Populations and Samples.

Measurement & Data Collection.

By
Dr Sabiha
Associate Professor
KMU-INS
 Objectives
1. By the end of the lecture the students will be able to;

2. Explain criteria for selection of a research topic.

3. Discuss criteria for assessing and selecting measuring tool.

4. Describe the different data gathering tools used in qualitative research.

5. Describe Sampling techniques used in qualitative and quantitative research.

6. Describe Triangulations as a Qualitative Research Strategy

 Criteria for selection of a research topic

Cost Effectiveness=3
Acceptability=3
Innovation=3
Relevance=3

Feasibility=3
Proposed Topic /

Ethical=3
Total
Research Question
Score
(18)

(Example) Assess clinical

reasoning skills of student
nurses in busy clinical
settings.
Criteria for assessing and selecting measuring tool.

▪ When researchers tries to do a good research, they have to follow two

criteria for Good Measurements in Research, Validity and Reliability. Both

are the most important and fundamental features in the evaluation of any

measurement instrument or tool for a good research;

▪ Reliability

▪ Validity
Reliability and Validity
Reliability

▪ Reliability is all about ensuring that if you were to repeat the same study
using the same reliable measurement technique, you’d end up with the same
results.

▪ It’s like having multiple researchers independently conduct the same

experiment and getting outcomes that align perfectly.
Reliability & Validity

▪ Reliability and validity of instrumentation are important considerations for

researchers in their investigations.

▪ To perform a good research of validity and reliability, tests need to be taken very

carefully.

▪ A valid tool must be reliable, but a reliable tool may not necessary be valid.
Reliability

▪ Imagine you’re using a thermometer to measure the temperature of a

patient. You have a reliable measurement if you use the same thermometer
multiple times and get the same reading each time.

▪ This tells you that your method and measurement technique consistently
produce the same results, whether it’s you or another researcher performing
the measurement.
Validity

▪ In quantitative research validity is the extent to which any measuring

instrument measures what it is intended to measure [Thatcher, 2010].

▪ But, in qualitative research it is when a researcher uses certain procedures to

check for the accuracy of the research findings [Creswell, 2014].

Reliability
▪ In quantitative researcher, reliability refers to the consistency, stability and
repeatability of results, that is, the result of a researcher is considered reliable if
consistent results have been obtained in identical situations, but different
circumstances.

▪ But, in qualitative research it is referred to as when a researcher's approach is

consistent across different researchers and different projects
[Twycross& Shields, 2004]
Data gathering tools used in qualitative research
 Data gathering tools used in qualitative research
A variety of strategies used to generate qualitative research data:
▪ Interviews,
▪ Observations,
▪ Focus groups,
▪ Document's review
The reconstruction of social phenomena can come in a number of
forms: video, photography, film, and text” (Maggs-Rapport, 2000, p. 221).
 Data gathering tools used in qualitative research
Method Brief explanation
Interviews, This involves asking question, listening to and recording answers from an individual
or group on a structured , semi structured or unstructured format in in-depth manner

Observations, The researchers gets close enough to study subjects to observe ( with /without
participation ) usually understand whether people do what they say they do , and to
access knowledge of subjects
Focus groups, Focused (guided by a set of questions)and interactive session with a group small
enough for everyone to have chance to talk and large enough to provide diversity of
opinions
Document's A qualitative research project may require review of documents such as:
review – Course syllabi – Faculty journals – Meeting minutes – Strategic plans – Newspapers
 Interviews

Structured interviews
▪ Same questions in same away – Limited range of responses (e.g.
questionnaires)
▪ Set questions, set order
▪ Wording exactly as written
▪ No adjustment for language skills, except explanations of words
▪ No additional questions
 Interviews cont.
Semi structured interviews or focused interviews
Series of open-ended questions – Provide opportunities to both researchers and respondents to
discuss certain topics in more details
Additional questions sometimes allowed
Set of questions may change based on earlier interviews—some new items, some items dropped
Unstructured interviews or in-depth interviews
– Discussing limited number of topics
– Phrase questions in the interviewee’s previous response
• No set wording or ordering.
• Interviewer can answer questions without scripted prompts/definitions, adjust to language skills
• Additional questions if needed
• Set of questions/topics will change based on earlier interviews—some new items, some items
dropped
 Focus group discussion
▪ - Collect information from groups of people rather than a series of
individuals
FGD can be used when
▪ – Resources are limited – To identify a number of individuals who
share a common factor
▪ – It is desirable to collect the views of several people within the
population sub group
▪ – Group interaction among participants has the potential for greater
insights to be developed
 Focus group discussion cont….
Characteristics of a focus group –
Group size: usually 6-10 people – Several FGD should be run in any
research, it would be wrong to rely on the views of just one group
– Members of each group should have something in common
– May use pre formed groups
– Data collection and analysis is time consuming– Requires certain
skills:
• Facilitation, moderating, listening, observing and analyzing
 Observation

▪ Might be the only method to collect information in certain conditions

▪ Observation of people VS. observation of environment

▪ Observation can also serve for verifying information collected through

other methods
 Observation Cont…

Fieldwork descriptions of activities, behaviors, actions, conversations,

interpersonal interactions, organizational or community processes, or
any other aspect of observable human experience.

Data consist of field notes: Rich detailed descriptions, including the

context within which the observations were made.
 Observation cont

Photographs

– Good way of collecting observable data of phenomena which can be

captured in a single shots or series of shots

– Photographs of buildings, neighborhoods, dress and appearance

Documentation – Wide range of written materials – Policy document,

annual reports, minutes of meeting, codes of conduct, notice boards etc.
 Documents review

▪ This method makes use of the already existing reliable documents

and similar sources of information as the data source.

▪ This data can be used in a new research. This is similar to going to a

library.

▪ There one can go over books and other reference material to collect
relevant data that can likely be used in the research.
Sampling Techniques used in qualitative research.
 Sampling techniques used in qualitative quantitative
research.
1. Non-Probability Sampling(used in qualitative research)

2. Probability Sampling (used in quantitative research)

probability sampling involves random selection, while non-

probability sampling does not–it relies on the subjective
judgement of the researcher.
 Why do we use non probability sampling?

▪ This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a

particular trait exists in the population.

▪ It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot

or exploratory study.

▪ It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and
workforce.
 Why do we use probability sampling?

▪ This method of probability sampling is best used when the goal of the

research is to study a particular subgroup within a greater population.

▪ It also results in more precise statistical outcomes than simple

random sampling
 Non-random/Non-probability
▪ It is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process that
does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being
selected.
▪ It used when the number of element in a population is either unknown or
it isn’t specific. Those types of sampling can be used when demonstrating
that a particular trait exists in the population. There are four types of Non-
random/non-probability sampling designs
▪ Convenience Sampling or Accidental Sampling
▪ Quota Sampling
▪ Judgmental Sampling or Purposive Sampling
▪ Snowball sampling.
Non-random/non-probability sampling
 Types of Non-random/non-probability sampling
❑Convenience sampling is the most common of all sampling techniques. With
convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the
researcher. Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This
technique is considered easiest, cheapest and least time consuming
❑Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this
type of sampling, subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific
purpose in mind. With judgmental sampling, the researcher believes that some
subjects are fit for the research compared to other individuals. This is the reason
why they are purposively chosen as subjects
❑Quota sampling technique is used wherein the researcher ensures equal or
proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as
basis of the quota.
❑Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In
this type of sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another
potential subject who also meets the criteria of the research. The downside of
using a snowball sample is that it is hardly representative of the population.
 Convenient sampling

Convenience Sampling
Here the samples are selected based
on the availability. This method is used
when the availability of sample is rare
and also costly.
For example: Researchers prefer this
during the initial stages of survey
research, as it’s quick and easy to
deliver results.
 Purposive or Judgmental sampling

This is based on the intention or the purpose

of study. Only those elements will be
selected from the population which suits the
best for the purpose of study.
For Example: If we want to understand the
thought process of the people who are
interested in pursuing MSN degree then the
selection criteria would be “Are you
interested for Masters in..?”
 Snowball sampling/chain sampling
This technique is used in the situations
where the population is completely
unknown and rare.
Therefore we will take the help from the
first element which we select for the
population and ask him to recommend
other elements who will fit the description
of the sample needed.
So this referral technique goes on,
increasing the size of population like a
snowball.
 Quota sampling
This type of sampling depends of some pre-
set standard. It selects the representative
sample from the population. Proportion of
characteristics/ trait in sample should be
same as population. Elements are selected
until exact proportions of certain types of data
is obtained or sufficient data in different
categories is collected.
For example: If our population has 45%
females and 55% males then our sample
should reflect the same percentage of males
and females.
 Probability Sampling technique
▪ Probability Sampling is a sampling technique in which sample from a
larger population are chosen using a method based on the theory of
probability.
▪ For a participant to be considered as a probability sample, he/she
must be selected using a random selection.
▪ The main types of probability sampling methods are
1. Simple random sampling,
2. Systematic random sampling
3. Stratified sampling,
4. Cluster sampling,
Probability Sampling Techniques
 Simple random sampling
▪ This sampling method is as easy as assigning numbers to the
individuals and then randomly choosing from those numbers through
an automated process.
▪ There are two ways in which the samples are chosen in this method
of sampling:
▪ Lottery system and using number generating software/ random
number table. This sampling technique usually works around large
population and has its fair share of advantages and disadvantages.
Simple random sampling
Simple random sampling
 Systematic Sampling

▪ when you choose every “nth” individual to be a part of the sample.

▪ For example, you can choose every 2nd person to be in the sample.

▪ There’s an equal opportunity for every member of a population to be

selected using this sampling technique.

Systematic Sampling
 Stratified Random sampling
▪ it involves a method where a larger population can be divided into
smaller groups, that usually don’t overlap but represent the entire
population together. While sampling these groups can be organized
and then draw a sample from each group separately.

▪ A common method is to arrange or classify by sex, age, ethnicity and

similar ways. Splitting subjects into mutually exclusive groups and
then using simple random sampling to choose members from groups.
Stratified Random sampling
 Cluster random sampling
it is a way to randomly select participants when they are geographically
spread out.
▪ For example, if you wanted to choose 100 participants from the entire
population of the KPK, it is likely impossible to get a complete list of
everyone. Instead, the researcher randomly selects areas (i.e. cities)
and randomly selects from within those boundaries.
▪ Cluster sampling usually analyzes a particular population in which the
sample consists of more than a few elements, for example, city, family,
university etc. The clusters are then selected by dividing the greater
population into various smaller sections.
Cluster random sampling
 Triangulations as a Qualitative Research Strategy
Definition

▪ Triangulation is an approach to research that uses a

combination of more than one research strategy in a single
investigation.
 Why triangulation
▪ Researchers might also choose triangulation to confirm findings and
conclusions. Any single qualitative research strategy has its
limitations.

▪ By combining different strategies, researchers confirm findings by

overcoming the limitations of a single strategy.

▪ Uncovering the same information from more than one point, helps
researchers describe how the findings occurred under different
circumstances and assists them to confirm the validity of the findings.
 Types of Triangulation
There are four basic types of triangulation:
1. Data triangulation: involves Time, Space, and Persons
2. Researcher triangulation: involves multiple researchers in an
investigation.
3. Methodological triangulation Using methods triangulation at the
level of data collection, researchers use two different techniques of
data collection like observation and interview
Triangulations
Thank You