International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)

ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 4 Issue 03, March-2015

A Review on Strength of Concrete

in Seawater
Akshat Dimri1, Jay Kr. Varshney1, V. K. Verma2, Sandeep Gupta2
1- M.Tech Civil Engg 2- Assistant Professor, Civil Engg
G.B.P.U.A&T, Pantnagar, India G.B.P.U.A&T, Pantnagar, India

Abstract- Several billion tons of water is annually used as between cement and water, and aggregates to which the
mixing, curing and cleaning around the world, in concrete hardend cement adheres to greater or lesser degree
industry. As there is a scarcity of fresh drinkable water around (Murdock and Brook, 1979). The strength of concrete
the world; so there is a need to save fresh water and hence mainly depends on the proportion of its ingredient particles
possibilities of using seawater as mixing as well as curing water
i.e. cement, sand, coarse aggregates etc. The strength of
should be investigated seriously. Additionally, if use of
seawater as concrete material is permitted, it will be very concrete is affected by the water-cement ratio,method of
convenient and economical in the construction; especially in curing, physical properties of coarse & fine aggregates,
the coastal works. However; most of the reinforced concrete cement etc.
codes do not permit the use of seawater due to risk of early
corrosion of reinforcement. The effect of seawater on concrete 1.2 Sea Water: Sea water has chemical constituent elements
deserves special attention as the coastal and offshore structures mainly : ions of chloride, sodium, magnesium, calcium and
are exposed to simultaneous action of a number of physical and potassium. It has been analysed that sea water contains 78%
chemical deterioration processes. Moreover, 80 percent of the
NaCl, 7.86% MgCl2, 3.74% MgSO4, 2.34% CaSO4, 1.8%
earth is covered by seawater either directly or indirectly (e.g.
winds can carry sea water spray up to a few miles in land from
K2SO4, 0.22% CaCO3, 0.2% MgBr2. NaCl2 & MgCl2 has the
the coast). Concrete piers, decks, break-water, and retaining highest concentration in comparison to other salts.
walls are widely used in the construction of harbors and docks.
The use of concrete offshore drilling platforms and oil storage Sea water is an electrolyte and plays a major function in any
tanks is already on the increase. This paper illustrates the electrolytic action between dissimilar metals and between
various research and their results that were carried out earlier salt concentration and steel (Bela,1989). Seawater has
on the experimental studies on the strength of concrete in considerable varying PH value.
seawater.

Keywords: Seawater, compressive strength, flexural strength, sea 1.3 Concrete in seawater :The durability of concrete is
salts regarded as its ability to resists the effects and influences of
the environment while performing its desired
1. INTRODUCTION functions(Hoff, 1991). Over the year it has become very
necessary and imperative to ascertain the qualities of
The Concrete structures which are exposed to marine properties of coastal structures (oil platform, sea wall, buck
environment may deteriorate due to the result of combined head etc) in contact with sea water as they tend to perform
effects of chemical action of seawater constituents on their functions during the period of their design life. The
cement hydration products, alkali-aggregate expansion properties of concrete structures such as strength, durability,
(when reactive aggregates are present), crystallization stability,resistance to frost & thaw action etc require
pressure of salts within concrete if one face of the structure thorough investigation. The effect of seawater on concrete
is subject to wetting and others to drying conditions, frost has remained a major problem associated with structures
action in cold climates, corrosion of embedded steel in either built in sea water or cast or cured with sea water.
reinforced or prestressed members, and physical erosion due According to Gani (1997), the presence of sodium chloride
to wave action and floating objects. Attack on concrete due in sea water accelerates the attack on other compounds on
to any one of these causes tends to increase the permeability the concrete. The chemical action of seawater on concrete is
which would make the material progressively more mainly due to attack by Magnesium sulphate (MgSO4). This
susceptible to further action by the same destructive agents. attack is by crystallization. It has been established that
potassium and magnesium sulphates (K2SO4 & MgSO4)
1.1 Concrete : Concrete is an artificial construction present in seawater can cause sulphate attack in concrete as
structural material made from the mixture of aggregates a result of initial reaction with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
(coarse & fine), portland cement, water, admixtures & which present in set cement and form by hydration of C3S &
pozzolanic materials. Concrete is formed when portland C2S.
cement hydrated and formed cement paste, which when
mixed with aggregates hardens and binds the aggregates into Seawater tends to increase the risk of corrosion of embedded
solid mass. These constituents materials are a hardened steel reinforcement when the structure is duely exposed to
binding medium or matrix, formed by a chemical reaction air. The most damaging effect of seawater on concrete

IJERTV4IS030890 www.ijert.org 844

(This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.)
 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 4 Issue 03, March-2015

structures arises from the attack of chlorides on the steel compressive strength at 7, 14, 21, 28 days. They reported
reinforcement and salt build up. The increase in the risk of that the compressive strength of concrete is increased due to
corrosion of steel limit the use of seawater in steel reinforced the presence of salt or ocean salt in the mixing & curing
structures, if prior preventive measures are not put in place. water.
Preventive measures include the coating of reinforcement
steel with cement slurry mixed with fresh water. Falah M. Wegian (2010) investigated the effects of mixing
& curing of concrete with sea water on the compressive,
2. LITERATURE REVIEW: tensile, flexural, and bond strengths and showed that there
were increase of strengths of concrete when mixed & cured
2.1: Strength of concrete mixed or cured with sea water in sea water at early ages and a decrease for ages more than
28 days and up to 90 days.
Liu et al. (2002) showed that composites have ever proved
to be resistant to marine environment, and that the level of Nobuaki Otsuk et al (2011) found that sea water may be used
fine aggregate replacement by ground blast furnace slag and for mixing with concrete with some considerations. The
ground basaltic pumice had a beneficial effect on the countermeasures of using sea water as mixing water are as
compressive strength loss due to sea water attack and follows;
abrasion value.
1) Use BFS cement or other blended cement instead of OPC
M.I Retno Susilorini et al (2005) conducted experimental
and analytical method. Through experimental method they 2) Use corrosion inhibitor.
investigated the compressive strength of concrete cylinders, 3) Reinforced with stainless steel or corrosion resistant
with 7 days and 14 days with seawater curing and plain reinforcement.
water curing. After 7 days and 14 days of curing, the
concrete cylinders were tested by compressive testing Akinsola Olufemi Emmanuel et al (2012) conducted
machine. laboratory experiments to see the effects of lagoon and
ocean water on R.C.C. They adopted a mix ratio of 1:3:6 for
The experimental results of this research showed that the their research work. They cast Reinforced concrete
compressive strength of 7 days and 14 days concrete specimens using both lagoon and ocean water and some
specimens with seawater curing is higher than those cured specimens with fresh water. They buried the specimens at a
by plain-water, about 2.56-5.25% for 7 days old specimens depth of 1.5m below the ocean and lagoon for a period of
and 3.39-11.87% for 14 days old specimens. The result also 150 days. They found that specimens under ocean and
showed that the lower water cement ratio, the higher lagoon showed an increment in compressive strength from
concrete compressive strength would be. They found by 10.65N/mm2 and 10.57N/mm2 on 7th day to 17.05N/mm2
analytical calculation that the specimens cured by seawater and 18.04N/mm2 on the 21st day respectively as against the
has higher compressive strength, about 0.06-0.39% for 7 14.20N/mm2 on 7th day to 17.05N/mm2 and 18.04N/mm2
days old specimens and 0.11- 0.33% for 14 days old fresh water sample.
specimens. The higher strength compressive of concrete
specimens with seawater curing is provided by the existence Tiwari Preeti et al (2014), found that there was a marginal
of calcium chloride in seawater and by high temperature of increase in the strength of concrete cubes which were casted
seawater. This research concludes that both experimentally and cured with salt water as compared with the concrete
and analytically, the compressive strength of 7 days and 14 cubes cast and cured with fresh water. The rate of the
days old concrete specimens cured by seawater are higher strength gain in fresh water cubes is slow as compared with
than those cured by plain water. the salt water cubes. At 28 days, the rate of strength gain is
still increasing in all the concrete cubes. The fresh water
Naghoj et al (2005) reported that adding loam to concrete cubes also recorded its maximum strength at 28 days. They
mix can increase the compressive strength of concrete under concluded that the compressive strength of the salt water
normal conditions and enhance the performance of hardened concrete cubes was slightly higher than that of the fresh
concrete to resist the aggressive medium of salty sea water. water concrete cubes.
O. O. Akinkurolere et al (2007), examined the influence of
salt water on the compressive strength of concrete. This P. Krishnam Raju et al (2014) studied the effect of seawater
research presents the results and findings of an experimental on compressive and flexural strength of ordinary Portland
program on the influence of salt water from Lagos lagoon, cement (OPC) of 53 grade. The mixes were prepared with
in Nigeria on concrete compressive strength. In this “Potable water mixing & Sea water curing”, and “sea water
research, concrete cubes of size 150x150x150 mm were cast mixing & sea water curing”. They casted a total of 54 cubes,
with fresh & salt water using a mix ratio of 1:2:4 by weight 54 cylinders, 54 beams including specimens for reference
of concrete. Water-cement ratio of 0.6 were used. They cast concrete for the M30 & M35 mixes and exposed them for 7
a total of 132 concrete cubes out of which half of the cubes days, 28 days and 90 days period of curing. They
were made using fresh water and remaining half were made investigated the compressive strength behavior, modulus of
using salt water. They were cured in fresh & sea water rupture and flexural strengths. The reference concrete was
respectively. The concrete cubes were tested for prepared with opc using only potable water both for mixing

IJERTV4IS030890 www.ijert.org 845

(This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.)
 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 4 Issue 03, March-2015

and curing. They observed that there is no considerable cement ratio of concrete was relatively high (0.52-0.74) and
reduction in compressive strength due to mixing of sea water ordinary Portland cement was used as cement. In the case of
and also due to mixing and curing with sea water compared the low water-cement ratio such as 0.27 (Gayner, 1979) or
to its target strength. the use of proper mineral admixture such as BFS (Ozaki,
1984), the steel corrosion in concrete mixed with seawater
2.2 Effect of salt concentration and its suitability on concrete can be avoided even in the existing reinforced concrete
According to Vicat (1812), Prascal et al. (2006) the chemical structures.
action of seawater on concrete is mainly due to attack by
magnesium sulphate (MgSO4). This is worsened by the Neville (2001) recommend that the seawater should not be
chloride present in the seawater which retards the swelling used as mixing water for concrete reinforced by steel bars
that usually characterize the attack by sulphates in seawater because of the high risk of corrosion. However the results of
which becomes whitish in appearance, more severe attack the long term exposure tests conducted by Port and Airport
subjects the set concrete to expansion which leads to spalling Research Institute in Japan indicated that the amount of Cl
and cracking. Finally, the concrete becomes liable and is measured in concrete after 20 years of exposure is not
reduced to soft mud. At first, the strength of the concrete affected by the mixing water (Fukute, 1990) and the negative
tends to increase during the early stage of attack, but later influence of seawater used as mixing water is relatively
followed by loss of strength that preceded the resulted decreasing with age (Otsuki, 1985).
expansion. It is equally claimed that potassium and
magnesium sulphates (KS, MgS) present in salt water can Stark (2002) affirms the importance of controlling the water
cause sulphate attack in concrete since they readily react cement ratio and permeability of concrete in maximizing
with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) present in the set cement concrete durability. The study confirmed the importance of
through the hydration of C3S and C2S as depicted below proper ratio of water to total cementitious materials and the
(Bryant, M., 1964). resulting permeability as the primary factors determining
S + CH + 2H -CSh2 + KH performance in outdoor exposures. Furthermore, the use of
S + CH + 2H – CSH2 + MH low water cement ratio provides the greatest resistance to
Where K – KO and M – MgO sulphate attack on concrete, and the composition of Portland
The attack by magnesium sulphate (MgS) is quite cement is less important as it relates to performance in
demanding as it forms sparing soluble magnesium sulphate solutions.
hydroxide that forces the reaction to the right forming Person (2003) studied the sulphate resistance of self-
gypsum, MgS will equally react with the Calcium Sulphate compacting concrete at ages of 28 & 90 days. The
(CSH) gel together with that produced by the reaction of investigation shows that the concrete cured in a solution with
magnesium sulphate while calcium hydroxide combine with sodium sulphate suffer from a larger loss of concrete mass
silica hydrate produced by the reaction with cementation due to limestone filler content in the concrete mixes.
gels to form non cementations product (M4SH8).
Lateef Ige Raimi (2010) carried out research work to
Bryant, M. (1964), Taylor and Kuwari (1978) carried out an investigate the effect of seawater concentration, as mixing
experiment to determine the effect of ocean salts on or curing, on the compressive strength of concrete. They
compressive strength of concrete cast and cured with salt found the result of the action of salt water from Lagos Bar-
water. They took alternate concentrations of sea salt (NaCl, beach, in Nigeria, on concrete compressive strength. They
MgCl2, Na2SO4, or CaCl2) and observed that some chemical took a total of 144 concrete cubes of 150 X 150 X 150 mm
processes or reaction must have taken place. They size, mixing ratio of 1:2:4 and a water cement ratio of 0.6,
recommended that further test are needed to ascertain the were cast with seawater, fresh water and blending of
influence and importance of such salts so as to monitor the seawater.
strength at different ages and to investigate the effects of salt The cubes were divided in two and cured in seawater and
upon the other important characteristic of concrete such as fresh water respectively. The compressive strength of the
shrinkage, creep etc. cubes determined through crushing at 7, 14, 21 and 28 days
Mori et al. (1981) reported that the difference of strength respectively. The weekly pH and temperature readings of
between concrete mixed with seawater and fresh water is curing seawater and fresh water were taken at interval of
relatively small after 10 years of exposure test. Additionally, time, including the pH and temperature of unused seawater.
according to Yamamoto (1980), the concrete mixed with They observed the pH value and percentage composition by
seawater may show higher strength compared with fresh mass of compounds: NaCl, CaS04, KBr, K2S04 and MgS04.
water mixing under the environment below 15 ºC. They found that compressive strength of concrete cast with
seawater showed an increase in strength at 7, 14, 21 & 28
Novokshchenov (1995) reported the deterioration of days. A remarkable rapid increase was noted in concrete
reinforced concrete structure in marine environment cubes cast and cured with seawater at 7, 14, 21& 28 days
constructed in the Arabian Gulf in 1977. They found that respectively. Also, concrete cubes cast with fresh water and
structure was seriously deteriorated due to steel corrosion. cured with seawater have their strength increased at 7, 14,
According to him, this deterioration was not due to chloride 21 & 28 days as well. At 7days of curing, concrete cast with
(Cl) derived from mixing water only, but also to the sever seawater and cured with seawater has attained strength of
environment, especially sulphate attack. Besides, the water- about 79% of the 28days compressive strength of the control

IJERTV4IS030890 www.ijert.org 846

(This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.)
 International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology (IJERT)
ISSN: 2278-0181
Vol. 4 Issue 03, March-2015

test. So that at 28days, SS (cubes cast with seawater and 5. REFERENCES

cured with seawater) has attained strength of about 114% of
1. Akinkurolere, O. O., Jiang, C and Shobola O. M. (2007) “The
28days compressive strength of control. Influence of Salt Water on the Compressive Strength of Concrete”,
Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol. 2 No. 2, pp. 412 -
Md. Moinul Islam et al (2012), examined the suitability of 415.
sea water for mixing and curing of concrete. They studied 2. Akinsola Olufemi Emmanuel., Fatokun Ajibola Oladipo &
the effect of sea water on compressive strength of concrete Ogunsanmi Olabode E., (2012) “Investigation of salinity effect on
compressive strength of reinforced Concrete”, Journal of Sustainable
when used as mixing & curing water. Different mix ratios of
Development; Vol. 5, No. 6; Published by Canadian Center of Science
concrete were prepared with different water cement ratios. and Education.
Test specimens were cured under sea water of varying 3. Bella, M., & Fabuss, T. (1989). Properties of Seawater. 1st Edition
normality i.e.1N, 3N, and 5N, as well as plain water up to Academic Press Boston.
4. Bryant, M. (1964). Effects of Seawater on Concrete. Miscellaneous
180 days. (1N sea water means normal sea water made by
paper no 6-690, U.S. Army Engineers, Waterways experiment station,
mixing tap water with exact amount and proportion of Corps of Engineers, Vicks berg, Mississippi.
principal salts found in natural sea water.) . They concluded 5. E. M. Mbadike (2011),“Effect of salt water in the production of
that concrete specimen made & cured with sea water concrete”, Nigerian Journal of Technology, Vol. 30, No. 2
6. Falah M. Wegian; (2010), “Effects of sea water for mixing and curing
exhibits compressive strength loss of about 10% compared
on structural concrete Studies”, The IES Journal Part A: Civil &
to plain water mixed and cured concrete. Also, their result Structural Engineering, Vol .3, No.4, pp 235 – 243.
showed that compressive strength is reduced with increase 7. Gani, S.J. (1997). Cement and concrete (1st Ed) Chapman & Halls.
in seawater concentrations (i.e. increase in normality) and Pp:149-169.
8. Gayner. J.F.C. (1979) "Concrete in hot climates”. Precast concrete
the nature of variation of strength is not proportional.
Vol.10,No.4,pp.169-172.
9. Hoff, G.C. (1991). Durability of offshore and marine concrete
3. RESULTS & CONCLUSIONS: structures; 2nd international conference, 1991 pp.33-64.
10. Kaushik, S. K. and Islam S. (1995), "Suitability of seawater for
From all the earlier studies it can be concluded that the early mixing structural concrete exposed to a marine environment", Cement
7 days strength doesn’t affect when concrete is casted with & concrete composites, Vol.17, No.3, pp.177-185.
plane water and cured in marine environment, but strength ( 11. Lee, C. and Lee M. G. (1997). "Effect of fly ash and corrosion
compressive, tensile, flexural) decrease with respect to time inhibitor on reinforced concrete in marine environments", Special
publication of American concrete institute, No.SP-170 Vol.1,
( 28 & 90 days). Also, the strength increases up to several pp.141-156.
days when concrete is casted as well as cured with seawater 12. Liu, H., Tai, N., and Lee, W., 2002 Effect of seawater on compressive
but decreases with passage of time. There is a need of higher strength of concrete cylinder reinforced by non-adhesive wound
research to be carried out to study the effect of seawater hybrid polymer composites. Composites Science and Technology,
62(16), 2131-2141.
curing in concretes. Also seawater changes its normality in 13. M. I. Retno Susilorini. Kristina Retno Dewi W, Tri Wibowo , (2005),
billions of years, so this effect due to change in normality “The performance of early – age concrete with sea water curing”,
should also be checked experimentally. Further, there is Journal of Coastal Department, Vol. 8, No. 2, 85 – 95.
14. Md. Moinual Islam, Md. Saiful Islam, Md. Al-Amin and Md. Mydul
need to check the curing effect of seawater in high strength
Islam (2007) “Suitability of sea water on curing and compressive
concrete. The factors which affect the strength of concrete strength of structural concrete”,Journal of Civil Engineering (IEB), 40
in marine environment are- Corrosion of the metallic bars (I) (2012) 37 – 45.
caused by chloride ions, damage of the cement paste carried 15. Mehta, P. K. (1980) “Performance of Concrete in Marine
out by sulphate attack, and swelling disruption of concrete if Environment”, ACI. Pub. SP.
16. Mori, Y. et. al. (1981). "10 years exposure test of concrete mixed
alkali-reactive aggregates are present in the concrete. with seawater under marine environment", Journal of cement
association, Vo.35, pp.341-344 (in Japanese).
4. FURTHER SCOPE OF WORK: 17. Murdock, L.J and K.M. (1979) concrete materials and practice 5th
(Edn), Edward Amold (publishers) Ltd, London.
(a).Anti-chloride admixtures can be used in concrete 18. Neville, A. M. and Brooks, J. J. (2008) Concrete Technology, 3rd
production to avoid the sea water effect on concrete Edition, India, Dorling Kindersley.
19. Novokshchenov, V. (1995). “Deterioration of reinforced concrete in
the marine industrial environment of the Arabian Gulf- A case
(b).Investigation can be extended for higher strength study”, Materials and Structures, Vol.28, pp392-400.
concrete (M40, M50 etc.). 20. P. Krishnam Raju, V. Ravindra & M. Bhanusingh (2014), “An
Investigation on Strengths of Concrete for Marine Works Using OPC
(c) Outer covering of unplasticized poly vinyl chloride and Sea Water”, SSRG-IJCE, Vol.1.
(upvc) tube may also be used to safe guard concrete column 21. Shetty, M. S. (2002). Concrete Technology, Theory and Practice,
against seawater. Fifths Revised Edition, S. Chand & Company Ltd, New Delhi.

IJERTV4IS030890 www.ijert.org 847

(This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.)