CHAPTER-1

B.Tech, Dept. of EEE

 CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction:

 With the advancement made in renewable energy systems and eventual reduction in cost,
renewable sources such as solar and wind are gaining attention.
 Solar power being abundantly available promises a sustainable solution to growing demands.
However, certain nature of solar irradiance presents operational challenges.
 In order to address the need of for proper coordination, this project presents control of a
Solar and battery storage based micro-grid in grid connected mode.
 PV array is equipped with maximum power point tracking (MPPT) control.
 The micro-grid is fused with battery storage along with charge controller to maintain
uncertain generation from solar generators.
 The grid-side inverter is operated in P-Q control mode. The model has been formulated in
MATLAB-Simulink environment.
 The model has been investigated for two cases (i) Constant load, variable irradiance (ii)
Variable load, variable irradiance.
 The results evidently establish to ability of control technique in maintaining voltage,
frequency and power balance at PCC.

1.2 Project Objectives:

 The operation modes of the proposed inverter, a simple modulation strategy, as well as the
design guidelines are analyzed in detail.

 The power levels of sources in these systems need to be determined wisely by an energy
management strategy (EMS).

1.3 Problem Statement:

B.Tech, Dept. of EEE

 Finally, based on a battery cycle life model and experimental results, it has been shown that
the battery life extension of about 90% due to the battery/UC HESS can be achieved.
It is clear that these acquirements increase the life spans of the battery, and ensures the
feasibility of the hybrid system considering the defined input voltage range of the converter

B.Tech, Dept. of EEE

 CHAPTER-2

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 CHAPTER – 2
MODEL OF SYSTEM

Fig. 2. 1 Block Diagram

2.1 PV Array

Standard PV, Inc. recently completed one of the first solar micro grid systems with a grid
interactive battery bank in the country. Being a first was a challenge– it took months of dedication,
innovative engineering and coordination with key partners, utilities and government offices to make
this project a reality. The first half of this paper will set the stage by explaining how the micro grid
is setup, its functionality and what makes it special. Then I will explore what it takes to design and
install a solar micro grid system, the lessons learned from this groundbreaking project and what
technical considerations should be made when implementing this new technology.

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

The PV micro grid system is designed to operate in two modes; Grid-Interactive and Islanded mode.
In grid-interactive mode the battery system operates in parallel with the PV system. The PV system
operates normally as a typical grid-tied solar PV system. During peak sun hours of the day the
battery system is less active, but when the PV system is not utilizing the majority of the inverter
capacity (i.e. at night) it is able to actively participate in fast response frequency regulation. The
control system is designed to always prioritize the use of the inverter capacity for the solar PV
generation first, then the remainder is utilized for frequency regulation participation. In full sun the
PV system will normally require approximately 325 kW of AC capacity, leaving 175 kW of
inversion capacity available for participation in the frequency regulation market. When there is a
grid outage the microgrid system senses the loss of grid and signals the isolation breaker to open
and convert to Islanded mode. The system adjusts automatically from a grid-tied current source to
an islanded voltage source in a few cycles.
The PV system will continue to produce electricity as long as there is sufficient sunlight to generate
and sufficient load or battery capacity to absorb it. The energy storage system acts as a buffer
between the PV and the load so that the user doesn’t notice any fluctuation in power as a result of
unstable sky conditions. The duration that the energy supply will last is difficult to predict because it
is a function of the amount of sunlight available, the demand of the selected back-up loads and the
state of charge of the battery system at the moment of isolation from the grid.
Table 2. 1 PV Array Specifications

2.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking

Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is an algorithm implemented in photovoltaic (PV)

inverters to continuously adjust the impedance seen by the solar array to keep the PV system
operating at, or close to, the peak power point of the PV panel under varying conditions, like
changing solar irradiance, temperature, and load. Engineers developing solar inverters implement
MPPT algorithms to maximize the power generated by PV systems. The algorithms control the
voltage to ensure that the system operates at “maximum power point” (or peak voltage) on the
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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

power voltage curve, as shown below. MPPT algorithms are typically used in the controller designs
for PV systems. The algorithms account for factors such as variable irradiance (sunlight) and
temperature to ensure that the PV system generates maximum power at all times. Maximum power
point tracking is a technique used commonly with wind turbines and photovoltaic (PV) solar
systems to maximize power extraction under all conditions. Although solar power is mainly
covered, the principle applies generally to sources with variable power: for example, optical power
transmission and thermo photo voltaics. PV solar systems exist in many different configurations
with regard to their relationship to inverter systems, external grids, battery banks, or other electrical
loads. Regardless of the ultimate destination of the solar power, though, the central problem
addressed by MPPT is that the efficiency of power transfer from the solar cell depends on both the
amount of sunlight falling on the solar panels and the electrical characteristics of the load. As the
amount of sunlight varies, the load characteristic that gives the highest power transfer efficiency
changes, so that the efficiency of the system is optimized when the load characteristic changes to
keep the power transfer at highest efficiency. This load characteristic is called the maximum power
point and MPPT is the process of finding this point and keeping the load characteristic there.
Electrical circuits can be designed to present arbitrary loads to the photovoltaic cells and then
convert the voltage, current, or frequency to suit other devices or systems, and MPPT solves the
problem of choosing the best load to be presented to the cells in order to get the most usable power
out. Solar cells have a complex relationship between temperature and total resistance that produces
a non-linear output efficiency which can be analyzed based on the I-V curve. It is the purpose of the
MPPT system to sample the output of the PV cells and apply the proper resistance (load) to obtain
maximum power for any given environmental conditions. MPPT devices are typically integrated
into an electric power converter system that provides voltage or current conversion, filtering, and
regulation for driving various loads, including power grids, batteries, or motors.
• Solar inverters convert the DC power to AC power and may incorporate MPPT: such
inverters sample the output power (I-V curve) from the solar modules and apply the proper
resistance (load) so as to obtain maximum power.
• The power at the MPP (Pmpp) is the product of the MPP voltage (Vmpp) and MPP current
(Impp).

2.3 PWM CONTROLLER:

Is a method of controlling the average power delivered by an electrical signal. The average value of
voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by switching the supply between 0 and 100% at a

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

rate faster than it takes the load to change significantly. The longer the switch is on, the higher the
total power supplied to the load. Along with maximum power point tracking (MPPT), it is one of
the primary methods of reducing the output of solar panels to that which can be utilized by a battery.
[1] PWM is particularly suited for running inertial loads such as motors, which are not as easily
affected by this discrete switching. The goal of PWM is to control a load; however, the PWM
switching frequency must be selected carefully in order to smoothly do so.
The PWM switching frequency can vary greatly depending on load and application. For
example, switching only has to be done several times a minute in an electric stove; 100 or
120 Hz (double of the utility frequency) in a lamp dimmer; between a few kilohertz (kHz) and tens
of kHz for a motor drive; and well into the tens or hundreds of KHz in audio amplifiers and
computer power supplies. Choosing a switching frequency that is too high for the application results
in smooth control of the load, but may cause premature failure of the mechanical control
components. Selecting a switching frequency that is too low for the application causes oscillations
in the load. The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low.
When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being transferred
to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of
voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls,
which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. PWM has also been used
in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a
communications channel.

2.4 DC-DC BOOST CONVERTER:

The circuit diagram of a step-up operation of DC-DC converter. When the switch 1 S is
closed for time duration 1t, the inductor current rises and the energy is stored in the inductor. If the
switch 1 S is opened for time duration 2t, the energy stored in the inductor is transferred to the load
via the diode D1 and the inductor current falls. The waveform of the inductor current

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig. 2. 2 Boost Converter

A boost converter (step-up converter) is a DC-to-DC power converter that steps up voltage
(while stepping down current) from its input (supply) to its output (load). It is a class of switched-
mode power supply (SMPS) containing at least two semiconductors (a diode and a transistor) and at
least one energy storage element: a capacitor, inductor, or the two in combination. To reduce
voltage ripple, filters made of capacitors (sometimes in combination with inductors) are normally
added to such a converter's output (load-side filter) and input (supply-side filter).
The key principle that drives the boost converter is the tendency of an inductor to resist
changes in current by creating and destroying a magnetic field. In a boost converter, the output
voltage is always higher than the input voltage. A schematic of a boost power stage. When the
switch is closed, current flows through the inductor in clockwise direction and the inductor stores
some energy by generating a magnetic field. Polarity of the left side of the inductor is positive. (b)
When the switch is opened, current will be reduced as the impedance is higher. The magnetic field
previously created will be destroyed to maintain the current towards the load. Thus the polarity will
be reversed (means left side of inductor will be negative now). As a result, two sources will be in
series causing a higher voltage to charge the capacitor through the diode D. If the switch is cycled
fast enough, the inductor will not discharge fully in between charging stages, and the load will
always see a voltage greater than that of the input source alone when the switch is opened. Also
while the switch is opened, the capacitor in parallel with the load is charged to this combined
voltage. When the switch is then closed and the right hand side is shorted out from the left hand
side, the capacitor is therefore able to provide the voltage and energy to the load. During this time,
the blocking diode prevents the capacitor from discharging through the switch. The switch must of
course be opened again fast enough to prevent the capacitor from discharging too much.
They are useful in some specific applications where isolation is required. There is no

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

isolation transformer in non-isolated step- up voltage regulation conditions, that’s why they are
implemented for the applications like water pumping system, standalone PV systems etc. Generally
isolated converters are preferred for grid-tied PV system because of safety concerns. There are four
topologies of DC-DC converters which are commonly used in solar PV system. They may operate
in two different modes, either continuous conduction mode (CCM) or discontinuous conduction
mode (DCM). Their performance is analyzed with the help of following parameters.

(i) Voltage Gain (Av)

(ii) Current Gain (Ai)

(iii) Input Impedance (Ri)

(iv) Critical Inductance (Lcrit)

(v) Critical Capacitance (Ccrit)

Boost Converter:

Boost converter or step-up converter provides output voltage magnitude higher than the input
voltage magnitude. Therefore, their voltage step-up capability catches the eyes of industrialist for
grid-tied solar PV applications. It also performs the function of MPPT by changing the duty ratio.
This topology with single pole double throw (SPDT) switch is illustrated in below Figure. The
Voltage gain and current gain of the boost converter are also less sensitive to the change of duty
ratio D. For optimal operation of the converter, the input Impedance (Ri) should match with the
optimum resistance (Ropt). As the resistance conversion ratio suggests that the input impendence is
always smaller than load resistance.

Fig. 2. 3 Basic Configuration of Boost Converter

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

The output voltage of boost converter can be calculated as

V0 = Vin * (1/1-d)

d = Ton / T

Where, Vin = input voltage to the boost converter

d = duty cycle

Ton = switch ON time

T = total switching time period.

Thus, the boost converter should operate only when R ≤ RMPP for getting maximum power.
Therefore, the operating region of buck converter can’t attain the values near the open circuit
voltage of that module. The MPP is tracked only when it is operating in operational region.
Conventional boost converters are mostly used in the applications related to power factor
improvement due to simple circuitry. They had some limitation, while using in high step-up
applications like grid-tied PV system. The duty ratio can increase the voltage gain up to infinity by
varying the value of D. Therefore, the turnoff time period of the switch becomes very small and the
current ripple becomes large. The increment in current ripples increases the conduction losses. And
number of electrolytic capacitors used. So, the cost of the system increases. In grid-tied PV
applications the output voltage is often high and comes across the switches and capacitor. The
higher voltage stress and hard switching increases the switching and recovery losses. The power
level is also restricted by using single switch. For example, interleaved boost topology is effectively
increasing the power level, reducing current ripples and passive component size. Further the zero
current transition (ZCT) based interleaved boost converter topology is proposed for soft switching.
The auxiliary commutation circuitry provides ZCT when the main circuitry is off. The coupled
inductors are also used in some topologies to achieve zero current switching (ZCS) to turn on the
switches.

Two types of coupling are there: one is positive coupling and other is negative coupling. Both can
be used for realizing ZCS and to reduce recovery losses. The positive coupling suppresses the
current ripples more effectively under hard switching but negative coupling doesn’t suppress the
current ripples because of discontinuous conduction mode (DCM). Later on active zero voltage with
ZCS turn on and ZVS turn off is proposed in the interleaved category to improve the switching
performance and current ripple suppression from same circuit. A lot of other topologies are
proposed to reduce all kind of losses and improving the efficiency.
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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

2.5 Inverter:
Inverter is useful in converting DC power to AC power for different applications. The
installations of grid-tied PV systems are increasing because of rapid development in power
electronics technology. Inverter is a vital cog in the line up of grid-tied PV system because it acts as
an interfacing medium between the solar PV system and utility. Inverter is also initiating the
islanding process after getting low and high signal according to the availability of the grid. In single
stage grid tied system inverter will perform both MPPT and grid synchronization.

Classification of Inverters
Grid-tied inverters are classified in three main categories; structural topology, transformer
less topology and multi-level topology as shown in Figure 2.4. Structural topologies are further
classified as; central type, string type, module type and multi-string type. Central inverter was used
for medium voltage applications by combining series

Fig. 2. 4 Classification of Inverter Topologies

and parallel strings. They have some disadvantages like high power losses because of cone MPPT
for complete string, poor power quality and high cost. String type inverters are more useful because
voltage is boosted by the series connection of inverters in single string. String inverters can have
individual MPPTs for every inverter so that losses can be contained. Modulated inverters are used
in a big AC module made by single solar panel. The mismatching problem is eliminated but the
installation cost increases, which reduces the overall efficiency. Finally, the multi-string inverters
came in to picture as a combination of all the advantages. One string is a combination of several
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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

solar panels connected in series and coupled with DC-DC converter. Each panel in a string is
controlled by separate MPPT so that each module can function separately.

Grid-tied PV inverters are categorized in three main groups. Transformer less topologies are further
classified in three categories based on their leakage current characteristics and decoupling
techniques. Zero stated coupled inverters ensure the decoupling of inverter during freewheeling
period. And the inverters those perform decoupling and connecting to the mid-point of DC-link
comes under zero state mid-point clamped. However solid clamping is categorized separately.

Fig. 2. 5 Three-phase Inverter

Table 2. 2 Inverter Switching Chart

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Table 2. 3 Inverter Parameters

Requirement of αβγ – alpha beta gamma – dSq transformation

2.6 PARK’S TRANSFORMATION
The (alpha-beta-gamma) αβγ transformation (also known as the Clarke transformation) is a
mathematical transformation employed to simplify the analysis of three-phase circuits.
Conceptually it is similar to the dq0 transformation. One very useful application of the αβγ{alpha \
beta \gamma } transformation is the generation of the reference signal used for space vector
modulation of three phase inverters.

This transformation converts vectors in balanced two-phase orthogonal stationary system into
orthogonal rotating reference frame.

Basically, the three reference frames considered in this implementation are:

1. Three-phase reference frame, in which Ia, Ib, and Ic are co-planar three-phase quantities at an
angle of 120 degrees to each other.

2. Orthogonal stationary reference frame, in which Iα (along α axis) and Iβ (along β axis) are
perpendicular to each other, but in the same plane as the three-phase reference frame.

3. Orthogonal rotating reference frame, in which Id is at an angle θ (rotation angle) to the α axis and
Iq is perpendicular to Id along the q axis.

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig. 2. 6 Reference Frames

INVERSE PARK’S TRANSFORMATION

The dq0 transform is conceptually similar to the {alpha \beta \gamma } αβγ transform. Whereas the
dq0 transform is the projection of the phase quantities onto a rotating two-axis reference frame,
the{alpha \beta \gamma } αβγ transform can be thought of as the projection of the phase quantities
onto a stationary two-axis reference frame.

Reason of requirement
The conversion is required for conversion of rotating frame to static frame to generate (V reference)
signal for PWM pulse of inverter.

2.7 LCL FILTER:

The LCL filter is a series-parallel combination of inductors and capacitors which is to reduce the
THD. LCL filters must be selected according to the current absorbed by the converter. In case of
converters with very low power rating, a unique LCL filter may be used to supply several
converters, but only in case the all start and stop at the same time. If several converters starting and
stopping separately are supplied by the same LCL filter, the system is not effective on filtering the
harmonics. In such case an individual LCL should be used for each converter.

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig. 2. 7 LCL Filter

Table 2. 4 LCL Filter Parameters

PARAMETERS VALUE
Resistance 1e-6
Inductance 4.47e-3
capacitance 5.7e-6

2.8 Load:
The load use here is a RLC load but variable load within normal range can also be used.

Table 2. 5 Load Parameters

PARAMETERS VALUE
Resistance 1e-6
Inductance 4.47e-3
capacitance 5.7e-6

2.9 Charge Controller:

A charge controller is an important component in the control of solar battery storage in microgrid

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

systems. The primary function of a charge controller is to regulate the charging of the batteries from
the solar panels and to prevent overcharging and undercharging of the batteries, which helps to
maximize the energy output from the solar panels and can significantly reduce their lifespan.

2.10 Battery:
Lithium-ion batteries have one of the highest CE ratings out of all types of rechargeable batteries at
99% or higher. These are the most efficient batteries.

1. Have a longer lifespan both in number of cycles and capacity retention over time than lead
acid batteries.

2. Can be partially charged over and over again while lead acid requires a weekly
overcharge/equalization to balance cells and remove sulfation.

3. Maintain high voltage output at a lower state of charge while lead acid batteries decline in
voltage as their SOC declines.

4. Can operate at higher temperature compared to lead acid, and lower temperatures with built-
in heaters.

5. The 1MWh storage system uses a combination of 614.4 kWh lithium batteries.

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

CHAPTER -3

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

CHAPTER – 3
CONTROLLER DESIGN

3.1 MPPT using modified P&O Algorithm:-

Modified P & O algorithm is used to track the voltage at which the power obtained from the PV
panel is maximum. The algorithm has better performance due to accurate convergence when
compared with normal P & O algorithm.

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Modified P&O algorithm:

Fig 3. 1 Flowchart of Modified P&O Algorithm

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

3.2 EXISTING METHOD:-

Simulation Diagrams

Fig 3. 2 Simulation for PV array, MPPT Controller, DC-DC Converter, Inverter, Filter, 3 Phase
Grid

Fig 3. 3 Simulation for Parks Transformation

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig 3. 4 Simulation for Bidirectional DC-DC Converter, Battery

Fig 3. 5 Results Simulation for Case-1(Constant Load and Variable Irradiance)

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig 3. 6 Results Simulation for Case-2(Variable Load and Variable Irradiance)

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

CHAPTER-4

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

CHAPTER – 4
Result and Discussion

4.1 Case 1: Constant load and variable irradiance

4.1.1 PV Array without filter

Fig 4. 1 PV Array without filter

4.1.2 PV Array with filter

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig 4. 2 PV Array with filter

4.1.3 RMS Voltage

Fig 4. 3 RMS Voltage

4.1.4 Frequency

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig 4. 4 Frequency

4.1.5 Battery

Fig 4. 5 Battery

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

4.2 Case 2:- Variable load and Variable irradiance

4.2.1 Active Power (Variable Load)

Fig 4. 6 Active Power(Variable Load)

4.2.2 RMS Voltage

Fig 4. 7 RMS Voltage

4.2.3 Frequency

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig 4. 8 Frequency

4.2.4 Battery

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

Fig 4. 9 Battery

4.3 ADVANTAGES:

1. Renewable Energy: Solar microgrids provide renewable energy, which is clean and green.
They reduce reliance on fossil fuels and promote sustainability.
2. Energy Independence: Microgrids allow communities to generate their own electricity,
reducing dependence on the larger power grid. This increases energy independence and can
reduce the risk of power outages.
3. Cost Savings: Solar microgrids can lower electricity bills by reducing the need to purchase
energy from the utility company. This can lead to significant cost savings over time.
4. Flexibility: Microgrids can be designed to operate in conjunction with the larger power grid
or in island mode, providing flexibility and resilience.

4.4 DISADVANTAGES:

1. High Initial Investment: Building a solar microgrid requires a significant initial investment,
which can be a barrier to adoption.
2. Limited Energy Storage: Energy storage capacity is limited by the size of the battery bank,
which can limit the amount of electricity available during periods of high demand or low
sunlight.
3. Maintenance and Upkeep: Solar microgrids require regular maintenance and upkeep to
ensure they are operating efficiently and safely.

4.5 APPLICATIONS:

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

1. Islanding: In the event of a grid outage, the microgrid can disconnect from the grid and
operate independently, providing power to critical loads.
2. Energy Arbitrage: In markets where there is a significant difference in locational marginal
price (LMP) of electricity at different times, energy arbitrage can be used to offset costs.
Wholesale electricity is purchased and stored when the LMP is low to be resold when the
LMP is high. Some losses occur due during charging and discharging. Arbitrage on its own
is not typically a profitable energy storage application, however can be combined with others
by value stacking.

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

CHAPTER-5

CHAPTER-5

5.1 CONCLUSION:-

Integration of renewable energy sources based micro-grid present a sustainable alternative to reduce
conventional fossil fuel based generation. Solar power is a strategic facilitator in increasing
renewable energy penetration. However, uncertainties associated with solar irradiance poses

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

operational challenges in micro-grid operation. Thus, efficient control techniques are required to
control solar based MG and maintain voltage and frequency at PCC. In this paper, control of solar-
battery storage system MG operating in grid connected mode has been presented. The obtained
results indicate that adequate PQ control is maintained for variable irradiance and load levels and
the battery storage system works efficiently. This model has been tested for two cases one is
constant load and variable irradiance another is variable load and variable irradiance.
Solar powered micro grid can provide uninterrupted and quality power to the load, particularly in
rural India. With the incorporation of proper control strategies , the solar power can be efficiently
utilised to meet growing energy demands.

5.2 FUTURE SCOPE:-

In Proposed system, to obtain a maximum power and improved voltage and accuracy, MPPT
technique with “Incremental Conductance “ Algorithm is used.

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CONTROL OF SOLAR BATTERY STORAGE BASED MICRO-GRID

[3] P. Paliwal, “Reliability constrained planning and sensitivity analysis for Solar-Wind-Battery
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B.Tech, Dept. of EEE

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