Chapter Two

Local government in Ethiopia:

Adequately Empowered?
 2.1 Definition of Decentralisation
➢ There is no commonly accepted definition of
decentralisation.
➢ Nevertheless, almost all authors who attempted to
define the concept often hold that decentralisation
involves, transferring responsibilities, powers,
functions and resources from a centre to peripheral
governmental institutions.
➢ Yet, decentralisation is not meant to deprive the centre
of all political powers.
➢ There are certain areas of authorities which are
appropriate to the national actors and other areas of
authorities which are appropriate to subnational actors.
➢ “Both national and sub-national actors have a
complementary role to play.
What is the role of d/t level
of government under free
market economic system?
 2.2 Forms of Decentralisation
➢ Decentralisation takes various forms.
➢ The most known ones are
✓ deconcentration (also known as administrative
decentralisation),
✓ devolution (democratic decentralisation)
✓ and delegation.
i. Deconcentration or Administrative Decentralisation
➢ Deconcentration is the transfer of responsibilities,
authorities and resources from a centre to local
units of the centre.
➢ Through deconcentration, powers and responsibilities
are transferred to governmental institutions within the
jurisdictional authority of the central government.
➢ Deconcentration may be either general or functional.
✓ General deconcentration takes place when a
variety of tasks are deconcentrated to local level.
✓ Functional deconcentration on the other hand
comes about when specific tasks are deconcentrated
to field units of the centre.
 ii. Delegation
➢ Delegation refers to a situation where decision-
making and administrative authority and
responsibility for definite tasks are transferred from
a centre to an autonomous sub-national unit.
➢ The central government defines the powers which
are to be transferred.
➢ It also puts conditions under which the delegated
powers are exercised.
➢ Moreover, the centre can take back the powers
which are so transferred through delegation.
➢ Yet, the sub-national government is viewed as an
autonomous entity.
➢ Hence, it is left with a wide range of discretion in
the exercising of the powers and responsibilities
transferred to it.
➢ The relationship of the central government and the
sub-national government which is entrusted with
delegated powers is characterised as a ‘principal-
agent relationship’.
➢ Therefore, the central government bears the
ultimate responsibility for the decisions of the local
unit.
 iii. Devolution or democratic decentralisation
➢ Devolution refers to a situation where a local level
government is constituted legally as a ‘separate governance
body’ and that powers and responsibilities are transferred to
such unit on permanent basis.
➢ This form of decentralisation is referred to as “genuine
decentralisation.”
➢ Devolution implies the autonomy of the lower level unit.
➢ The lower level unit has distinct and legally recognised
geographical boundaries and legal personality.
➢ The powers and responsibilities are transferred to it
through constitutional or other similar legislative
instruments.
➢ Hence, the power so transferred will become an original
power of the sub-national entity.
➢ As a result, the sub-national entities will not be
accountable to the central government for its decisions.
2.3 Why all the fuss about decentralisation?
➢ Many countries are demonstrating unparalleled interest
in a decentralised form of governance.
➢ There are, among others, three key rationales behind
this growing interest in decentralisation.
✓ The first rationale is the desire to achieve
democratisation & enhance public participation.
✓ The second major rationale is the wish to reduce
the prevalence of poverty in these countries.
✓ The third major rationale is that, in ethnically
diverse states, decentralisation is viewed as a means
to prevent or contain ethnic conflicts and to
accommodate diversity within a unified state.
 i. Decentralisation and democracy and public participation
➢ There is a general agreement that there is a direct
relationship between decentralisation and
democratisation.
➢ This is based on a premise that decentralisation creates
multiple electoral positions at multiple levels of
government.
➢ The existence of multiple representative institutions
which results from decentralisation broadens the scope
the peoples representation.
➢ Hence, decentralisation enhances democracy.
➢ Also the extent of popular participation is influenced
by the size of a political unit. The smaller the size of a
political unit, the more favourable it will be for
public participation.
➢ One aspect of this reasoning is that public participation
necessitates a direct or indirect personal contact of the
community with the public institutions.
➢ This becomes possible only when a political unit is
smaller in size.
➢ Decentralisation, brings government closer to the
people and enhances public access to political
institutions.
➢ Such access boosts opportunities for public
participation in political affairs.
➢ An active popular participation in turn results in an
entrenched culture of democratic governance; not only
at local level but also at national level.
ii. Decentralisation, poverty reduction and development

➢ The urgency in many developing states to reduce

poverty and bring development is the second major
reason behind the growing interest in
decentralisation.
➢ By development what is meant here an improved
living standard of the local citizenry which results
from efficient service delivery.
➢ As it was seen above, decentralisation has a direct
bearing on democratisation and the ‘quality of
governance’.
➢ Good governance is considered as a key factor, both in
its own right and as a means to reduce poverty.
➢ Good governance which comes about with a genuine
decentralisation positively encourages “both civil
society and the private sector to invest and commit
themselves to a country and its localities”.
➢ It also encourages foreign direct investment.
International financial and development organisations
will be keen to assist development activities when there
is good governance in a country.
➢ Therefore, decentralisation, by augmenting
democratisation and good governance, paves the way
for poverty reduction and development.
 iii. Decentralisation as a means to prevent ethnic clashes

➢ The other rationale for decentralisation is

empowering ethnic minorities and thereby
preventing or mitigating ethnic conflicts.
➢ Generally accommodating diverse ethnic groups
within a single political unit is raised in connection
with a federal system.
➢ Yet, it is maintained by many scholars that
decentralisation may serve the same purpose.
➢ Thus, in a country with a diverse ethnic makeup,
decentralisation may provide a territorial and
political space to where ethnic minorities can be
accommodated.
➢ This will allow ethnic minorities to exercise self-
governance to maintain their culture and way of
life.
➢ Their participation in the public sphere under
decentralised systems will also have a ‘stabilising’
effect.
➢ It is also argued that decentralised system
establishes a political channel which serves as a
forum for dialogue and reconciliation.
➢ In addition it allows minority ethnic groups to have
a greater control over local issues, and to deal with
them in their own way.
➢ Therefore, in a decentralised system, it is likely that
key concerns of ethnic minorities will be given due
consideration.
➢ Furthermore, decentralised system gives ethnic
minorities the chance to use their language for work
and education in their localities and to develop their
culture.
➢ Through decentralised system of governance a
flexible institutional mechanism which
accommodates diverse concerns of diverse
population within a single state or province can
be created.
 2.4 Risks of decentralisation
➢ Both of those who favour and disfavour decentralisation
admit that decentralisation poses certain risks.
➢ One such concern is that a decentralisation is prone for
capture by corrupt and non-accountable local ‘elites’.
➢ Decentralisation may be used to promote divisive demands.
➢ It is further argued that it may even be used to promote
secessionist agenda.
➢ Rather than stabilising, decentralisation may lead to inter-
ethnic competition and conflict.
➢ Instead of bringing development, decentralisation may
destabilise the macro economy and lead to an inequitable
growth among different localities.
“In view of the salience of ethnicity as a political force,
the decentralization or devolution of political power ...
is a constructive way of dealing with it by giving ethnic
groups local, sub-national spaces to run and control
their own internal affairs. This political structure is
problematic in that it may harden ethnic identity and
antagonisms, aggravate separatist agitations and
engender a new post-conflict cycle of violence, unrest
and fragmentation. Yet, it is a better one than a
centralized political structure, which gives no room for,
indeed tends to stifle the expression of ethnic interests
and demands and is, therefore, prone to even more
violent forms of ethn-opolitical conflict.”
➢ A centralised system, therefore, keeps the ethnic
majorities in power while marginalising the minorities.
➢ When ethnic minorities are kept marginalised, they will
tend to resort to violence to have their interest
recognised.
➢ Often the post-colonial history of African states and
the recent history of the former Soviet Union and the
former Yugoslavia is presented to demonstrate how
excessive repression of ethnic differences through
excessive centralisation may end up in a violent
break up of a country.
➢ A Decentralised system, conversely, believed to
furnish ethnic minorities with a space to take care
of their own affairs make it possible for people of
diverse identity to live together in harmony.
➢ Others in response to the concern the argument
that decentralisation may endanger the
nationwide development of the country by
affecting the macro economy leading to
inequitable growth and service delivery among
localities, argue that local governance is not a
substitute to central governance.
➢ Thus the central government will play a role to
stabilise the macro economy and to maintain
equitable development among the localities.
➢ The most important role that the central government
plays in this regard is supervision.
➢ According to De Visser ; the supervisory role of the
central government has three elements.
➢ That is regulation, monitoring and redistribution.
Using its regulatory power, the central government puts
forth a legal framework that creates a developmental
local government.
➢ By using its monitoring power it checks whether or not
the local government is accomplishing its
developmental mission.
➢ In the event that a failure to discharge this obligation is
detected on the part of the local government, the
central government takes measures which may range
from simple warning to actual intervention.
➢ Furthermore, it counters inequitable growth among the
localities through redistribution.
2.5 Adequately empowered local government
i. Democratic local government
➢ It was shown above that one of the main rationales for
opting for decentralised system of governance is the
need to create democratic system at local level.
➢ A democratic local government exists when it is
participatory, accountable and responsive for local
interests.
➢ In order to create such a democratic local government,
therefore, local government should be constituted by
elected official rather than by centrally appointed
officials.
➢ Holding periodical election of local authorities is a
essential of democratic local governance. However
it is not sufficient.
➢ A democratic system of local governance should
also be participatory.
➢ Thus a system in which, the local people can take
part in the decision making process of local
governance system should be devised.
➢ As De Visser states there should be a mechanism
for “an ongoing process of debate, dialogue and
communication between the local government
authority and the community”.
 ii. Functional competences
➢ In order to claim that a local government is adequately
empowered, functional competences in certain areas of
governance should be devolved to it.
➢ The functional areas should be formally devolved to
the local government.
➢ That is the powers devolved to local level should be
clearly provided in a national or state/regional
constitutions or in other similar pieces of legislation.
➢ This helps to clearly identify the functional
boundaries of the power of local government and to
protect them from undue intrusion by the central
government.
➢ In that particular area, the local government
should be able to exercise all governmental
powers i.e. legislative, executive & administrative
powers.
➢ The functions should be within implementing
capacity of the local unit.
 iii. Self administration of territorially
integrated ethnic minorities
➢ In a country with diverse ethnic groups, genuine
decentralisation should cater for ethnic minorities.
➢ Thus an ethnic group should be allowed to establish
its own government structure in the geographical
area that it inhabits.
➢ Furthermore, these institutions should be provided
with pertinent functional competences.
➢ The functional competences should be pertinent in
particular to allow the ethnic groups to decide
among other things on their cultural matters
including the right to use their language for work
and education.
➢ In order to do so ethnic minorities should be
territorially structured.
➢ The local administration should be established
based on the settlement pattern of the ethnic groups.
➢ Decentralisation may not be of use to
accommodate territorially dispersed ethnic
groups.
 iv. Adequate financial sources
➢ Decentralising powers and functions to local
government should be accompanied by fiscal
decentralisation in a form of devolved taxing and
spending powers.
➢ Hence local government should be given certain taxing
powers which will enable it to collect as much revenue
as is required to discharge its functions.
➢ Moreover, it should be allowed to collect fees in return
for the services that it delivers to the local people.
➢ The reason behind the requirement for the financial
independence of local government, in addition to
enabling it to discharge its functions, is to maintain
the autonomy of the local government and to ensure
its accountability to the local people.
➢ However, in transferring taxing power to local level, the
appropriateness of the tax to local government should be
taken into account.
➢ Anwar Shah provides us with three points which should
be considered in determining the suitability of a tax to sub-
national governments.
➢ The points are
➢ the efficiency of the common market,
➢ national equity and
➢ administrative costs.
➢ He states, the internal common market is efficient if all
resources can freely move within a state.
➢ Some taxes, if assigned at sub national level, may
result in distortion of the national market for
resources which are mobile. How?
➢ Thus such taxes should be maintained by central
government.
➢ Taxes that are redistributive in nature, if assigned at
local level, may result in inequity.
➢ That is because those areas with good tax bases keep
developing while those with poor tax bases remain
destitute.
➢ He further said assigning certain type of taxes at
local level may result in increased cost of collection.
➢ Thus in assigning a tax at sub national level, the cost of
collection should also be considered.
 v. Supervision
➢ The central government should exercise supervisory
power over local government.
Supervision has three elements.
➢ Firstly, the central government should set up a legislative
framework within which local government can exercise its
power.
➢ Central government should also continuously assess the
effective functioning of local government.
➢ If LG experiencing malfunctioning, the central government
should be able to take other measures such as directly
exercising the functions of the local government.
➢ So long as local government is effective, however, the central
government should not meddle itself in local matters.
Decentralisation and LG in
the Amhara, Oromia,
Tigray and SNNRP
Regional States
 The Amhara and Tigray National Regional States
Structural Organisation of the Regional States
➢ The revised constitutions of the Amhara and the
Tigray regional states provide that the
administrations of the regional states are
structured at regional, woreda and kebele level.
 The State/Regional Administration
➢ The state administration is the highest political authority in the
two regions.
It has three principal organs.
➢ These are a
✓ Regional/ State Council (RC),
✓ a Regional Administrative Council (RAC) and
✓ a judicial body.
➢ The RC is the legislative organ of the state governments.
It comprises of elected representatives of the peoples of the
two regions.
➢ The RAC is an executive organ of the state government. It
consists of the regional chief administrator, his deputy and
heads of other executive bureaus.
➢ The state administration also has a judicial organ.
➢ The state governments have a number of powers and functions
which are devolved to them by the federal Constitution.
 LG in Tigray and Amhara Regions
➢ As was indicated earlier, below the regional
administration, woreda and kebele administrations
are established in the two regions.
➢ Yet woreda is seen as the important local
government unit while a kebele is simply an
implementing agent of the woreda.
➢ A woreda is established on a geographical area in
which 100,000 more people reside.
➢ These urban centers, as it will be discussed in some
length below, have their own councils.
➢ In addition, the ethnic minorities which reside in the
Amhara region are entitled to their own councils.
➢ Thus, the regional government has established ethnic
based local units to the Oromo, Awi and Himra ethnic
groups which are regarded as indigenous ehtnic groups
of the Amhara regional state.
➢ Those in the Tigray region, however, are only entitled
to be represented in the regional and local
governments.
 Organs of woreda administration
➢ As briefly indicated above, in the two regional
states woreda administration has been established.
➢ The Woreda Administration (WA) in both the
regions has three principal organs.
✓ These are the Woreda Council (WC),
✓ the Woreda Administrative Council (WAC)
✓ and the Woreda Court with first instance
jurisdiction.
➢ The Woreda Court, even thought, it functions at
woreda level, it is not part of the woreda
administration.
 Woreda council
➢ WC is the highest political organ woreda level in
both Amhara and Tigray regions.
➢ Members of the WC in both regions are directly
elected by the residents of a woreda.
➢ Members of a WC serve for a five year term.
➢ Members of the WC are accountable to the people
who elected them.
➢ A WC has speaker and deputy speaker who
convene and preside over its proceedings.
➢ A WC convenes once in every three months.
➢ However, the speaker may call an extra-ordinary
session anytime when the WC is not due to
undertake its regular meeting.
➢ Under the Amhara regional state constitution, the
speaker has an obligation to call an extra ordinary
meeting if such meeting is demanded either by the
woreda chief administrator (CA) or by more than
half of the members of the WC.
➢ However, in Tigray region only the members of
the WC can request an extra-ordinary session.
 Powers and functions of the woreda council
➢ The constitutions of the two states provide that a
woreda has the authority to plan and implement
its own economic development & social services
programs.
➢ It also has the duty to implement the policies and
laws of the federal and state governments.
➢ Matters of social services and economic
development which are within the competences of
woredas, however, are not clearly defined in the
regional constitutions.
➢ A WC is a legislative branch of the WA.
➢ As part of its legislative power, a WC has the authority
to issue directives to ensure peace and security in the
woreda.
➢ It is also authorised to approve the budget of the
woreda.
➢ Upon recommendation by the WAC, it has the
power to approve the sources of revenue which the
WA can make use of from those sources which are
not allocated and administered by the regional
government.
➢ It can also impose other service charges.
➢ In addition it has the power to examine and approve
economic development, social service and
administrative working plans of the woreda which are
prepared by the WAC.
 The Woreda executive council
➢ A woreda executive council (WEC) is an executive body in a
woreda.
➢ It comprises of the Chife Administrator (CA), his deputy and
heads of the principal sectoral offices in the woreda.
➢ The CA is elected by the WC from among its members upon
the nomination by the political party with the majority of seats
in the WC. ????
➢ The deputy chief administrator (DCA) and the other members of
the WAC are nominated by the CA and appointed by the WC.
➢ Thus, the WAC is composed of both elected and appointed
officials.
➢ The WAC is chaired and represented by the CA. Under the
Amhara Regional Constitution; the WAC is accountable to the
WC and the state administration. ?????
➢ However WACs which are found in Nationality Areas are not
accountable to the regional administration. Under the Tigray State
Constitution WAC is accountable to the WC and to the CA.
 The Powers and Functions of WEC
➢ The WAC/WEC has the power and duty to enforce the
policy, legislation, directives, plans and programs of
the federal and the regional governments.
➢ It also has the power to coordinate and supervise the
different executive offices in of the woreda.
➢ The WEC is responsible for preparing the annual
budget and submitting it for approval to the WC.
➢ Furthermore, it is responsible for the collection of rural
land use fees, agricultural income taxes and other
revenues.
➢ It is also required to recommend additional sources
of revenue other than those which are administered by
the state governments and seeks the approval of the
WC.
➢ The WEC has the responsibility to prepare social services,
economic development and administrative plans to WC.
➢ Upon approval by the WC, it implements the plan. It
maintains peace and security in the woreda.
➢ To that effect, it has the power to direct and supervise
security and police organs in the woreda.
➢ It is also part of the resposiblities of a WEC to ensure the
participation of the people in developmental activities.
➢ It has also a duty to protect natural resources and
heritages in a woreda.
➢ In addition to the aforementioned duties and powers, the
WEC may be given additional responsibilities by the regional
governments and the WC.
 Woreda chief administrator
➢ The CA is the head of the WEC. As the head of WEC
the CA has special responsibility to coordinate and
supervise the implementation of the social services and
economic development programs of the woreda.
➢ It is also the responsibility the CA to ensure the
implementation of the policies, legislation &
directives of the national & the regional
governments.
➢ Furthermore, he/she is charged with coordinating of the
kebeles in the woreda and supervising of the woreda
police forces are parts of the responsibilities of the CA.
➢ Additionally, the CA discharges other responsibilities
that may be given to him/her by the President of the
regional states and by the WC as well.
➢ As briefly stated above, in the Amhara regional state, there are
three indigenous ethnic minorities which are found concentrated
in certain geographical areas within the region.
➢ The Regional Constitution recognises the right to self-
determination and self-government of these ethnic minorities.
➢ In effect, the Constitution designates a geographical area which is
inhabited by an ethnic minority as “Nationality Zone”.
➢ It also requires the establishment of government institution in
these areas.
➢ Accordingly, the three ethnic minorities in the region i.e. the
Himra, Awi and Oromo ethnic minorities have their own
nationality zones.
➢ Nationality zone has three principal organs. The organs are
legislative council called nationality council (NC) and an
executive council known as nationality executive council (NEC).
 i. Nationality Council
➢ A NC is comprised of elected members of the WCs
of the woredas which are found within the NAs.
➢ The members of the WC within the nationality zone
elect from among themselves those who will be the
members of the NC.
➢ In addition, those who are elected from a nationality
zones to be members of the regional council
automatically become the members of the NC.
➢ The Members of the NC serve for a term of five
years.
 Power and Functions of the NC
➢ The NC, next to the House of People’s Representatives
and the Regional Council, is viewed as the highest
political organ of the ethnic group concerned.
➢ Under the Amhara Regional Constitution, the NC has
certain powers and functions.
➢ It has the power to determine the working language of
the organs of the Nationality Administration.
➢ It has the responsibility to protect the rights of the
members of the ethnic group concerned to speak
and write in their language.
➢ In addition it has the duty to protect the rights of the
members of the ethnic minority to preserve, develop
and promote their language and history.
➢ Furthermore, the NC has the power to issue laws
for the nationality zones. Yet, the laws which are
issued by the NC have to be in conformity with the
laws enacted by the state and federal government.
➢ The NC has the power to approve the budget of the
nationality zones.
➢ However, the nationality zone is almost totally
dependent on the intergovernmental grants from the
state government.
➢ Therefore, in adopting the budget NA, the NC has
to take into account what is allocated to the NA by
the regional government.
 Nationality zone executive council
➢ A nationality zone executive council is comprised of a
chief administrator (CA), a his deputy, and heads of
other executive organs of the nationality zone.
➢ The executive council has parliamentarian form.
➢ Hence, the CA is elected from among the members of
the NC following a proposal by a political party which
has the majority of the seats in the NC.
➢ The other members of the administration are
nominated by the CA and appointed upon approval
by the NC.
➢ The NAC is accountable to the NC and the CA of
the natioanltiy zone.
➢ In addition it is also accountable to the Regional
Council and the President of the regional state.
 Powers and Functions of the NAC
➢ As the executive body, it has the duty to ensure the
implementation of the laws and decisions of the
federal, the regional governments as well as the
legislative council of the nationality zone.
➢ Furthermore, it has the power to formulate the social,
economic and developmental policies and strategies of
the nationality administration.
➢ In addition, it is responsible for the preparation and
implementation of the budget of the Nationality
Administration.
➢ However, matters of social services and economic
development which are within the competences of a
nationality zone are not clearly defines in the regional
Constitution.
 Nationality Chief Administrator
➢ The CA is the head of the executive council and the
representative of the nationality zone.
➢ As head of the executive council, the CA has
special responsibility to coordinate and supervise
the implementation of the social and economic
programs of the nationality zone.
➢ He/she also responsible for the policies, legislation
and directives of the national and the regional
governments.
➢ In addition he discharges other responsibilities that
may be given to him by the President of the
regional state and by the NC.
 Kebele administration
➢ Kebele administration is the lowest administrative
unit the Amhara and Tigray regional states.
➢ A kebele is a subdivision of a woreda in which
around approximately 10,000 people reside.
➢ Kebele administration comprises kebele council,
kebele administrative council and social court.
➢ The kebele council is composed of elected
reoresentatives.
➢ According to the constitutions of the two regions, a
kebele administration has a sole authority on the
social services and economic development of the
kebele.
➢ However, matters of social services and economic
development which are within the competences of the
kebele are not clearly provided in the state
constitutions of the two regions.
➢ The kebele administrative council is constituted by the
chief administrator, who is elected by the kebele
council from among its members, and other members.
➢ The kebele administrative council is the lowest
executive body in the hierarchy of the regional
administration.
➢ Albeit at lower level, KAC has similar tasks with the
WAC.
 Local Governance in the Oromia Regional State
Structural Organisation of the Regional State’s Government
➢ Government in the Oromia regional state is organised at
regional, zonal, woreda and kebele level.
➢ As the Tigray and Amhara regions, the Oromia regional
administration has a Regional Council, a Regional
Administrative Council and a judicial body.
➢ The organisation, powers and functions of these organs is
similar with their counterpart in the Amhara and Tigray
regions.
➢ The region is divided into 14 zones and 199 woredas.
➢ Each woreda is also divided into a number of kebeles.
➢ As shall be shown below, the zone administration is the
representative of the regional government at zone level.
➢ Therefore the regional state can be said to have only two-
tiered local governance system.
 Zone administration
➢ Zone administration (ZA) is an executive body which
is organised below the regional administration at zonal
level.
➢ It holds a number of woredas in it. ZA does not have
elected council.
➢ It is not also a distinct level of government as the
woredas.
➢ Therefore the power transfer from the regional
government to the ZA can be said to have taken the
form deconcentration rather than devolution.
➢ The ZA is run by a CA and his deputy. The CA is
nominated by the regional president and appointed
by the regional council.
➢ The CA is also the representative of the regional
President at zone level and is accountable to him.
➢ Zone administration has the responsibility to
coordinate, support and follow up the effective
functioning of the woredas, other departments and
institutions in the zone.
➢ It is also the duty of the zone administration to
coordinate those institutions which provide service in
more than one woreda.
➢ In addition, it has the responsibility to ensure the
implementation of polices, legislation and decisions of
the regional government in the woredas in the zone.
 Woreda and kebele in Oromia region
➢ The Woreda Administration in the Oromia regional
state has a WC and a WAC.
➢ Under the Regional Constitution of Oromia, a WC,
a WAC and a kebele administration have similar
organisation, functions and powers with their
counterparts in the Amhara and Tigray regional
states.
➢ This renders the detailed discussion of woreda and
kebele administration in the Oromia region
superfluous.
 Local Governance in the SNNPR
Structure of the government
➢ The state government is organised at region, zones,
special woredas, woredas, and kebels levels.
➢ The structural organisation, the powers and
functions of the regional government is identical
with its counterpart in the regions discussed above.
➢ The region has 9 zones, 5 special woredas, 72
woredas and each woreda and special woreda is
divided into a number of kebels.
 Nationality zone and special Woreda
➢ The SNNPR constitution provides that the nations
and nationalities in the region will have their own
zonal or special woreda administration.
➢ The ethnic groups with a large population settling
on a large geographical area are allowed to have a
zonal administration while those with smaller
population size are entitled to special woreda.
➢ Thus, ethnic groups with large population size such
as Sidama, Gurage, Hadiya, Gedeo and the like
have their own nationality zones.
➢ Ethnic groups with smaller population size such as Burji,
Amaro, Dirashe, Konso and Yem have special woredas.
➢ The zones or the special woredas are delimited based on the
settlement pattern, language, identities and consent of the
people.
➢ Nationality zone or special woreda is second in the
administrative hierarchy of the region.
➢ The regional constitution provides that a zone and a
special woreda have three principal organs.
➢ These are:
✓ a zonal or special woreda council (Z/SWC),
✓ a zonal or special woreda administrative council
(Z/SWAC)
✓ and a judiciary.
Zonal or Special Woreda Council (Z/SWC)
➢ The Z/SWC is the highest political organ at zone or
special woreda level.
➢ It is constituted by representatives who are elected
to Z/SWC.
➢ In addition those who are elected to State Council
from a zone or SW are members of the Z/SWC.
 Power and Functions of Z/SWC
➢ The Constitution of the region provides Z/SWC shall exercise
the highest political authority next to the House of Peoples
Representatives and the State Council in a zone.
➢ Accordingly, the Z/SWC has the power to determine the
working language of the zone or the special woreda.
➢ It has a duty to protect the rights of the members of the nation
or nationality concerned to write, speak and to develop their
language.
➢ The Z/SWC has a complete power to legislate on matters
which are not covered by state laws and to publish its
legislation in the Debub Negarit Gazette.
➢ However such legislation may not be inconsistent with the
state and federal laws.
➢ The Z/SWC has the authority to approve its own budget
based on what is allocated to it by the State Council.
Zonal or Special woreda administrative council
➢ Z/SWAC is the executive body of the zonal or
special woreda administration.
➢ It is constituted by a CA, a DCA and heads of other
executive organs.
 Powers and functions of the Z/SWAC
➢ Z/SWAC, as the executive organ Z/SWA, is responsible
for ensuring the implementation and observance of the
state and federal laws and the decisions of Z/SWC.
➢ In addition it has the responsibility to prepare the
budget, to formulate the policies and strategies for
the zone or the special woreda consistent with the
state policies and strategies and implements them
upon approval by the Z/SWC.
➢ It also performs other duties as it may be entrusted to it
by the Z/SWC and Executive Council of the regional
government. The Z/SWAC is chaired, coordinated and
represented by the CA.
➢ The CA, as the head of the Z/SWAC has the power to
direct and control the executive organs and other “sub-
ordinate” organs and security and police forces.
 The woreda and kebele administration in SNNPR
➢ The WA stands next to zonal administration in the
hierarchy of the regional administration.
➢ It comprises a WC, a WAC and Courts.
➢ The regional constitution provides that the WA has
the definitive authority to prepare determine and
implement plans of social services and economic
development.
➢ The structural organisation, powers and functions of
both the woreda administration and kebele
administration are identical to their counterparts in
the regions discussed above.
 Urban administrations
➢ The Amhara State Constitution provides, as was
mentioned earlier, that cities and urban centres may
have their own council.
➢ However it does not clearly regulate the structural
organisation, powers and functions of the urban
centres.
➢ The constitutions of the other three regional states
speak of urban administrations only indirectly.
➢ However each of the four regions has recently
issued a proclamation in which they defined the
structure, powers, functions and duties of urban
centres.
➢ They have adopted a Council-Mayor system to the
urban centres in the regions.
➢ Thus each urban administration in the regions has a
Council, a Mayor’s Committee which is an
executive body and a Mayor.
➢ Furthermore, the urban centres have professional
city managers who are elected based on their
merits.
➢ Yet, in the states under consideration, with the
exception of some towns and cities, the great
majority of urban and semi-urban centres do not
have their own elected councils.
➢ In many instances these urban centres are put under
the supervision of woreda administration.
➢ Urban service and development are thereby
demoted to “secondary level”
➢ In practice, however, the urban centres play an
important role in the area of education, health
trade & industry as agents of the regional states.
➢ The urban centres also discharge function such as
waste collection, sewerage, street lightning and the
like.
 Local government finance in the four regional states
➢ As was briefly alluded to in the previous sections, woreda
administrations in all the four regional states have the power
to collect certain taxes.
➢ A woreda administration collects rural land use fees and
agricultural income taxes.
➢ It also imposes and collects service charges.
➢ The rate of the rural land use fees and agricultural
income taxes is determined by the regional government.
➢ Furthermore, the woreda administration has the power to
make use of any revenue source within the woreda which is
not administered by the regional governments.
➢ That means, from the sources of revenue which the federal
Constitutions has allocated to the states, if there is any source
of revenue which is not used by the states, the woredas can
make use of it.
➢ Nevertheless, woredas are not at liberty to spend the
revenue they collect.
➢ The revenue is transferred to the treasury of the state
governments.
➢ As was mentioned above, the state constitutions of the
four regions provide that from the sources of revenue
which are constitutionally assigned to the states,
woredas can make use of the revenue sources that are
not administered by the regional governments.
➢ However, the states are administering and making use
of all the sources of revenue under their jurisdiction.
➢ This means, the woredas are not given any significant
internal sources of revenue
 Intergovernmental grants
➢ The federal government has a scheme of
intergovernmental revenue transfer which is known
as a “block grants”.
➢ Through this scheme it transfers a considerable
amount of money to the regional states.
➢ The grant is transferred according to a
prearranged formula and it has no or minimum
conditions attached to it.
➢ However woredas and zones do not receive
intergovernmental grants directly from the federal
government. Instead, revenues are transferred to
them by the regional governments.
➢ The intergovernmental grant that woredas and
zones obtain from the regional governments also
takes the form of a “block grant”.
➢ Therefore they get the grants from the regional
government without conditions attached.
➢ The variables which are used to determine the grant
are: population size (55 %), level of poverty (10%),
expenditure needs (20%), revenue raising capacity
and execution efficiency (15%).
➢ Woredas and zones have full liberty as to how to
spend the revenue which they receive in form of
block grants.
 Borrowing
➢ The FDRE Constitution provides that regional
states may borrow money from internal sources.
➢ They are authorised to borrow money under terms
and conditions that the federal government
determines by law.
➢ However there is nothing provided either in the
federal or Constitutions regarding whether local
government can borrow money.
 Administrative power
➢ As was seen above, woreda administration is
authorised to run its own administration.
➢ Thus it has the power to hire and fire personnel.
➢ A shortage of skilled man power at woreda level is
said to be one of the most critical problems of the
local governance system in the four regional states.
➢ With a view to address this problem skilled man-
power is transferred from regions and zones at
woreda level in the four regional states.
 Supervision
➢ There are provisions in the federal and the states
constitutions which give some indication about the
general regulatory roles of the federal and the state
governments.
➢ The FDRE Constitution provides that the federal
government has the power to establish and implement
national standards and basic policy criteria in certain
areas.
➢ For instance, it sets standards in the area of public
health, education, science and technology as well as for
the protection and preservation of cultural and
historical legacies.
➢ The Constitution also provides that states will issue
laws regarding state civil servants and their
working conditions which are approximate to the
national standards.
➢ The regional constitutions, similarly, provide that the
NC (in Amhara) and Z/SWC (SNNPR) and WC should
exercise their legislative power in line with federal and
state laws.
➢ Such standards and rules which are set by the national
and state laws, to the extent they are relevant to local
government can be construed as acts of regulation
within the meaning of supervision
➢ Nonetheless, the legislative power of the states does
not seem to be limited to regulating the woreda, the
zone and the nationality administrations’ legislative
powers.
➢ As was discussed in the preceding chapter, the federal
Constitution has divided powers and functions between
the federal and the state governments.
➢ The Constitution left it for the states to decide, from
the powers allocated to them, which powers and
functions to devolve to local governments; provided
that the powers and function devolved to local level are
adequate.
➢ As mentioned earlier, the state constitutions afford WC,
NC and Z/SWC legislative powers which are to be
exercised in line with state and federal laws.
Supposedly, the legislative power of the states on
woredas, zones and nationality area should have
certain limits.
➢ However, firstly, as will be argued in the next chapter,
there is no clear distinction between the states and local
government matters.
➢ Secondly whatever functional competences local
government may have, they lack exclusivity.
➢ That is, the extent to which the states can exercise
legislative powers on local government matters, if there
any such matter, is not clear.
➢ What is clear is that the local government cannot enact
contrary to the proclamations enacted by the states.
➢ In contrast, the constitutions do not preclude the states
from legislating on local matters. Given the limitless
legislative power of the states on the state matters, the
laws enacted by WC, NC and Z/SWC will stay in force
only temporarily.
➢ If the state governments issue proclamations that contradict
the legislation of the NC or the Z/SWC, the legislation of the
NC and Z/SWC will automatically lose effect.
➢ Under the state constitutions there is no clearly stipulated
procedure according to which the state governments can
assess local government.
➢ In addition there is no clear procedure of intervention by
states when a local administration fails to discharge its
responsibilities.
➢ However, zones and nationality administrations have the
responsibility of coordinating the works of woredas within
them.
➢ Furthermore, in practice, the Federal Ministry of Capacity
Building and state capacity building offices assess the
performance of the woredas.
➢ They also extend assistance to the woredas, for instance,
through skilled staff decentralisation.
End of Chapter Two