Engineering Physics

Assignment - II

Name of the Student :

Roll. No :
Branch (Section) :
 2. LASERs & Optical Fibres:
I. Short answer Questions :-

1. Write characteristics of matter waves.

A)1. Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

2. Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength associated with it.

3. For V= 0, λ=∞. This means that only with moving particle matter wave is associated.

4. Whether the particle is charged or not, matter wave is associated with it. This reveals that these waves are not
electromagnetic but a new kind of waves.

It can be proved that the matter waves travel faster than light.

We know that w = 
E = h The wave velocity (ω) is given by w=(
mc 2 h
)( )
E = mc 2 h mv
mc 2 h
mc 2 where = & =
h = mc →  =
2
h mv
h 2
c
w=
v
As the particle velocity v cannot exceed velocity of light c, ω is greater than velocity of light.

2. Distinguish spontaneous and stimulated emission.

A)
Spontaneous Emission Stimulated emission
• Incoherent • Coherent
• Less intensity • High intensity
• Poly chromatic • Mono chromatic
• Less directionality • High directionality
• More angular spread • Less angular spread

3. What are matter waves ? Write any four characteristics of matter waves.

A) In 1924 the scientist named de Broglie introduced electromagnetic waves behaves like particles, and the
particles like electrons behave like waves called matter waves.

Characteristics of Matter Waves:

1. Lighter the particle, greater is the wavelength associated with it.

2. Lesser the velocity of the particle, longer the wavelength associated with it.

3. For V= 0, λ=∞. This means that only with moving particle matter wave is associated.

4. Whether the particle is charged or not, matter wave is associated with it. This reveals that these waves are not
electromagnetic but a new kind of waves.

4. Show that matter waves sometimes move faster than light.

A) It can be proved that the matter waves travel faster than light.
We know that w = 
E = h The wave velocity (ω) is given by w=(
mc 2 h
)( )
E = mc 2 h mv
mc 2 h
mc 2 where = & =
h = mc 2 →  = h mv
h 2
c
w=
v

As the particle velocity v cannot exceed velocity of light c, ω is greater than velocity of light.

5. Write a short note on semiconductor LASER.

A) 1. Semiconductor Laser is also called as Diode Laser.

2.The wavelength of the emitted light depends upon the Energy band gap of
the material.

3.Diode Lasers are always operated in forward bias.

4.Working Principle: When we apply forward bias to a PN-Diode, charge

carrier recombination takes place. Then in such a process the energy is
E g = h
emitted in the form of light radiation. The Energy
hc
Eg =
 band gap of
5. Active Medium: Ga-Al-As diode or Ga-As-P diode. a material
hc
 =
Eg
6. Output Wavelength: Ga-Al-As: 750-900nm. Ga-As-P: 1100 -1600nm.

7. Pulsed & Continuous Laser

6. What is population inversion to achieve a laser ?

A) To achieve more stimulated emission population of the excited state N2 should be made larger than the lower
state N1 and this condition is called population inversion.

2-Level laser (Normal) 3-Level Laser 4-Level Laser

7. Define :- (a) Acceptance Angle; (b) Numerical Aperture; (c) Principle of optical fibre; (d)
Attenuation in optical fiber; (e) Optical sensor.

A) (a) Acceptance Angle : The maximum angle of incidence at the end face of an optical fiber for which the light
ray can be propagated along core-cladding interface is known as maximum acceptance angle.

(b) Numerical Aperture : The light gathering capacity of an optical fiber is known as Numerical Aperture and it
is proportional to Acceptance Angle.

(c) Principle of optical fibre : Optical fiber works on the principle of total internal reflection.

(d) Attenuation in optical fiber : The power of the light at the output end is found to be always less than the
power launched at the input end, and this is referred to as Attenuation (or) Loss in optical fibers. It’s a function of
refractive index of the fiber.

(e) Optical sensor :

II. Long answer Questions :-

1. Derive an expression for Einstein coefficients in two level laser system.

A) Two level laser system - Einstein coefficients:

Consider two energy levels E1 and E2.

N1 and N2 be the number of atoms per unit volume present at the levels E 1 and E2 respectively.
(1) Absorption : (2) Spontaneous Emission :
Stimulated absorption rate is proportional to N1 &  (v) Spontaneous emission rate is proportional to N 2
= B12 N1  (v) = A 21 N 2 − − − − − (2)
Where the constant of proportionality B12 is the Einstien coefficient Where the constant of proportionality A 21is the Einstien coefficient
of stimulated absorption, &  (v) energy density of interacting radiation. of spontaneous emission.
(3) Stimulated Emission :
Stimulated emission rate is proportional to N 2 &  (v)
= B21 N 2  (v)............(3)
Where the constant of proportionality
B21is the Einstien coefficient of stimulated emission.

For system in a equilibrium

N1  (v) B12 = N 2  (v) B21 + N 2 A21
N1  (v) B12 − N 2  (v) B21 = N 2 A21
N 2 A21
 (v ) =
N1 B12 − N 2 B21
A21 ➔
 (v ) =
N1
B12 − B21
N2
A21
According to Bolts man distribution law
B21
 =
B12 h )
( v
N1 gN )
= 1 1exp( −1
N 2 gN2 B kT Comparing equations (5) & (6)
2 21
Where g1 & g 2 are degeneracy' s of energy levels E1 & E 2 .
A21 B12 g1
B21 =1
 (v ) = ...............(5) B21 g 2
B12 g1 h
exp( ) − 1 g1 B12 = g 2 B21........(7)
B21 g 2 kT
A21 8h 3
from planck's law of black body radiation, = ........(8)
the radation density is given by B21 c3
8h 3 1
 (v) = { }..............(6)
c 3
h
exp( ) − 1
kT
 N 2 A21
R=
The equation shows ratio of N 2  (v ) B21
A21
spontaneous emission rate R=
 (v ) B21
to stimulated emission rate :
from eq n 8

8h 3 8h 3
( 3
) ( )
R = c → c3
 (v ) 8h 3 1
{ }
c 3
h
exp( ) −1
kT
h
R = exp( ) −1
kT

2. Describe Ruby Laser with neat sketch.

A)

Working of Ruby Laser

The Ruby rod is arranged along the axis of a helical

xenon flash tube. In such a manner that the will of
the helix encloses the rod. The flash of the tube lasts
several milliseconds. During this period of time, the
tube absorbs energy amounting to several thousand
joules and most of the energy is spent on heating the
apparatus.

This heat produced is removed by liquid nitrogen

circulating around the Ruby rod. The remaining part
of the energy in the form of blue and green radiation
is absorbed by the Ruby. This energy ensures the excitation of chromium Ion from the ground state to the excited
energy state for achieving population inversion.

The optical pumping result when incident photons of

wavelength 5500Å. Raise the chromium Ion from
ground state E1 to higher excited state E3. These
ions interact with the crystal lattice and decay to
metastable state E2 by spontaneous emission where
they can stay for a longer period (3 x 10–3sec)
Producing population inversion.

That is, the number of chromium ions in the energy

state E2 (metastable state) is more than the number
of chromium ions in excited energy state E3. Hence, population inversion is achieved by optical pumping source.

Production of a Laser Beam

Some of the Chromium Ions jump from the metastable state E2 to the ground state E1 through spontaneous
emission of radiation. During this transition, a photon of wavelength 6943Å is emitted. This Photon travels through
the Ruby rod in a direction parallel to the axis of the rod and reflects back and forth (or to and fro) by the reflecting
ends of the optical resonator until it Stimulates an excited chromium ion. Stimulated excited chromium Ion emits a
photon exactly in phase with the stimulating photon.

The stimulated transition of chromium Ion from metastable state E2 to the ground state E1 is known
as laser transition. These in-phase photons stimulate more chromium ions and hence the number of photons
emitted increases. This process repeats and hence the in-phase photos get multiplied. Thus, a strong and
coherent laser beam is obtained. Which comes out of the optical resonator through the partially reflecting face.

3. Describe He-Ne Laser with neat sketch.

A)

Working of He Ne laser

When current flows through the gas, the energetic electrons

transfer some of their energy to the helium atoms. As a
result, the helium atoms in the ground state gain enough
energy and jump to the excited states 21s of energy 20.16
eV and 23s level of energy 19.81 eV which is a close
approximate to the energy of metastable states of Neon.
After that He atoms transferred their energy to the Ne
atoms which are at ground state and excite them to the metastable states 3s and 2s and helium atoms come down to
the ground state. This process is repeated so it is called as resonant energy transfer mode.

Since 3s and 2s are metastable states for neon atoms, so it quickly attains population inversion. After some period,
the metastable states electrons of the neon atoms will spontaneously fall into the next lower energy states by
releasing photons. This is called spontaneous emission. Random photons emitted spontaneously set stimulated
emission and coherent radiation is produced.

For transition of the neon atoms from upper 3s to 2p level

generates radiation of wavelength 3.39 𝜇𝑚 and 2s to 2p
generates wavelength of 6328 A ͦ. Also, the transition from 2s
to 2p gives wavelength of 1.15 𝜇𝑚. Since waves with
wavelength 3.39𝜇𝑚 and 1.15 𝜇𝑚 are weak they are absorbed
by the quartz glass tube and we get only light with
wavelength 6328 A ͦ. From 2p to 1s level the atom comes
down spontaneously and the atoms come back to ground
state from the state 1s by the process of de-excitation by
collision.

Since the two ends of He & Ne tube are at Brewster's angle so it cuts the perpendicular components of unpolarised
laser light and we get polarised light of wavelength 6328A ͦ as output.

4. Derive an expression for acceptance angle and numerical aperture of an optical fibre.

A) Acceptance Angle: The maximum angle of incidence at the end face of an optical fiber for which the
light ray can be propagated along core-cladding interface is known as maximum acceptance angle.
Applying Snell’ s law for Air-Core media:

n0 sin  i = n1 sin  r ..............(1)

from the right angle triangle ABC
 r +  = 900
 r = 900 − 
n0 sin  i = n1 sin(900 −  )
n0 sin  i = n1 cos 
n1
sin  i = cos  .........(2)
n0
when  = critical angle( c ) →  i =  m
n1
sin  m = cos  c ................(3)
n0
according to law of refraction
n1 sin i = n2 sin r
i =  c → r = 900
n2
sin  c = sin 900
n1
n2
sin  c =
n1
n2 2
cos  c = 1 − sin 2  c = 1 − ( )
n1
n − n2
2 2

cos  c = 1 ............(4)
n1
substitute equation (4) in (3)

n1 − n2
2 2
n1
sin  m =
n0 n1
if the medium surrounding the fiber is air , then n0 = 1

sin  m = n1 − n2
2 2

Which is required expression for

 max = sin −1 n12 − n2 2 maximum acceptance angle

Acceptance Cone

Rotating the Acceptance angle about the fiber axis describes the Acceptance Cone of the fiber. Light launched at the
fiber end within this Acceptance Cone alone will be accepted and propagated to the other end of the fiber by total
internal reflection.
 NA = sin  max
n1 − n2
2 2
Numerical Aperture
sin  max =
n0
• The light gathering capacity of an optical fiber is known as
NA = n1 − n2
2 2

Numerical Aperture and it is proportional to Acceptance Angle. It

is numerically equal to sine of minimum Acceptance Angle. NA = (n1 + n2 )(n1 − n2 )
n1 − n2
• The ratio between the difference in RI ’s of core and cladding to =
that of RI of core is called the fractional change. n1
NA = n1 (n1 + n2 )
n1  n2
NA = n1 2
2

NA = n1 2

5. Describe classification of Optical fibers.

A)

TYPES OF OPTICAL FIBRES

Based on variation of RI of core, the optical fibers are mainly classified into following types. i.e.,

1. Step Index fiber 2. Graded Index fiber

Based on Mode of propagation, the fibers are further divided into single mode and multi-mode.

Single Mode Step Index fiber

The RI is constant for the core in this fiber. As we go radically from center of the core, the RI undergoes a step
change at core-cladding interface. There is only one path for light ray propagation. Hence it is called single mode
step index fiber.

Multimode Step Index Fiber

The construction of this fiber is like single mode step index fiber, but dimensions of core and cladding are much
larger to have a greater number of paths for light propagation.

Graded Index Fiber

In this fiber, Radially the RI of core continuously decreases from center to the surface. The RI is maximum at the
center of core and minimum at the surface.

As RI changes continuously radially in core, the light rays suffer continuous refraction within the core from its
center to surface. In this fiber, the light rays travel at different speeds in different parts. Near the surface RI is least
so, the light rays travel faster compared to the light rays near the axis. Because of this all the rays almost arrive at
the same time at the other end of the fiber.