output expression of a sensor considering the following block
diagram
2
Accuracy of Measurement Systems
▪ Measurement error = measured value – true value
 Sensitivity of thermocouple (K1) changes with input temperature.

 Reference junction temperature cause the thermocouple emf to change
 Output voltage of amplifier (K2) is sensitive to ambient temperature.
 Sensitivity of the indicator (K3) depends on the stiffness of the restoring
spring in the moving coil assembly.
3
Transfer function for a first order sensor
Transfer function for typical system elements
 First Order Elements
 The above transfer function only relates the changes in

the sensor temperature to changes in fluid temperature.
 The overall relationship between changes in sensor
output signal and fluid temperature is
Transfer function for typical system elements
 Transfer Function and Laplace Transform

 The Laplace Transform of a time varying function
is defined as;

f ( s) =  f (t ) =  f (t ).e − st dt
0
 The input-output relationship is described by the transfer function,
G(s).
f o ( s ) = f i ( s ).G ( s )
f i (s) G(s) f o (s )
𝑓𝑖 (𝑠) = ℑ 𝑓𝑖 (𝑡)
𝑓𝑜 (𝑠) = ℑ 𝑓𝑜 (𝑡)
Identification of the Dynamic Characteristics
 Response of First Order Elements for a Step Input
Step Response of First Order Elements
Step response
▪ Let the input to a first order system be a unit step at t = 0, that is:
1, t  0 
f i (t ) =  
0 , t  0 
▪ The output is then:
1 1
f o ( s) = G( s) fi ( s) = .
s + 1 s
and
 
f o (t ) = −1 f o ( s )
 Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of the
sensor to a family of variable input waveforms: Impulse, step, ramp,
sinusoidal, white noise…
Step Response of First Order Elements
Step response
▪ Time constant τ represents the time required for the system to reach 63.2% of
the final output value.
 Response of First Order Elements for a Step Input (Example)
Loading Effects in a Measurement System
▪ Inter-Element Loading
 A given element in the system may modify the characteristics of the
previous element; (e.g. by drawing current).
 In turn, the characteristics of this element may be modified by the
following element in the system
 Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits are used to estimate/compensate
inter-element loading
▪ From circuit theory (Thévenin’s theorem) we know that any network of linear
impedances and voltage sources can be replaced by an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage source in series with an impedance.
▪ The Thévenin voltage, ETh is the open-circuit voltage across the output
terminals.
▪ The Thévenin impedance, ZTh is the impedance seen at the output terminals
when all voltage sources in the networks are set to zero.
Thévenin Equivalent Circuit-Example
notice that R1 is not taken into consideration, as

above calculations are done in an open circuit
condition between A and B, therefore no current
flows through this part, which means there is no
current through R1 and therefore no voltage drop
along this part
▪ Norton’s theorem states that any linear network can be replaced by an
equivalent current source in parallel with an impedance.
Z N .Z L
V L= iN
ZN + ZL
▪ The Norton current, IN is the short-circuit current flowing through the output terminals.
▪ The Norton impedance, ZN is the impedance seen at the output terminals when all sources
in the networks are set to zero.
▪ A Norton equivalent circuit is related to the Thévenin equivalent circuit by
the following:
Loading Effects in a Temperature Measurement
System
Loading Effects in a Temperature Measurement
System
A Typical Measurement System
23
Analog Signal Conditioning
7
 Operations performed on signals to convert them to a form sutiable for

interfacing with other elements in the process control loop.
 Transfer function: The effect of signal conditioning on the input signal.
 Voltage Amplifier
7
 Signal Level and Bias Changes

 Adjusting the level (magnitude) and bias of some voltage
representing a process variable.
 Zero shift or bias adjustment.
 Apmlification or gain
 Attenuation
 Amplification or attentuation by using amplifier based on the
gain.
7
 Linearization
7
 Bridge Circuits
 Impedence variation to voltage variation.
 Most common Wheatstone bridge.
7
 Bridge Circuits.
7
 Bridge Circuits
 Impedence variation to voltage variation.
 Most common Wheatstone bridge.
Example
7
 Galvanometer Detection
 Galvanometer is used as a null detector in the bridge circuit.
 Current offset.
7
 Galvanometer is used as a null detector in the bridge circuit.
 Current offset.
7
 Example
7
 Lead Compensation
7
 Bridge circuit located at a reasonable distance from the sensor.

 Lead wires sensitive to frequency, temperature and other
enviornmental effects.
 Lead Compensation is used where changes in the lead
resistance are introduced equally in both arms of the bridge.
7
 Lead Compensation
7
 Current Balance Bridge

 Electronic nulling of the bridge
7
 Example
7
 Example
Practical Application of Wheatstone Bridge based Signal Conditioning
Da Vinci robot from Intuitive Surgical Inc, USA

Tactile Sensing Mechanism for Da Vinci robot by University of Pennsylvania USA
Tactile Sensing Mechanism for Eye Surgery
(a) (b)
7
 Operational Amplifiers for Sensor Signal Conditioning

Operational Amplifiers for Sensor Signal Conditioning

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MTS 336 – Instrumentation and Measurements

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

 Sensitivity of thermocouple (K1) changes with input temperature.

 The above transfer function only relates the changes in

 Transfer Function and Laplace Transform

▪ The output is then:

notice that R1 is not taken into consideration, as

 Operations performed on signals to convert them to a form sutiable for

 Signal Level and Bias Changes

 Bridge circuit located at a reasonable distance from the sensor.

 Current Balance Bridge

Da Vinci robot from Intuitive Surgical Inc, USA

 Operational Amplifiers for Sensor Signal Conditioning

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