MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

MODULE 1
LESSON 1: NATURE, DEFINITIONS AND COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION

NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
Every organization or business concern has specified objectives. For achieving these objectives there is
a need for co-ordination among the employees who are engaged in the different activities of the concern. This
co-ordination is possible only through communication which provides for exchange of information, ideas, facts,
and opinions.
DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

A. Etymological Definition
1. Communication, which came from the Latin word “comunicare”, meaning, to share or to make
common is the exchange of ideas from one person to another.
2. Communication is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions, or emotions by two or more persons –
Newman and Summer
3. Communication is a message that is given to someone such as letter, telephone call, etc.
4. Communication is a way of sending information to people by using technology.

B. Traditional Definitions
1. Traditional communication involves using basic local resources, such as poems, storytelling,
singing, dancing and games, to convey realistic messages that citizens can relate to.
2. Traditional communication serves the purpose of delivering a concise and effective message to a
small group of people, usually those people who live in towns and small communities.
3. Traditional communication is generally more simplistic and basic than alternative modern forms of
communication.
4. Traditional communication serves the primary purpose of relating to individuals through emotional
appeal by basing events on situations encountered in the daily lives of people living in the vicinity.
5. Traditional communication conveys simple messages and beliefs to people on a basic level, usually
one that requires little, if any, formal education to understand.

C. Modern Definition
1. The exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, signals, writing, or behavior.
2. It is also the art and technique of using words effectively to impart information or ideas.
3. The field of study concerned with the transmission of information by various means,
such as print or broadcasting.
4. A system, such as mail, telephone, or television, for sending and receiving messages.
5. Anyof various professions involved with the transmission of information, such as
advertising, broadcasting, or journalism.\

COMPONENTS OF COMMUNICATION
Listed below are the components to consider in order for you to communicate with purpose:
1. Have an objective.
Just like what Anne did, you should identify the purpose why you will communicate with the person. Is
it to inform, entertain, or persuade? What are your expectations from the person/audience?
2. Consider your audience.
After identifying her purpose, Anne thought of the best way to communicate the message.
A one-on-one meeting with Genina supported by binders of information; a luncheon meeting with
Geannie supported by the document of counter offers; and an entertaining speech for Zeke to celebrate his
promotion.
3. Be Clear.
Anne kept her meetings with Genina and Geannie short and direct. She made sure that there is no
irrelevant information, no unfamiliar jargons, and no ambiguous terminologies. For the announcement of Zeke’s
promotion, Anne made the speech short, light, and entertaining.
4. Check for understanding.
Geannie were two-way. She listened to their reactions and answered their clarifications. She even
provided them support documents so that they can have reference if ever there are things that were not clear.
Knowing the purpose of your communication is the key to a successful communication process. Keep
on practicing your skills in identifying purpose and planning how to communicate messages.
Understanding the Audience
As the sender of the message you should realize that the person or audience you communicating with
has a purpose too and you should be able to identify that purpose. It is therefore expected that you consider their
motivations to be able to fit the message to their point of view.

Demographic
Ethnicity Race What is group’s common heritage and cultural
traditions?

Race What is their common ancestry? What are their

common physical characteristics?

Religion What are the religious beliefs of your audience?

What are the traditions of these beliefs?

Sex and Gender Is there a majority of men in your audience or do

women form the majority?
Is the majority of your audience masculine,
feminine, or androgynous?

Marital Status Are most of the audience married, single, or

separated

Age Are your audience children, teenagers, young adults,

adults, middle-aged
Group Affiliation What are the common interests of your audience?
Do they all belong to a specific group?

Occupation/socio Does your audience belong to a particular

economic status occupational group?

Regions From what region is your audience?

Psychographics
Motivation Is the attendance of your audience by choice or were
they required?

Values What are the cultural influences and life experiences

of your audience?
What is important for your audience?

Level of Will your audience oppose you, suppose you, or

agreement/attitude remain neutral?

Beliefs What does your audience accept as correct, true, and

valid?
 Situational information
Environmental factors
Nature of event What is the event all about?

Location Where will the event take place?

Size of audience How many people are expected to attend the event?

Physical What is the physical design of the venue? What part

arrangement of the room will the stage be? Where would the
technical people be?

Technology What technology is available at the venue? Do you

need to bring your own equipment?

Temporal factors

Time of day Will the event happen in the morning, midday, or

evening?

Speaking order How many speakers will there be? What is the
order of presentation of the speakers?

Length of speech How much time was allotted for your part?

MODULE 1
LESSON 2: THE PROCESS AND ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION

Different Types of Communication and Its Processes

Types of Communication
1. Intrapersonal Communication

➢ Is the type of communication we use when we talk to or communicate with ourselves.

✓ Preparing ourselves before facing an audience

✓ Speaking loudly to remind ourselves of something, repeat what we just heard, or to console
ourselves
✓ Deciding on something

2. Interpersonal Communication

➢ Is the type of communication we do when we talk with another person or a group of people.
➢ It involves both verbal and non-verbal communication channels
Forms of Interpersonal Communication
• Dyadic Communication occurs when two people communicate face to face.
• Small Group Communication occurs when three or more individuals, connected with mutual
objectives, purpose, or identity, are communicating.
• Public Communication is the type of communication that occurs when a person delivers a speech in a
public setting.
Three reasons why a speaker would deliver a speech in public:
✓ To entertain
✓ To inform
✓ To persuade
 3. Mass Communication

Mass Communication is also called the “one is to many” type of communication. It uses the media
as its medium to communicate to mass audience. Mediums for mass communication can be classified
into two: old media and new media.

✓ Old Media: books, newspapers, magazines and other forms of printed media, radio,
television, and film.
✓ New Media: computer and its technologies.

A. VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Classification of Verbal Communication
➢ Verbal communication includes oral (spoken) and written communication.

➢ Oral communication consists of all spoken exchanges.

➢ Written communications are printed messages.

Types of Verbal Communication

1. Emotive communication
✓ It is the deliberate choice of words to elicit emotion in others.

2. Evasive communication
✓ It is a language that is used to avoid a situation.

3. Jargon communication
✓ It is a language used by personnel in a particular field.

4. Argot communication
✓ It is a language used by various groups.

5. Abstract communication
✓ It is a language used to discuss ideas.

6. Overly abstract communication

✓ It leaves too much room for interpretation and hide details from others.

B. NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION
It is the second type or kind of communication.
➢ Non-verbal communication- refers to a wide array of behaviours by which we communicate message
without the use of the voice. – McDermott (2008).

➢ Non-verbal communication is when information is transferred from sender to receiver without the use
of words – Lord, et al. (2012)

FIVE NON-VERBAL BEHAVIORS/ ELEMENTS OF NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

1. Vocalics/Paralanguage - refers to the use of volume, tone pitch, and rate of speaking to give additional
meaning or emphasis to what is spoken.

2. Proxemics - refers to the use of space to convey an idea or image. The use of space or proximity is a
significant indicator of how close or intimate we feel toward people.

3. Chronemics - is an attitude of time which disclose information with others about status and relationship
with others.
 4. Artifacts – refer to the things a person owns, use, wear, and even discard convey message about such
person.

5. Movement – Is your posture, gesture, facial expression, body language and everything you do are
perhaps the most obvious in communicating messages.

MODULE 1
LESSON 3: PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION

Principles of Communication
Herbert Hildebrandt and Jane Thomas, authors of EFFECTIVE BUSINESS Communication gave seven C’s
of Communication principles.
• Completeness
• Conciseness
• Consideration
• Concreteness
• Clarity
• Correctness
• Courtesy

1. Completeness
❖ Your message business is “complete” when it contains all facts the reader or listener needs for
the reaction you desire.
❖ Gives full information
As you strive for completeness, keep the following guidelines in mind:
✓ Answers all questions asked
✓ Give something extra, when desirable
✓ Check for the five W’s and any other essentials: Who, What, Where, When, and How
Who: Know your targeted audiences
What: What are your objectives and key points
Where: Where to put your ideas (Flow)
When: When you should deliver the information
How: How to achieve your objective
2. Conciseness

❖ Short, simple, straight forward

❖ A concise message saves time and expense for both sender and receiver.
To achieve conciseness, try to observe the following suggestions:
✓ Eliminate wordy expressions.
✓ Include only relevant statements.
✓ Avoid unnecessary repetition.

3. Consideration

❖ Consideration means that you prepare every message with the recipient in mind and try to put yourself
in his/her place.
❖ Also called “you-attitude” empathy, the human touch, and understanding of human nature.
In four specific ways you can indicate you are considerate:
✓ Focus on “you” instead of “I” and “we.”
✓ Show reader benefit or interest in reader perspective.
✓ Emphasize positive, pleasant facts.
✓ Apply integrity and ethic
 4. Concreteness
❖ Communicating concretely means being specific, definite, and vivid rather than vague and general.

The following guidelines should help you compose concrete, convincing messages:
✓ Use specific facts and figures.
✓ Put action in your words.
✓ Choose vivid, image-building words.

5. Clarity

❖ Clarity means getting your message across so the receiver will understand what you are trying to
convey.
❖ You want that person to interpret your words with the same meaning you have in mind.
Here are some specific ways to help make your message clear:
✓ Choose short, familiar, conversational words.
✓ Construct effective sentences and paragraphs.
✓ Achieve appropriate readability (and listen-ability).
✓ Include examples, illustrations, and other visual aids.

6. Correctness
❖ The correctness principle comprises more that proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
The term correctness, as applied to a business message, means the writer should:

✓ Use the right level of language.

✓ Include only accurate facts, words, and figures.
✓ Maintain acceptable writing mechanics.
✓ Choose non-discriminatory expressions.

7. Courtesy

❖ Courteous messages help to strengthen present business friendships, as well as make new friends.
❖ Courtesy stems from sincere you-attitude.

To be courteous, considerate communicators should follow these suggestions regarding tone of the
communications:

✓ Be sincerely tactful, thoughtful, and appreciative.

✓ Omit expressions that irritate, hurt, or belittle.
✓ Grant and apologize good-naturedly.

The goal of communication between sender and a receiver is understanding of the message being sent.
Anything that interferes with this can be referred to as “noise”. Communication noise can influence our
interpretation of messages.

MODULE 1
LESSON 4: ETHICS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication Ethics
Ethics
❖ Defined philosophically, would mean the right behavior that a person demonstrates in a given situation
❖ In the work place environment, ethics would refer to proper decorum and corporate social responsibility.
❖ This decorum and social responsibility is not limited to how they behave when they interact with people
but also includes how they communicate with others.
❖ Defined philosophically, would mean the right behavior that a person demonstrates in a given situation
 ❖ In the work place environment, ethics would refer to proper decorum and corporate social responsibility.
❖ This decorum and social responsibility is not limited to how they behave when they interact with people
but also includes how they communicate with others.
Communication Ethics
❖ Refers to how a person’s values influence the conduct of his interaction with another person or a group
of people. Maintaining patience in weighing speaking and listening during an interaction; Evaluating
how much criticism or praise to give a person; and applying appropriate emotional appeal are important
things to consider.
❖ When communication is used to undermine a person or cause social immorality, you are committing an
unethical communication.
❖ Committing unethical communication in the workplace would be detrimental not only to your career
goals but also to your personal life.

10 BASICS OF ETHICAL COMMUNICATION

The following are the 10 Basics of Ethical Communication
Jone Johnson Lewis (2015) list ten (10) basic ethics in communication:
1. Seek to “elicit the best” in communications and interactions with other group members.
2. Listen when others speak.
3. Speak non-judgmentally.
4. Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own thoughts, needs, and feelings.
5. Seek to understand others (rather than to be “right” or “more ethical than thou”).
6. Avoid speaking for others.
7. Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are comfortable sharing.
8. Respect the personal boundaries of others.
9. Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
10. Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have relatively equal “air time” if they want
it.

KEY PRINCIPLES OF ETHICAL COMMUNICATION

❖ Andrew Button (2017) said that communication is ethical when it is upfront, honest, and cooperative.
Communication that is intended to conceal the truth or harm another person cannot be described as
ethical.
❖ While ethics are not the same as morals, there is a strong relationship between the two: Morals are ideas
of what is right or wrong, while ethics are behavioral principles influenced by moral beliefs.
❖ The ethics of communication are therefore strongly influenced by moral principles.

Key Principles of Ethical Communication

1. Honesty
2. Openness to Others Views
3. Commitment
4. Consensus Building
 MODULE 2: MODELS & THEORIES and MODES OF COMMUNICATION

MODULE 2
LESSON 1: MODELS AND THEORIES OF COMMUNICATION

Learning Outcomes:

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

1. Identify the various communication models and how they help in expressing one’s communicative intent;
2. Distinguish the differences between and among the communication models; and
3. Use these communication models appropriately depending on the context of communication situation.

Introduction

Many suggest that there is no such thing as a successful body of communication theory, but that those who
study communication have been relatively more successful in generating models of communication. So before
we jump into discussing communication theories, let’s examine the fundamental models of communication.

According to the seminal 1952 article by Karl Deutsch (Links to an external site.), On Communication Models
in the Social Sciences, a model is "a structure of symbols and operating rules which is supposed to match a set
of relevant points in an existing structure or process."(Public Opin Q (1952) 16 (3): 356-380) In other words, it
is a simplified representation or template of a process that can be used to help understand the nature of
communication in a social setting. Such models are not necessarily one-to-one maps of the real world, but they
are successful only insofar as they accurately represent the most important elements of the real world, and the
dynamics of their relationship to one another.

Deutsch suggests that a model should provide four functions:

1. It should organize a complex system (while being as general as possible).
2. It should provide a heuristic function (enable a person to discover or learn something for themselves).
3. It should be as original as possible; they should not be obvious enough that they fail to shed light on the
existing system.
4. It should also provide some form of measurement of the system that will work analogously within the model
and within the actual system being observed.

Models are tools of inquiry in a way that theories may not be. By representing the system being
observed, they provide a way of working through the problems of a "real world" system in a more abstract way.
As such, they lend themselves to the eventual construction of theory, though it may be that theory of the sort
found in the natural sciences is something that cannot be achieved in the social sciences. Unfortunately, while
models provide the "what" and the "how, " they are not as suited to explaining "why, " and therefore are rarely
as satisfying as strong theory. The communication models help us to build theories of communication. As you
read in this lecture, because there are so many different theories in communication, scholars have constructed
different ways of categorizing them to aid in understanding the theories better. There are three main Models
used in the study of communication.

3 MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

Communication is the process of creating, interpreting, and negotiating meaning.

Communication can be verbal, nonverbal, or textual. It can be aural, visual, or even physical. Although
communication occurs in a variety of different ways, it is always a learned behaviour. While most human
beings are born with the physical abilities to speak, to hear, to see, and so on, people must learn to communicate
through codes, symbols, and systems of language. In this way, communication is a collective practice in which
people use symbols to generate and interpret meaning.

In order to explain the social process of communication, scholars have developed several models. The three
most well-known models for communication are Linear, Interactional, and Transactional. As West & Turner
(2007) explain, each model sheds light on the development of communication, but emphasizes different parts of
the communication process. The models provide pictures, or visual representations, of complex interactions.
They are useful because they simplify the basic structure of communication and can help us to understand that
structure not just verbally, but also visually. Most importantly, they identify the various elements of
communication and serve as a kind of map to show how different parts of the communication process are
interrelated.

1. LINEAR MODELS

Shannon and Weaver Model of Communication

Originally developed by Shannon & Weaver in 1948, this model describes communication as a linear process.
(See Figure 1.1.) This model describes how a sender, or speaker, transmits a message to a receiver, or listener.
More specifically, the sender is the source of the message. A message may consist of the sounds, words, or
behaviours in a communication interaction. The message itself is transmitted through a channel, the pathway or
route for communication, to a receiver, who is the target or recipient of the message. There may be obstacles in
the communication process, or noise. Noise refers to any interference in the channel or distortion of the
message. This is a fairly simple model in which a message is simply passed from sender to receiver.

FIGURE 1.1 SHANNON AND WEAVER MODEL

While the linear model was highly influential during the mid-20th century, this model is perhaps too simple. Its
limitations are easy to see if you pause to think about the beliefs about communication, or assumptions, made in
this model. First, this model assumes that communication only goes in one direction. Here, a person can be a
sender or receiver, but not both. This is problematic because communication in action is more dynamic than the
linear model suggests. In action, communication involves a give and take between senders and receivers in
which listeners are not simply passive receptacles for a sender’s message. This model is also limited because it
provides only one channel for only one message. Finally, it implies that messages themselves are clear-cut with
a distinct beginning and a distinct end. However, communication is rarely, if ever, as neat and tidy as a linear
model would suggest.

ARISTOTLE'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Aristotle’s Model of Communication is a unique communication tool proposed before 300 b.c by the Greek
philosopher Aristotle. It is a linear model that puts a greater onus on public speaking instead of interpersonal
communication that other models do.

Aristotle’s Model of Communication is the first model of communication and is considered very simple and
straightforward. It is shown in a diagram form and in current times is used while preparing speeches, lectures,
and seminars. Aristotle’s model of communication is mainly a speaker centered model where the speaker and
speech are very important. It is broadly divided into 5 primary elements Speaker, Speech, Occasion, Audience,
and Effect. The speaker’s role to deliver a speech is considered as the first element of the 5 primary elements. In
this model, the speaker gives the speech whereas the target audience is passively influenced.
 Three Elements of Aristotle’s Model of Communication

FIGURE 1.2: 3 COMPONENT OF ARISTOTLE'S MODEL

Aristotle’s model of communication is mainly categorized into three components that are related to each other
and are considered a must to become a good communicator. These elements of communication are as follows:

Ethos
Ethos is the characteristic that defines the credibility of the speaker in a communication model. It is a fact that
without credibility the words of the speaker will hold no power over its audience and thus fail to impress and
persuade them. Remember it is the position and expertise in a specific field that gives the speaker credibility,
authority, and power. The speaker plays an important role and must maintain eye contact so that his speech is
widely accepted by the target audience. This is referred to as Ethos and is one of the important elements of
Aristotle’s Model of Communication.

Let’s explain Ethos in the Aristotle Model of Communication with an example. Suppose two politicians Anand
and Bilal are contesting from the same seat. Anand has the reputation of working diligently for the people
whereas the
other person Bilal is known for his corrupt nature. In such a scenario people will most probably go to hear the
speech of the good politician and not the corrupt one. This is because it is Ethos that is showcasing the
credibility of the speaker or the writer. Remember it is easy to damage the Ethos of a person in the Aristotle
Model of Communication. In the above example, Bilal was not considered a corrupt politician from the
beginning but when he became involved in a scandal people started thinking of him in a bad light.

Pathos
When there is an emotional bond it becomes easy to make a connection. Pathos in the communication model
helps the speaker to connect with the audience through various emotions like anger, sadness, happiness,
confidence, etc. Profit and non-profit organizations, politicians, etc. capitalize on Pathos to address and connect
with the emotion of the target audience. In the abovementioned scenario, politician Anand will take the help of
Pathos and refer to his good deeds to create a connection with his audience.

Logos
Logos is considered an important element of Aristotle’s communication model that signifies logic. The
audience will not only be influenced by the speech but also the logic behind it. The speaker has to take the help
of Logos in Aristotle’s communication model and present statistics and facts so that the audience can believe
and ultimately relate with him. Persuasion will work only to a certain degree but when it is backed by rational
thoughts and factual information then the combination is awesome. In the above-mentioned example, if the
politician Anand highlights his good deeds with facts and figures, for instance, the number of hospitals or
schools he has helped to build then his chance of connecting with the audience will automatically rise.
 Examples of Aristotle's Communication

FIGURE 1.3: EXAMPLE OF ARISTOTLE'S MODEL OFF COMMUNICATION

Aristotle’s Model of Communication has played an important role in oral communication and mass
communication. It can be explained with the help of the following example.

Suppose two countries were at war with each other. They both had equal resources and soldiers and still, one
country was able to gain victory over the other. An important reason for this will be given to the interpersonal
communication and inspirational speech to the audience given by the leader. He used all three elements of
Aristotle’s Model of Communication Ethos, Pathos, and Logos to inspire the feeling of patriotism and thus
could influence his army with logic, emotional connection, and credibility. The army believed him because of
his credible nature and could relate to his sincerity because of emotional connection and facts. This gave the
soldiers the necessary boost to handle the situation with more valor, mental strength, and determination. In this
example of Aristotle’s Model of Communication the 5 primary elements speaker, speech, occasion, audience,
and effect are used.

Speaker – The Leader

Speech – About war and victory
Occasion – Battlefield
Audience – Soldiers and other army personnel
Effect – Defeat enemy and gain victory

There are several real-life examples where leaders have taken the help of Aristotle’s communication model to
inspire and influence their target audience. King Alexander used his public speaking skills and gave a rousing
speech to his soldiers when they refused to cross the River Indus and march towards the enemy camp. Adolf,
Hitler is considered one of the most influential orators of his time as he could easily manipulate his audience
through inspiring words. Other leaders with some of the greatest public speaking skills are George Washington
and Barrack Obama.

LASSWELL’S COMMUNICATION MODEL

Lasswell’s communication model was developed by communication theorist Harold D. Lasswell (1902-1978) in
1948. Lasswell’s model of communication (also known as action model or linear model or one way model of
communication) is regarded as one the most influential communication models.
 FIGURE 1.4: LASSWELL'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Lasswell’s communication model has 5 components which is used as an analysis tool for evaluating the
communication process and components. The components are the questions to be asked to get the answers and
keep communication going.

Components Meaning Analysis Components Meaning Analysis Components Meaning Analysis

Who the communicator or sender or Control Analysis
source of message
Says What the content of the message Content Analysis
In Which Channel the medium or media Media Analysis
To Whom the receiver of the message or Audience Analysis
an audience
With What Effect the feedback of the receiver to Effect Analysis
the sender

Explanation of different Components of Laswell's Model

• Control analysis helps the sender to have all the power.

• Content analysis is associated to stereotyping and representation of different groups politically. It is also
related to the purpose or the ulterior motives of the message.
• Media analysis represents which medium should be used to exercise maximum power against the
receivers.
• Audience analysis shows who are the target population to be manipulated or brainwashed.
• Effect analysis is done before the process starts. It is used to predict the effect of message over the target
population to be exploited.

Explanation of Laswell's Communication Model

Though Lasswell’s model was developed to analyze mass communication, this model is used for interpersonal
communication or group communication to be disseminated message to various groups in various situations.

Lasswell’s model was developed to study the media propaganda of countries and businesses at that time. Only
rich people used to have communication mediums such as televisions and radios back them. It was made to
show the mass media culture.
 FIGURE 1.5 LASSWELL'S MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

Lasswell also brought the concept of Effective Communication Process. He talked about the relation between
presentation of facts and how it generates different effects. The use of the concept of effect makes Lasswell’s
model non-linear unlike its name. It’s because effect can also be taken as feedback.

Though, generally, the component of effect was made to be more about outcome of the message, the model is
applied in different media and fields despite being developed specifically for mass communication.

This model is similar to the communication model proposed by Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver. Their
model is more graphical than Lasswell’s. George Gerbner who is the founder of the cultivation theory,
expanded Lasswell’s model and included the concept of reaction of the receiver.

Disadvantages and Criticisms of Lasswell’s Model

The major criticism of Lasswell’s Model is that it does not include feedback and it ignores the possibility of
noise. Without feedback, a communication process cannot be fruitful. Lasswell’s model is very linear and does
not consider barriers in the communication process.

The model is also criticized for being very general and only including very traditional topics. The model is very
simplistic. The model is said to be propaganda based as it is more focused on the resulting outcome and
generally used for media persuasion.

2. INTERACTIONAL MODELS
In the move to a more dynamic view of communication, interactional models follow two channels in which
communication and feedback flow between sender and receiver. Feedback is simply a response that a receiver
gives to a sender. (See Figure 1.2.) Feedback can be verbal (i.e. “yes”) or nonverbal (i.e. a nod or smile). Most
importantly, feedback indicates comprehension. It can help senders know if their message was received and
understood. By focusing on flow and feedback, interactional models view communication as an ongoing
process.

FIGURE 1.6 INTERACTIONAL/INTERACTIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

The final feature of this model is the field of experience. The field of experience refers to how environment,
experiences, culture, and even heredity can influence how a sender constructs a message. Keep in mind that
each person brings a unique field of experience to an interaction. Likewise, each communication interaction is
unique. While the interactional model is more dynamic than the linear model, it still contains some limitations.
For instance, this model implies that while people can be both senders and receivers, they cannot do so
simultaneously. In lived communication, roles are not quite so clear-cut and in fact are much more fluid.
Schramm’s Model of Communication

What is the Schramm Communication Model?

The Schramm Communication Model is a cyclical communication model containing all basic principles of
communication. The Schramm Communication Model offers a classic approach to and explanation of
communication. It can be used to determine how communication between two people works when they’re
exchanging information, ideas, or attitudes.
The cyclical communication model is based on the theory and belief that communication is a two-way street.
This means there’s at least a sender and a recipient. The model contains at least one other element as well; the
message itself. Usually communication takes places along the traditional path with a wasteful recipient and
sender.

The recipient and sender can also be one and the same. This is called intra-personal communication. The former
is called interpersonal communication. Where several other models and theories about communication are linear
in nature, the Schramm Communication Model is circular. This means at least two parties are required to send
and receive a message. Both the sender and the recipient have to encode and decode the message to interpret the
message correctly.

Wilbur Schramm published the circular communication model in 1954, several years after Lasswell’s
communication model was published.

Schramm wrote and spoke about the communication model—based on the model by Charles Egerton Osgood—
in his book ‘The Process and Effects of Mass Communication’. He later made some changes, including
introducing the field of experience, or commonality. This refers to what is mutually understood between the
recipient and the sender. A physics professor can teach mathematical principles to a class of psychology
students, but it won’t be easy as the students don’t share a field of experience that would have made it easier to
understand the message.

Three Elements
According to the Schramm Communication Model, communication is circular and the sender and recipient of
the message can be the same person. A message is encrypted and passed on to the same person or to a different
person. It is up to the recipient to decrypt the message, interpret it, and then encode it again before sending the
message to a new recipient (circular). There is no fourth element, such as the in Berlo’s SMCR communication
model.

Source (Encoder)
The source of the message is the sender; the party who sent the message. The source has to be clear when
sending the message and has to be able to show why it is important that the recipient reads it. This is why the
sender of a message has to make sure that the information he is providing is useful, relevant, and accurate.

In order to ensure that the recipient can properly read the message, it has to be encoded. This means it is
necessary for the recipient to know the sender. The success of the attempt at communication will depend on the
ability to bring across the information in a simple but clear way. The way in which the message is encoded is
influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes, experiences, and skills.

Recipient (Decoder)
The recipient of a message is the person or group to whom the message has been sent. Whether the recipient is
able to decode the message depends on a number of factors. For instance, how much does the individual know
about the topic of the message, but also how open are they for a message and do they trust the source. The
interpretations of the recipient are influenced by cultural aspects, perceptions, knowledge, attitudes,
experiences, and skills as well.

Decoding a message is a psychological process. After the message has been received, the stimulus is
immediately sent to the brain for interpretation. This is where the message is given meaning, if at all. This
processing phase is also called decoding. Communication is successful when the recipient correctly interprets
the message from the source.

Message
In the studies of rhetoric and communication, a message is defined as information. This information is
communicated through words or other characters and symbols. A message, either verbal or non-verbal, is the
content of the communication process and plays an important role in the Schramm Communication Model.

A message may contain verbal content, such as speech, sign language, emails, WhatsApp messages, or phone
calls. A message can also consist of non-verbal content, such as behaviour, gestures, body language, eye
contact, physical contact, timing, and even artefacts.

Feedback and Organisations

Although it’s not clearly indicated in the Schramm Communication Model, recipients play an important role
throughout the communication process. They are not only supposed to absorb the message, but they also receive
the message and respond to it. The reply from the recipient to the sender’s message is called feedback.
Feedback can be both verbal and non-verbal. Sometimes it’s a verbal response, sometimes it’s just a sigh or a
nod. Feedback is often expressed in writing, an email for instance.

Feedback is therefore a way to measure how the audience has received the message. This enables the sender to
improve the effectiveness of the way messages are composed and sent. If the audience doesn’t understand the
message, the source of the message can refine it based on the feedback.

Westley and Maclean's Model of Communication

Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication was suggested by Bruce Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm
S. MacLean Jr. (1913-2001) in 1957. This model was an adaptation from Newcomb’s model of communication,
which talked about co-orientation for simultaneous orientation in a two way communication. It also consisted of
some concepts from Lewin’s model. Unlike Dance’s Helical Model of Communication, the model says that
communication does not begin when one person starts speaking, but it does when a person responds to
something from his/her surroundings. The person must first receive message from the environment and then,
he/she responds according to his/her object of orientation.

The Westley and MacLean’s model can be applied in two contexts: interpersonal and mass communication, the
point of difference being the feedback. Feedback is direct and fast in interpersonal communication and indirect
and slow in mass communication. The model also differentiates message as purposive and non-purposive.
Components of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication
The major components in the communication process for the model are:
• Source (A) – Source is the message creator and sender.
• Environment (X) – Environment is the physical and psychological situation where the message is being
created and sent.
• Sensory experience (X1…) – Sensory experience is the first thing that the source sees by which the
source gets the idea for the formation of the message.
• Objects of Orientation (X1, X2,…) – Objects of orientation is the person’s social and cultural reality that
has formed from his/her past experiences and teachings.
• Message Interpretation or Coding (X’) – Message is interpreted with the objects of orientation of the
receiver of the message.
• Receiver (B) – The person who gets the message sent by the source and the person who interprets
according to his/her objects of orientation.
• Object of Orientation of Receiver (X, b) – The views and ideas of the receiver or his/her social reality is
his/her object of orientation. That is how the receiver interprets the message.
• Feedback (f) – The receiver forms another message after interpreting the message and sends it back to
the sender. It is known as feedback.
• Gatekeeper (C) – Gatekeepers are found in mass communication. The gatekeeper is the editor who
filters the message as per the needs of the audience and media institution.
• Opinion Leader – Opinion leaders are well known and recognized people who can influence public
opinions.

Concepts of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

The process of communication in Westley and MacLean’s model of communication starts when the source
creates a message from his/her environment. The communicator acts and creates the message as a response to
the sensory experience with his/her own objects of orientation.

Then, the response is coded after interpreting the environmental response. The coded message is transmitted to
a second respondent who interprets the message differently according to his/her objects of orientation and
provide feedback to the sender.

Gatekeeper and opinion leader are the parts of communication process in mass communication. They are the
editors, proofreaders, etc. who choose which message should be published and what effect will it have on the
audience. Filter of the message is dependent on many factors.

Gatekeeping is done in these levels:

1. Individual level: A person’s gender, sexual orientation, culture, likes, dislikes, etc.
2. Routine practice level: Pre-established set of rules and practices for a particular type of work to be done
3. Communication organizations: The policies of the organization that is publishing the work
4. Social institutions: The social systems by which the message is formed
5. Societies: Societal values and belief systems, rules and norms, etc.

Example of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

A person ‘A’ is going to a meeting. Thunderstorms ‘X1’ and heavy rains ‘X2’ start. The roads ‘X3’ are all
blocked. ‘A’ will have to convey the message to the people who are conducting the meeting that he/she will not
be reaching on time. ‘A’ can inform all others through phone.

Here, the message is conceived from the environmental message through the person’s sensory experience. The
object of orientation of the person makes him call others because he thinks that reaching late is impolite. Sender
‘A’ creates the message as a courteous request.

The message is coded in a language form and is sent to the receiver ‘B’. ‘B’ interprets according to his/her own
object of orientation like the receiver can still find reaching late to a meeting rude. The feedback is given
accordingly.
Similarly, in mass communication, ‘A’ sends a message to ‘C’ who is the editor. ‘C’ acts as a gatekeeper and
publishes the news after proper editing. There might be readers’ ‘B’ replies to which are in the form of letters or
directly face to face. The process of letter reaching the writer takes a long time whereas direct review reaches
fast.
In a website, there are many writers. They write and send the articles to get them published. But the editor
chooses the articles that are relevant. The comment box is the place where the audience can give feedback.

Here,
1. X1 is any article
2. X2 is the audience comments
3. X3 is the website
4. f is feedback
5. A is writers
6. B is the audience
7. C is the gatekeeper or the editor
So,
• there is a feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Editor (C) after sending the article for
publishing, which is known as “fBC”.
• There is a feedback loop between Editor (C) and Writer (A) giving response to the writers, which is
known as “fCA”.
• There is another feedback loop between Audience (B) and the Writers (A) in the comments, which is
known as “fBA”.

The message received from the environment can be accidental or abrupt, so might not be intentional. So, the
signals can be received anytime and message is formed anytime.

Advantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

• There is the concept of feedback.
• As the message comes from the environment, sensory field improves the message formation.
• Social and other factors are included in objects of orientation.
• The model can be applied to interpersonal, group communication as well as mass communication.
• The model is very descriptive.

Disadvantages of Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication

• There are many variables even for simple communication which makes the model very complicated.
• The model is only two-dimensional and does not explain communication which involves multiple
messages and complicated messages.
• The information can get modified while sending it from the sender to the receiver as there can be noise.
The model does not account for noise in communication.

3. TRANSACTIONAL MODELS

The transactional is the most dynamic of communication models. One notable feature of this model is the move
from referring to people as senders and receivers to referring to people as communicators. This implies that
communication is achieved as people both send and receive messages. (See Figure 1.3.) Fundamentally, this
model views communication as a transaction. In other words, communication is a cooperative action in which
communicators co-create the process, outcome and effectiveness of the interaction. Unlike the linear model in
which meaning is sent from one person to another, also unlike the interactional model in which understanding is
achieved through feedback, people create shared meaning in a more dynamic process in the transactional model.

FIGURE 1.6 INTERACTIONAL/INTERACTIVE MODEL OF COMMUNICATION

This model also places more emphasis on the field of experience. While each communicator has a unique field
of experience, they must also inhabit a shared field of experience. In other words, communicators must share at
least some degree of overlap in culture, language, or environment if people are to communicate at all. This
model also recognizes that messages will influence the responses, or subsequent messages, produced in the
communication interaction.

Barlund’s Model of Communication

Dean Barnlund proposed a transactional model of communication in 1970 for basic interpersonal
communication which articulates that sending and receiving of messages happens simultaneously between
people which is popularly known as Barlund’s Transactional Model of Communication.

The model has been further adapted and reformed by other theorists as General Transactional Model. The
model shifted from the trend of linear model to dynamic and two way communication model.

Concepts of Barlund's Transactional Model of Communication

Barnlund’s Transactional Model is a multi-layered

feedback system.

This is a continuous process where sender and receiver

interchange their places and both are equally important.
The message passing takes place with a constant feedback
being provided from both parties. A feedback for one is
the message for the other.

Components of Barlund’s Model

Cues refer to the signs for doing something. As per Barnlund there are: public cues, private cues and behavioral
cues. In the model diagram shown above, spiral lines gives graphic representation to the assumptions like public
cues and private cues.

• Public cues (Cpu) are physical, environmental or artificial and natural or man-made.
• Private cues (Cpr) are also known as private objects of orientation which include senses of a person.
Both these cues can be verbal as well as non-verbal. Another set of cues are behavioral cues.
• Behavioral cues can be verbal (Cbehv) as well as non-verbal (Cbehnv).

The arrows and their directions show that the message is intentionally sent and actively taken where the receiver
plays a key role of giving feedback. Arrows also show the process of production of technical encoding,
interpretation and decoding

• The jagged lines show that the availability of cues can be unlimited and are denoted as VVVV. The
valence signs, +,0 and – are also attached to these types of cues which illustrates the
amount/degree/strength of attractiveness of the cues in the message.

• Speech act refers to particular instance of communication in the model. Filters are the realities of people
engaged in communication. Here the senders’ and receivers’ personal filters might differ according to
cultures, traditions, content of the message, etc.
• Noise is the problem that arises in communication flow and disturbs the message flow.

Advantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

• The model shows shared field experience of the sender and receiver.
• Transactional model talks about simultaneous message sending, noise and feedback.
• Barnlund’s model is taken by critics as the most systematic model of communication.

Disadvantages of Barnlund’s Transactional Model of Communication

• Barnlund’s model is very complex.
• Both the sender and receiver must understand the codes sent by the other. So they must each possess a
similar “code book”. (The concept of code book is not mentioned in the model but understood.)

Dance’s Helical Model of Communication

“If you’re born today, you’ve limited expressions”- Frank Dance

Frank Dance proposed a communication model inspired by a helix in 1967, known as Helical Model of
Communication. A helix is a three dimensional spring like curve in the shape of a cylinder or a cone.

Helix is compared with evolution of communication of a human since birth to existence or existing moment.
Helical model gives geometrical testimony of communication. The model is linear as well as circular combined
and disagrees the concept of linearity and circularity individually.

Concept of Helical Model of Communication

Helical model of communication introduces the concept of time where continuousness of the communication
process and relational interactions are very important.
Communication is taken as a dynamic process in helical model of communication and it progresses with age as
our experience and vocabulary increases.

At first, helical spring is small at the bottom and grows bigger as the communication progresses. The same
effect can be seen with communication of humans, where you know nothing about a person at first and the
knowledge grows steadily as you know the person better. It considers all the activities of the person, from the
past and present.

Communication is affected by the curve from which it emerges which denotes past behavior and experiences.
Slowly, the helix leaves its lower levels of behavior and grows upward in a new way. It always depends on the
lowest level to form the message. Thus, the communicative relationship reaches to the next level in which
people share more information. Communication is supposed to be continuous and non-repetitive. It is always
growing and accumulative.

Example of Helical Model of Communication

A child crying at birth signifies the communication of the child to its parents that he/she is alive. After some
years, the child cries whenever the child needs anything like food or attention. He/she learns words and starts
communicating with words.

The child learns specific languages and communicates with the people who know the language that he/she
knows. Communication becomes more complex as the child grows into adult and to the existing moment. The
adult uses the same pronunciations and use of words or facial expressions that he/she learned when he/she was a
child. Communication is directly dependent on his/her past behavior
as a child but can also modify as the person grows.

In this example, communication evolves with the child crying. This is where the helix is small at the bottom.
And he continues communication, the helix gradually grows. When the communication becomes more complex,
the spiral grows wider. From then on, it grows steadily as his life goes on.

Advantages of Helical Model of Communication

• The model assumes sender and receiver to be interchangeable and makes communication process to be
two way.
• The model takes the communication process speculative and intellectual.

Disadvantages of Helical Model of Communication

• The model is taken as more simple than it should be.
• Some critics don’t take it to be a model as it has very few variables.
• It is not testable because it is abstract.
• It is not represent in a systematic and orderly way.
• Variables cannot be differentiated in this model.
• Continuity may not always be true for communication. There might be breaks in situations as well as
events can be meaningless, forced or unproductive.
• The purpose of communication is not always growth.

Summary

• Linear models – only looks at one-way communication.

• Interactive models – looks at two-way communication.
• Transactional models – looks at two-way communication where the message gets more complex as the
communication event (e.g. conversation) progresses.
 # Model of Type of Brief Description
Communication Model
Aristotle argues that we should look
at five elements of a communication
1 Aristotle’s Model Linear event to analyze how best to
communicate: speaker, speech,
occasion, target audience and effect.
Lasswell’s model is a basic
framework
for analyzing one-way
2 Lasswell’s Model Linear communication
by asking five questions: Who, said
what, through which channel, to
whom, with what effects?
The Shannon-Weaver model is the
first
Shannon-Weaver Linear to highlight the role of ‘noise’ in
3
Model communication, which can disrupt or
alter a message between sender and
receiver.
Berlo’s S-M-C-R model explains
Berlo’s S-M-C-R Linear communication in four steps:
4
Model Source,
Message, Channel, and Receiver.
The Schramm’s model looks at
reciprocal communication, showing
5 Schramm’s Model Interactive how we have to encode, decode, and
interpret information in real-time
during a conversation.
The Westley and Maclean model
Westley and Maclean shows that our communication is
6 Interactive
Model influenced by environmental,
cultural and personal factors.
Barnlund’s Transactional Model of
Barnlund’s Communication highlights the role
7 Transactional
Transactional Model of private and public cues that
impact our messages.
Dance’s Helical Model sees
communication as a circular process
Dance’s Helical
8 Transactional that gets more and more complex as
Model
communication occurs, which can be
represented by a helical spiral.

MODELS AND THEORIES AND MODES OF COMMUNICATION

Modes of Communication
Learning Outcomes:

After the discussion, the students should be able to:

1. Show the importance of face-to-face, audio, virtual, text-based, and other forms of communication
particularly in targeting different types of audiences in local and global settings;

Introduction
Communication mode refers to the channel through which one expresses his/her communicative intent. It is the
medium through which one conveys his/her thoughts. Views or feelings can be communicated through face-to-
face interaction, video, or audio. The mode may also be text-based.
Face-to-face Interaction
It is the informal or casual conversation between two or more people. People engage in social conversations to
establish relationships or maintain them. It is one way of gaining new acquaintances or friends. How to speak,
what to speak, when to speak, and to whom one is speaking are all important considerations in building
relationships.

When do you initiate conversations? Faced with a group of new people who you do not know in a social
gathering, you should be able to begin a conversation, you will be able to test the saying: “First impressions
last”. In this case, depending on the kind of impression you leave to your audience, you create either a positive
or a negative image of yourself. One advantage of face-to-face interaction is that aside from directly hearing the
message being conveyed, you are able to note visual cues through facial expressions, gestures, movements, or
even objects or realia from the person/s you are communicating with.

“Be brave enough to start a conversation that matters” Dau Voire

This simply means that even if the people surrounding you in a social event are strangers to you, you need to be
confident enough to meet new faces and initiate an interesting conversation. But what kind of topics matter to
strangers you are meeting for the first time?
In a social gathering like a wedding, for instance, you do not dwell on topics that are neverending in nature.
You do not discuss politics and religion as these are sensitive issues that may impinge on one’s beliefs and
practices.

“All social change begins with a conversation”, Margaret J. Wheatly

If one single and simple conversation blossoms into a deeper contact. Eventually, you and your newfound friend
may find yourselves enjoying each other’s company, sharing the same interests and deciding to work on some
significant projects. Later on, all of these will result in changes that yield profound social consequences.

“Meaning is made in conversation, reality is created in communication, and knowledge is generated through
social interaction…Language is the vehicle through which we created our under-standing of the world.”

Video
Web cameras are used so two or more people who cannot interact face-to-face can communicate. If there are no
technical glitches encountered, this could be a very effective mode of communication especially for people
separated by distance. Some applications that allow video calls are: Skype, Viber, WhatsApp, Apple FaceTime,
and Facebook Messenger, among others. In more formal settings, people can also engage in video confer-
encing. While this is a convenient communication mode for people who want to reach out to each other despite
distance, a disadvantage is the time zone difference between countries. In this case, one of them should make
necessary adjustments to pave the way for a successful communication.

Audio
Means transmitted sound. In this mode of communication, only the voice of the speaker is heard and not being
able to see the body language of the person you are talking to. Audio communication is quite difficult especially
if listening to people with different accents.

Text-based communication
Such as email, facsimile, text messaging, and instant messaging. Social networking sites such as Facebook,
Twitter, and Instagram like-wise offer text-based interaction. While text based communication mode does not
originally provide video and audio benefits, it has a wider reach and can disseminate information to a bigger
audience quickly.
MODULE 2
LESSON 2: FORMS OF COMMUNICATION

Major Forms of Communication

Learning Outcomes:
After the discussion, the students should be able to:
Show the importance of face-to-face, audio, virtual, text-based, and other forms of communication particularly
in targeting different types of audiences in local and global settings;

Introduction
Communication means transferring messages from one to another through any medium.
There are various levels in communication like Intrapersonal communication, Interpersonal communication,
Group communication and Mass communication.

Mass communication plays the vital role because it reaches very large number of audience.
Basically Mass communication has two forms one is Interpersonal communication and another one is media
communication.

Five major forms of communication

• Intrapersonal Communication
• Dyadic Communication
• Small Group Communication
• Public Communication
• Mass Communication

Fig. A. Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is a communication which

happens yourself. Here both Source (sender) and receiver is
only one. so, the feedback works without any interruption.
Example: A person can communicate himself through pain,
thinking, feelings and emotion etc.

Fig. B. Dyadic Communication

In Dyadic communication, two persons are
involved in this communication process. Here the
source becomes a receiver and receiver become
Source because of dynamic communication
process were the feedback’s are shared between
Source and the receiver.

Fig. C. Small Group Communication

More than two members involved in communication process

will become a group communication. If least number of
persons is involved in the group communication is called as
small group communication. In this communication process,
everyone becomes a Source as well as receiver through
sharing information and gives feedback to another.
 Fig. D. Public Communication

In public communication, Source or messages

from a single person will reach or received by
huge number of audience. But in this
communication there are no mutual feedbacks
between source and receiver like small group
communication and it’s only focused on Speaker.

Fig. E. Mass Communication

In mass communication, basically have a large number of

audience and they are all can’t grouped together in one place
so we need certain tool or technology for communication
process. But in mass communication, there is no direct access
with receiver. So, for that they need media like newspaper,
radio, television and internet.

Here the audience feedback is very less or delayed.

MODULE 2
LESSON 3: COMMUNICATION AND TECHNOLOGY

Communication
It is usually defined as the transmission of information. The term can also refer just to the message
communicated or to the field of inquiry studying such transmissions. There are many disagreements about its
precise definition.

Technology
Technologies are artifacts made through a systematic application of knowledge and used to reach
practical goals. They are widely used in medicine, science, industry, communication, transportation, and daily
life.

Importance of communication and technology:

It can improve the quality of human life because it can be used as a learning and education media, the
mass communication media in promoting and campaigning practical and important issues, such as the health
and social area. It provides wider knowledge and can help in gaining and accessing information.

There are four main types of communication technology that have contributed to the ease of sending
messages: telephone, radio, television, and internet.

16 Other Communication Technology Examples:

1. Phone
- one of the core communication technologies
- readily available
2. Email
- one of the most popular forms of communication technology
3. Blogs
- websites where people can share content, or posts, for other people to read.
4. Social Media
- the earliest of which launched at the end of the 20th century
- allow users to share their experiences and opinions with a worldwide audience.
5. Vlogs
- video logs
- visual versions of blogs
- people use camera on their computer or device or a handheld camera to record themselves
6. Podcasts
- audio-based forms of communication
7. Livestream
- like vlogging but it happens in real time
8. Online Chat
- Web chat offers users a form of instant communication.
- People use chat software on social media and business communication platforms to talk to friends,
family and colleagues
9. Web conferencing
- Conferencing technology makes it easier for employees to communicate with each other regardless of
where they're located.
10. Texting
- Short Message Services (SMS), or texting, allows individuals to send brief messages or images through
their smartphones.
11. Shared calendars
- Calendar sharing services allow users to invite coworkers or clients to see their calendars and, in
some cases, add or edit them.
- helps teams coordinate their work schedules and plan tasks
12. Forums
- A group forum is an online platform where people can post and respond to questions.
13. Wikis
- A wiki is a website for crowdsourcing information, where any member can view, add or edit content.
14. Collaborative documents
- such as virtual whiteboards and online word processors, allow multiple people to work on the same
document
15. Wearable Technology
- You can carry various types of wearable technology on your body to make communication quick, easy
and hands-free.
- Smart watches, smart glasses, exercise bracelets
16. Smart Speakers
- You can place smart speakers in your home or office to act as voice-activated personal assistants.
- make work and communications more efficient
 MODULE 3: INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

MODULE 3
LESSON 1: COMMUNICATION AND GLOBALIZATION

A. What is Globalization?
❖ Globalization, as defined by the business dictionary, is the worldwide movement toward economic,
financial, trade, and communications integration. This movement resulted to the formation of the
global village.
❖ The global village as described by McLuhan is the shrinking of the world into a village by electronic
technology and the speedy movement of information to different places.
B. Communication and Globalization
❖ In communication, globalization would mean the increase in the social connectedness or the
expansion of one’s social community and the mutual reliance or dependence of peoples and nations;
the evolution of a language that could be understood by most countries; and the development of the
global communication skills or the ability to send messages across cultures through the four macro
skills (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) and the use of non-verbal communication.
❖ A communication style is the way you use your verbal and non-verbal skills in communicating your
message to your recipient. How your receivers would understand your message and how the
communication process will prosper will depend on how you shift your style. Edward Hall (1976)
differentiated communication as high-context and low-context.
CULTURAL ISSUES AFFECTING COMMUNICATION
In this age of globalization, workplaces are increasingly integrated. This makes communication and cross-
cultural understanding more crucial for everyone, including executives, business leaders, workplace managers,
and employees. In order to develop skills as communicators, we must gain practical knowledge of the factors
that make communication across cultures succeed or fail. According to experts in the field, some of those
factors or issues include:

1. Cultural identity
Culture can be defined as the values, attitudes, and ways of doing things that a person brings with him
from the particular place where he was brought up as a child. These values and attitudes can have an
impact on communication across cultures because each person’s norms and practices will often be
different and may possibly clash with those of co-workers brought up in different parts of the world.
2. Racial identity
Racial identity refers to how one’s membership to a particular race affects how one interacts with
co-workers of different races.
3. Ethnic identity
Ethnic identity highlights the role ethnicity plays in how two co-workers from different cultures interact
with one another.
4. Gender roles
Another factor that impacts intercultural communication is gender. This means that communication
between members of different cultures is affected by how different societies view the roles of men and
women.
5. Individual personalities
This means that how a person communicates with others from other cultures depends on his own unique
personality traits and how he esteems himself.
6. Social class
The social identity factor refers to the level of society that person was born into or references when
determining who she wants to be and how she will act accordingly.
7. Age identity
Refers to how members of different age groups interact with one another. This might be thought of in
terms of the ‘generation gap’.
8. Role identity
Refers to the different roles a person plays in his or her life including their roles as a husband or wife,
father, mother or child, employer or employee, and so forth.
Global Issues Affecting Communication
Catherine Skrzypinski (2012) enumerates and discusses four (4) global issues that may affect
communication.
1. The Issue of Face to Face Communication
HR professionals and other business leaders need to be able to communicate as effectively with workers
across the globe as around the corner. Yet that can be a challenge, because face to face communication
is the preferred method for spreading news and information, experts say.
Face to face “is the method that humans have been using for as long as time,” Sebastian Bailey.
2. The Issue on Social Network
Towers Watson and Company (2011) found in their studies that more companies worldwide are
embracing social networking sites like Facebook, Twitter and LinkedIn to facilitate employee
communication better.
According to the study:
• Almost two-thirds of survey respondents are more knowledgeable about using social media tools
than they were in 2010.
• Around 69% of respondents said they plan to increase their use of social media- including
leadership journals and blogs.

3. The Issue on Culturally Competent Workers

Although rapid changes in technology are impacting global communication, employees must be aware
of linguistic, cultural, religious and social differences to build strong communication channels with
colleagues and business contacts.
Impact of Communication on Society
Communications as well as technology have impacts on society. Communication is used for a number of
purposes. Both society and organizations depend on communication to transfer information. People used
technology to communicate with each other. Electronic media like radios, televisions, internet, and social media
have improved the way we exchange ideas which can develop our societies.
Impact of Communication on the World
Chad Lewis (2017) pointed out that communication has an impact on global lives. We cannot even
imagine our lives without communication; he said even people living miles and miles away from us are able to
communicate with each other.
The wireless communication and technology have changed the world in the following ways:
1. Impact on Healthcare
The medical assistance related to information and treatments is easier to distribute in remote rural areas,
where earlier there was no communication possible at all. There was no way the treatments could reach
the ailing people, and they lost their lives without any treatment at all.
2. Impact on Aids of Catastrophic Events
Through wireless connection, which enables us even to view catastrophic events that have occurred and
we even get to see destruction that has been caused. In fact the wireless technologies can provide early
information regarding any natural catastrophe helping people to relocate to a safer place.
3. Impact on Environmental Protection
Wireless technology had brought about a revolution when it comes to protecting the environment. This
had led to faster and greater response in comparison to the email campaigns. This has helped to protect
the environment even better.
4. Impact on News Reporting
No matter where in the world an event it happening, reporters can report it send it to their offices with
the help of wireless technology. This is how communication technology has impacted human lives all
over the world and with the passing days, more changes to this technology will make the life even easier
in this contemporary world.
MODULE 3
LESSON 2: LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTING
Local Communication in Multi-Cultural Settings

Chad Lewis, in his Successful Communication in Multi-Cultural Environments, orchestrates how the non-
verbal expressions matter to the successful communication under a diverse cultural setting.
Communication Tips (Robert Rosen)
• Simplify your message by using less complex sentence structures and vocabulary.
• Never shout to understand.
• Define the meaning of critical technical words and acronyms.
• Avoid non- standards abbreviations, such as “U R” for “ you are”.
• Be patient and try to follow team members` ideas and logic, which may be different from yours.
• Ask people to repeat once, may be twice, if you do not understand them. If that does not work,
ask them to say it in a different manner.
• Remain cool and composed, even when you have made a mistake that result in embarrassment
for you or when you feel embarrassed by others.
• When you feel strong emotion about something said or done by someone who comes from a
culturally different background than you do. Clarify their meanings and intentions before you
express your emotions.
• If you cannot think of any positive interpretation of someone else`s actions or words, chances are
you are missing something. Clarify with the person or with the someone who has experience in
dealing with similar cultural groups.
• Adapt your space requirements to those of your counterparts whenever possible. You can judge
someone’s comfort zone by the distance to which they extend their hand when shaking hands.
• When someone does or says something that’s seems weird or/and wrong give him/her the benefit
of the doubt. Ask yourself: “How else could I interpret these words or action?”
• Communicate important messages via several different media to ensure that they are received.
Make sure that messages are consistent.

Communication Tips for Local/Native English Speakers

Individuals and institutions can no longer deny that there are uncomfortable realities of culture diversity
that exist among local or native English speakers.
• Avoid "isn't it?" questions. Because this way of formulating questions does not exist in many
other languages, it can be confusing for non-native English speakers.
• Ask the person if he/she wants help with finding words that might convey their meaning.
• If you do not understand a work, ask the person to spell it, write it down, use a synonyms or say
the word in his/her native language and have someone else to translate, if possible.
• Try to involve non-native English speakers, particularly during brainstorming sessions, by asking
explicitly for their input.
• If you receive a voice mail message that you do not understand ask another non-native English
speaker from the same linguistic background to listen to it and "translate" for you.
• In continues meetings, provided some break time so that the non-native English speakers can
take rest from the concentration required to follow the conversation.
• Avoid scheduling presentation by non-native English speakers at the end of the day, when
fatigue may affect their English-speaking skills.
• Consider providing ESL course to non-native English speakers on your staff or team.
• Offer to proofread non-native English speakers' documented or presentations.
• Slow down your delivery and clearly articulate each word. Avoid contractions that are difficult
for non-native English speakers to understand.
• In face-to-face meeting, face the people to whom you speak.
Communication Tips for Non-Native English Speakers
There are also people who don’t speak English or could hardly understand the English language. These
are the tips for them:
• If you do not mind people suggesting words so that we can communicate more quickly, say so.
• Try to participate in discussions, especially brainstorming session, even if you feel
uncomfortable.
• If your organization offers ESL course, take them, even if you’re English is already functional.
Courses design to help you modify your accent to make it more understandable by native English
speakers can be particularly beneficial.
• Keep a dictionary handy and make sure the words you use mean what you think they mean.
• Ask a native English speaker for help with your document, presentations and even sensitive
emails or phone calls, if necessary.
• Before calling someone, think of what you want to say and look up any words that you are
unsure of. If you must leave a voice mail message, compose the message on paper, then read it
into phone.
• Make sure you know and use appropriately the technical words that people in your field use.
Find a native English speaker who will take the time to discuss this with you; use sketches,
diagrams and pictures to insure that you understand correctly. Use the terms repeatedly until day
become second nature.
• Do not attempt to use slang and idiomatic expressions until you are quite comfortable with the
language. Using this incorrectly or in the wrong situation can be backfire.

Global Communication in Multicultural Setting

Global Communication
✓ Is the term used to describe ways to connect, share, relate and mobilize across geographic, political,
economic, social and cultural divides. It defines soft and hard power as well as information power and
diplomacy in ways not considered by traditional theories of international relations.
Multicultural
✓ Refers to a society that contains several cultural or ethnic groups. People live alongside one another, but
each cultural group does not necessarily have engaging interactions with each other.

Issues that occur when members are of different nationalities:

1. Language Issues
2. Conflicts Resolution Issue
3. Gender Issue
4. Decision Making Issue

MODULE 3
LESSON 3: VARIETIES AND REGISTERS OF SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE
VARIETIES IN SPOKEN LANGUAGE
Spoken language is a language provided by articulate sounds, as opposed to a written language. Many
languages have no written form and so are only spoken.
Different Levels or Varieties of Spoken Language
1. Professional Spoken Language
This type of language is used by professionals from specific industries. The speech used here is highly
technical, with stress put on facts, figures, data and industry jargons.

2. Literary Spoken English

This is the language used in magazines and newspapers. The stress is more on communicating with a
large section of the crowd. The speech follows all rules of grammar and yet, the words used are simple
and common.
 3. Conversational Spoken English
The English is more widely used in daily conversation, where rules of grammar are more relaxed, stress
is more on just getting the message across.
4. Slang, Ethnic and Vulgar Language
Every language comes with a set of words that have multiple meanings, and depending upon the
situation in which you use them, multiple interpretations as well. These words are called “SLANGS”,
and are native to a particular region.

VARIETIES OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Written Language is more carefully organize, more self-explanatory, the word choice is more
deliberate. Insofar as the actual situation in which a language is being said. The written language is only
secondary. The written language is mostly maintained in the form of a monologue, the written language is able
to live forever w/ the idea it expresses. The written language can be detailed and objectively looked at. The
writer has an opportunity to correct and improve what has been put on paper.

Characteristics of Written Language

1. The exact nature of the utterance (the abundance of all kinds of connecting words)
2. The bookish “space-wasters” (despite the fact; reach a decision)
3. The use of complicated sentence-units ( long periods are more frequent than short utterances)

LANGUAGE REGISTERS
1. Frozen Registers
✓ This is the most formal register.
✓ The language used is fixed or constant. It does not change in time.
✓ The nature of the language does not require any feedback.
Examples:
• Formal Ceremonies • The Lord’s Prayer • Preamble to the
• Prose or Poetry • Pledge of Allegiance to Constitution
• National Anthem Country • Religious Services
• School Creeds
2. Formal Registers
✓ The language requires formal English because it is used in official and ceremonial settings.
✓ The language used is of a standard variety and has an agreed upon vocabulary that is well-documented.
✓ The language is written without emotion.

Examples:
• Professional Writing • Reports • Business Meeting
• Business • Official Speeches • Swearing in Ceremony
Correspondence • Announcements • An Interview
• Essays • Court Proceedings

3. Consultative Registers
✓ The language used is specifically for the purpose of soliciting aid, support, and intervention.
✓ In the setting, one person is deemed an expert and the other person is the receiver of such expertise.

Examples:
• Superior and • Client and doctor • Teacher and student
subordinate consultation conversation
conversation • Client and lawyer • Employer and employee
consultation conversation

4. Informal Registers (Casual)

✓ The language is laidback and conversational.
✓ The language is focused on gaining information.
 ✓ The language uses slangs, jargons, and contractions.

Examples:
• Writing to friends • Person E-mails • Most blogs
• Family conversation • Phone texts • Diaries and Journals
• Chats with people • Short notes
you know very well. • Friendly letters

5. Informal Registers (Intimate)

✓ The language is casual and personal.
✓ The language uses terms of endearment, slangs, and/or terms understandable only to the persons.
✓ The setting is between persons who share close relationships or bonds.

Examples:

 Lovers
 Mother giving pet names to their children based on some character traits.
 Best friends formulating slangs based on some shared experience.

6. Neutral Registers
✓ The language is not necessarily formal or informal nor is it usually positive or negative.
✓ The language sticks to facts.
✓ The language deals with non-emotional topics and information.

Examples:
 Technical Writing  Some letters
 Reviews  Some essays
 Articles

MODULE 3
LESSON 4: EXPLORING TEXTS REFLECTING DIFFERENT CULTURES
Types of Text
1. Created Texts - are texts authored by non-native speakers and for them to achieve pre-determined
curricular goals.
2. Semi-authentic - Texts are texts created by native and/or non-native speakers, based on the original
language materials, but are adapted to fit curricular needs.
3. Authentic Texts - are texts created by native speakers for them on consumption in a native environment.
4. Multi-Modal Texts - are texts that combine two or more semiotic systems.

Multimodal Texts
A multimodal text is often a digital text but can also be a book, such as picture book, information text
or graphic text. Multimodal texts require the processing of more than one mode and the recognition of the
interconnections between modes. This type of text combines two or more modes such as written language,
spoken language, visual (still and moving image), audio, gestural, and spatial meaning (The New London
Group, 2000; Cope and Kalantzis, 2009). Creating digital multimodal texts involve the use of communication
technologies, however, multimodal texts can also be paper based, or live performances.
What are Multimodal Texts?
A text may be defined as multimodal when it combines two or more semiotic systems. There are five semiotic
systems in total:

1. Linguistic
Comprising aspects such as vocabulary, generic structure and the grammar of oral and written
language
 2. Visual
Comprising aspects such as colour, vectors and viewpoint in still and moving images

3. Audio
Comprising aspects such as volume, pitch and rhythm of music and sound effects

4. Gestural
Comprising aspects such as movement, speed and stillness in facial expression and body language
5. Spatial
Comprising aspects such as proximity, direction, position of layout and organization of objects in space.

Message of the Text

❖ You can send a text message to any modern cell phone even if you use a different wireless
provider.
❖ Each text message is limited to 160 characters, including spaces.
❖ Check your cell phone plan to see how much text messaging or texting costs.
Presenting the Purpose, Tone, Audience and Content of the Text
Three elements shape the content of each paragraph:
1. Purpose - the reason the writer composes the paragraph.
2. Tone - the attitude the writer composes the paragraph.
3. Audience- the individual or group whom the writer intends to address.

EVALUATING MESSAGES AND/OR IMAGES

What is a Message?
❖ Is the final concept of the idea by the sender.
❖ It may be encoded in various forms like spoken words, written words, non-verbal, pictures, film,
advertisements, memes, visual and performing arts, etc.
Who Controls the Transmission of these Messages?
In mass, interactive and emerging media, the one’s transmitting and controlling most of the messages you
receive are corporations, government and individuals.
1. Corporations - also called as “media conglomerates”, because most of them owned different media
platforms that we consume like television, radio, film, music and websites. Their main goal is to prosper
their respective business. Ex. Advertisements on radio and television.
2. Government - also known as “state-owned media” are media produced or funded by the government.
3. Individuals - also known as the “independent media”. This form of media is free from the influenced of
the corporate and governments. Ex. Citizen Journalism

How to Convey the Message?

Every day, you connect or communicate with different people of various personalities and culture for
different purposes. The ways you communicate with them depend on you purposes. The way you communicate
with them would depend on your purpose. Take the story of Anne, for instance. When she asked to do three
tasks for the day, she set goals for each individual that she is to communicate with. In setting her goals, Anne
considered the “who, what, how, and why" of the communication process in order to have an effective
communication.
What other Ways of Presenting the Message are there?
For oral and non-verbal communication, ways of presenting messages can range from a simple
conversation to speaking in front of a public.
Kayla Darling suggested making your speech creative and not boring by suggesting the use of music,
memes, visual data, humor, a video or animations, props or images, flashing a provocative statement or doing
the story telling technique with visuals. It can also be done by engaging your audience for visual
communication; you may use advertisement, promotional and public relation (PR). Collaterals, info graphics,
picture, paintings, sculptures, architectural designs, animations, video, film, memes, etc. to deliver your
message.
Critical Reading
Reading connects ideas from the page to your mind. It allows you to be as imaginative as you can. This
type of reading is called critical reading.
Critical reading is more active way of unveiling information and ideas presented by the text. In the
process of unveiling you must be aware of your biases and prejudices so that you can honestly evaluate the text.
The steps involved in critical reading are: analysis, interpretation and evaluation.
The following strategies to become a purposeful active critical reader:
1. Monitor Comprehension
Monitoring comprehension does not mean merely knowing what your limitations are. You must be open
to enhance your skills by applying strategies to fix your limitation.
2. Metacognition
Besides knowing your limitations, you should also be aware of how you process thinking. Be clear about
the purpose of your reading before starting to read. Try to assess what part made it hard for you to
understand and then find a way to fix this.
You may use the steps listed below. It may be hard at first but by regular practice, you could be better.
✓ Identify where the difficulty occurs.
✓ Identify what the difficulty is.
✓ Restate the difficult sentence in your own words.
✓ Look back through the text. e. Look forward in the text for information that might help you resolves the
difficulty. \

3. Graphic Organizers
Maps, graphs, frames, clusters, webs, story boards, and Venn diagrams are some examples of graphic
organizers. Use them to understand and link concepts.

4. Answering Questions
Asking questions will give you a purpose for reading critically. You can start by asking explicit questions
first and then move to implicit questions.
Four types of questions you may use:
✓ Questions found right in the text.
✓ Questions based on the recall of facts that are directly found in the text.
✓ Questions where you can make use of what you already know against what have you learned from
the text.
✓ Questions based on your experience

5. Recognizing story structure

This strategy can be use when you are reading fiction. You can draft he story structure by identifying the
characters, settings, significant events, conflict, climax, denouement, and resolution. You can combine this
strategy with graphic organizers.
6. Summarizing
This strategy can be used when writing research. You determine what is important or what the main idea
is in the text and writes is using your own words. After identifying main ideas, you can start connecting them to
complete your study.
CRITICAL LISTENING
Listening is very important in oral communication. Being a good speaker is important but being a good
listener is more important. It is also a logical process of scrutinizing what you listened to. It involves analyzing,
interpreting, and evaluating just like in critical reading. It sometimes involves problem solving or decision-
making.
1. Be attentive but relaxed.
Being attentive means being not only physically present but mentally present, too. Focus on what the
speaker is saying by mentally screening out distractions. Make eye contact but do not stare. If you are
doing something while in conversation, you can turn your face from time to time to show courtesy and to
tell him/her that you are listening.
2. Avoid interrupting the speaker and imposing your ideas.
Interrupting a speaker just to impose your ideas is not a characteristic of a good listener. A good listener
will encourage the speaker to say more. You can do this by asking open-ended questions like “Why?” this
will prompt the speaker to go on and continue speaking.
3. Wait for the speaker to pause before you ask clarifying questions.
Asking clarifying questions show the speaker that you are listening. It better to clarify some things that
you did not grasp that to look foolish reacting or responding incorrectly because you did not clarify. When can
you ask questions to clarify things? Do not ask questions while the speaker is in the middle of his/her
statements. You may ask question when he/she pauses.
4. Pay attention to non-verbal cues and look beyond the spoken message.
As a receiver of the message, it is must that you learn to decode not just the spoken message but also the
non-verbal signs that go together with the message sent.
5. Keep an open mind and be emphatic.
Avoid mentally criticizing the statements or the gestures of the speaker. You will not able to listen well if
you keep on criticizing the person. Finishing the sentence of the speaker is a sign of not being emphatic.
Show the person respect and let him express his/her thoughts and feelings. If you wanted to react, you
may use facial expressions that show empathy.
6. Listen and try to visualize what the speaker is saying.
Create visuals in your mind while listening to the speaker. The design of your visuals depends on your
creativity. If the statements are too long, try to flash significant words in your mind to help you focus on
the message.
7. Give the speaker regular feedback.
Nodding, smiling, frowning, and other gestures may be used to give the speaker feedback. Paralanguage
can be also used to show that you are following the thought of his/her message. Sometimes it is better to
use non-verbal communication for feedbacks.
CRITICAL VIEWING
Just a critical reading and critical listening are important, critical viewing is also important. Your
generation is a visual generation. You understand better if the message has visual representation. Critical
viewing entails comprehension, interpretation, and evaluation of information presented by televisions, films and
other visual medias. In the process of interpreting, you will be facing symbols like light, sound effects, editing
and script, music and more.

MODULE 3
LESSON 5: COPING WITH THE CHALLENGES OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
It has become a widespread notion that speaker’s use of different languages results in
intercultural miscommunication and misunderstanding. As Scollon and Scollon (1995) state: When we are
communicating with people who are very different from us, it is very difficult to know how to draw inferences
about what they mean, and so it is impossible to depend on shared knowledge and background for confidence in
our interpretations.
There are three main issues which are at the root Barriers to Intercultural Communication
of the problem of intercultural
miscommunication: 1. Anxiety
2. Assumption of Similarities
1. Language as a barrier 3. Ethnocentrism
2. Cultural diversity 4. Stereotypes
3. Ethnocentrism 5. Prejudice

THE HANDSHAKE
- The handshake is a globally widespread, brief greeting or parting tradition in which two people grasp
one to each other’s like hands, in most cases accompanied by brief up and down movement of the
grasped hands
GREETINGS
- Is an act of communication in which human beings intentionally make their presence known to each
other, to show attention to, and to suggest a type of relationship between individuals or groups of people
coming in contact with each other.

Argentina: Kiss on the Right Cheek

- In Argentina, men greet other men with a kiss, so do not be surprised or offended if this occurs. Lightly
press your cheek against the right cheek of another for a light kiss.
Japan: A Bow
- In Japan, the preferred way to greet someone you’re meeting is to bow to one another.

Nigeria: Snapping Fingers Handshake

- In Nigeria, young people usually greet each other in a special way, where they snap their fingers in the
process of a handshake. This handshake is not very easy, so you actually need a Nigerian to teach you
how to snap fingers while shaking hands.

Russia: A Firm Handshake in Russia

- A firm handshake is the standard way for men to greet one another in public.

New Zealand: Hongi (touching noses)

- Known as Hongi, this traditional māori greeting in New Zealand is done by pressing your nose and
forehead to another person’s at the same time.

Greenland: Kunik
- This one is a greeting typically done with those you’re close with. To perform it, place your nose and
upper lip against the cheek or forehead of the other person and take a breath.

Thailand: Wai
- Place your palms together at your chest and bow your head so that your thumbs touch your chin and
your fingertips touch your forehead.

France: Kiss on each Cheek

- The common greeting in France is kissing on the cheek. Typically, it will be two kisses but the number
of kisses can vary depending on the region. As a common starting point, offer your right cheek and let
the other person lead

India: Namaste
- This greeting is carried out by placing your hands together in a praying position with your fingers
pointed upwards and bowing slightly when you say “Namaste.”

Ukraine: A Triple Kiss

- Don’t pull back after a kiss on each cheek in Ukraine. Here, the custom is to kiss cheeks three times left,
right, left to say hello.
The Philippines: Mano
- When greeting elders, take their hand and press their knuckles against your forehead as a sign of respect.

Tips for Achieving Successful Intercultural Communications:

1. Do your homework.
2. Ask.
3. Avoid colloquialisms, jokes, and idioms.
4. Practice actively listening and observing.
5. Repeat or confirm what you think was being said.
6. Don't ask yes or no questions.
7. Pay attention to nonverbal communication.
8. Speak slowly and clear.
 MODULE 4: COMMUNICATION FOR VARIOUS PURPOSES

MODULE 4
LESSON 1: PURPOSES OF COMMUNICATION

5 Major Purposes:

1. To inform 4. To influence
2. To express feelings 5. To meet social expectations.
3. To imagine

Each of these purposes is reflected in a form of communication.

Here are some of the best practices for students to comprehend and practice.
1. Develop your listening skills
- focus on the messages being received. Many students commit this practice. Instead of listening to what
their teachers are saying, they listen to what their seatmates are saying, to what music is being played through
their earphones, or busy texting, or imagining what their boyfriends/girlfriends are doing, etc.
2. Pay attention to non-verbal messages
– both those that you send and receive to be able to respond immediately. Likewise, make sure that your
expressions and gestures support the tone of the message you are trying to convey. Take note of the body
language used by others to get an indication of the level of their understanding, agreement, and comfort with
your message.
3. Use positive language
– make sure that your message is presented in such a way that it sounds familiar, encouraging and
positive. Be deliberate in using words and phrases that seek to build connections between you and your target
audience, rather than create barriers or hindrances.
4. Think before you speak
– recognize that is difficult to retract words once they have been said. Pause a moment before
responding or replying to collect your thoughts, calm your emotions and reflect upon the most courteous way to
convey your message.
5. Finally, ask your teachers, deans or school officials, including your classmates what your strongest or
weakest communication skills are.
- improve your weakest points and maintain and sustain your strongest points. Set a development plan
for those that need a little polishing. Commit to communicating with purpose – and see the amazing results you
can achieve.

MODULE 4
LESSON 2: PREPARING A SPEECH AND ORAL REPORT

Types of Speeches According to Purpose

1. The speech to inform is the most common type of speech. As a speaker using this speech, you need to
educate or expose your audience to things or information they are not aware of or they need to know more
about.
Ex: A lecture given by a teacher in a high school or college class
2. The speech to entertain is usually short just to give the audience an enjoyable and relaxing experience. You
can use humorous stories and anecdotes relevant to the occasion. You can also use visual aids to augment your
presentation.
Ex: Reading a book/story to kids
Here are some steps that can guide you in writing and delivering an entertaining speech.
1. Choose a light topic
Do not delve into sensitive issues like politics, gender, or religion. Remember that your audience is
diverse, so be sensitive.
2. Enjoy the moment
Be confident about you story. Look at the reaction of your audience and adjust your speech accordingly.
Make use of the current atmosphere and involve your audience in your story.
3. Visualize the story in your head
Use vivid words to communicate what you really want your audience to imagine.
4. Surprise your audience
Make sure you add some twists in your story before ending. This needs proper timing. The twist can
make or break your speech, so be careful.
3. The speech to persuade aims to influence the thinking or behaviour of its audience. It is the most challenging
speech to write and deliver because you need to organize your speech in a way that is acceptable to your
audience without threatening of forcing them.
Persuasion - “the act of influencing someone to do something or to change their mind”
Ex: A teenager attempting to convince her parents that she needs to be able to stay out until 11pm instead of
10pm.
What is speech or oral report?
The standard oral report consists of:
❑ Introduction

- "tell the audience what you are going to tell them"

❑ Main body

- "tell them"
❑ Conclusion

- "tell them what you have told them"

The introduction should include an overview of the rest of the talk to help the listener understand what you are
going to say.
Oral Presentation Tips
1. Organize your thoughts. Start with an outline and develop good transitions between sections.
2. Have a strong opening.
3. Define terms early.
4. Finish with a bang.
5. Design PowerPoint slides to introduce important information.
6. Time yourself.
7. Create effective notes for yourself.
8. Practice, practice, practice.
MODULE 4
LESSON 3: INFORMATIVE, PERSUASIVE COMMUNICATION AND PUBLIC SPEAKING

1. Informative Communication
When you share something you know about anything under the sun, you are exercising informative
communication.

This purpose of communication is factual, accurate, and unbiased. An informative essay aims to educate
readers. When you write with this purpose, you can use definition, comparison and contrast, narration, or
present a “how-to” of something. Informative essays should not be opinionated nor should it be persuasive.

There are five structures to choose from when writing informative communication:

1. Cause and effect

ex: Because the alarm was not set, we were late for work.

2. Comparison and contrast

Ex: Vancouver has a mild winter, but Halifax has a cold one.

3. Order or sequence
Ex: Earlier, I thought I saw you sitting in the courtyard.
Ex: Consequently, I ran down the stairs to find you.

4. Problem-solution
Ex:
Problem: I easily get sick because of my unhealthy lifestyle.
Solutions: Change your lifestyle.
Eat fruits and vegetables.
Exercise often.

5. Definition
Ex: He is a good boy.

2. Persuasive Communication
Persuasion is the process of convincing people to change their attitude towards an issue and believe
your ideas. It is not similar to coercion because it does not utilize actions that would cause damage or danger to
a person. It employs freedom to choose. Persuasive communication is an effective way to influence how a
person thinks and behaves.

3. Public Speaking
- Public speaking, also called oratory or oration, has traditionally meant the act of speaking face to face
to a live audience. Today, it includes any form of speaking to an audience, including pre-recorded speech
delivered over great distance by means of technology.

Public speaking is a presentation given, live before a crowd of people. It can cover a wide range of
topics. The objective of the speech might be to instruct, influence, engage, educate, or entertain the listeners.
Importance of public speaking comes in handy at every important event of our lives.

MODULE 4
LESSON 4: WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION

Benefits of Effective Communication in a Workplace

1. Helps with Diversity
Effective workplace communication is important in companies with workplace diversity. Good
communication skills help to reduce the barriers erected because of language and cultural differences.

Companies that provide communication training to domestic and international employees reap the
benefits of effective workplace communication.
 Companies can avoid cultural confusion and miscommunication by training international employers
early in their careers and on a regular basis. Effective communication causes productivity to increase, errors to
decrease and operations to run smoother.

2. Global Business Transaction Increases

With global business transaction continually increasing, the need for effective communication to meet
global demands is also increasing. Managers and employees must know how to effectively communicate with
the company’s international counterparts.
The difference in cultures requires managers to understand terms commonly used in a country that
another culture finds offensive. Companies that prepare workers to excel with verbal and nonverbal
communication skills find it easier to enter into global marketplaces than companies that do not prepare their
employees. Effective communication is important for businesses looking to expand beyond their domestic
borders.
3. Team Building
Effective communication in the workplace helps employees and managers form highly efficient teams.
Employees are able who trust each other and management. Effective communication reduces unnecessary
competition within departments and helps employees work together harmoniously.
The result of a team that works together is highly productivity, integrity and responsibility. Employees
know their roles on the team and know they are valued. Managers are able to correct employee’s mistakes
without creating a hostile work environment. A manager who openly communicates with his subordinates can
foster positive relationships that benefit the company as a whole.
4. Employee Morale
An improvement in employee morale can result from effective communication. Although pay is a
concern for many workers, it is not their only concern. Employees appreciate good communication coming
from management. It produces a healthy work environment.
When employees are satisfied with their jobs, they are able to efficiently perform their duties with a
positive attitude. Failing to communicate effectively in a workplace leads to frustration and confusion among
employees. However, managers can alleviate such problems by keeping the lines of communication open.
According to Jennifer Lombardo, a workplace communication or communication in a workplace is the
transmitting of information between one person or group and another person or group in an organization.
Lombardo added that communication is a workplace is vital to an organization’s ability to be productive and
operate smoothly, in three (3) ways:
1. Workplace communication improves worker productivity.
Research has shown that effective lateral and work group communication leads to an improvement in
overall company performance. It has also been discovered that employees who were graded as highest in
production had received the most effective communication from their superiors. For example, Gertrude works
in engineering, and her prototypes of toys receive accolades. She is an effective communicator about her
designs and how they will be played with in real life by kids. In addition, she receives specific guidance from
her superiors, allowing her to create designs quickly and efficiently.
2. Workplace communication can increase employee job satisfaction.
Employees feel empowered if they are able to have upward communication. This type of
communication is when information flows upward in an organization and usually consists of feedback. If bosses
or managers are able to listen to employees and respond, this leads to an increase in employee job satisfaction.
In addition, employees are also happy if there is intense downward communication, which is
information flowing down from superiors or managers to direct reports. Gertrude recently sent an email to her
boss recommending that her department upgrade its design software. Her upward communication feedback was
not just acknowledged but also acted upon, resulting in a very happy design team.
3. Workplace communication can also have a positive effect on absenteeism and turnover rates.
 Communication flow is very important to workers. Employees have to feel secure that they are receiving
truthful and updated information from superiors. They also want to have the ability to share ideas, thoughts and
concerns within the company. Studies have shown that even after a layoff, companies that have excellent
communication are able to retain the surviving employees.
WAYS TO COMMUNICATE I N THE WORKPLACE
1. Open Meeting 11. Act Out Your Message
2. Emails 12. Use The Appropriate Tone of Voice
3. One on One 13. Avoid Unnecessary Repetition
4. Create a Receptive Atmosphere 14. Create a Receptive Atmosphere
5. Communication via Training 15. Be Humorous
6. Display Confidence and Seriousness 16. Be Articulate
7. Use Simple Words 17. Avoid Mumbling
8. Use Visuals 18. Encourage Feedback
9. Listen to Your Team Members 19. Gesticulate
10. Use Body Language 20. Be Appreciative

MODULE 4
LESSON 5: BUSINESS LETTERS, MEMOS, MINUTES AND INCIDENT REPORTS

1. Business Letters
A business letter is a letter from one company to another, or such organizations and their customers,
clients, or other external parties. The overall style of letter depends on the relationship between the parties
concerned.
2. Memos
A memorandum is a written message that is typically used in a professional setting. Commonly
abbreviated "memo," these messages are usually brief and are designed to be easily and quickly understood.
Memos can thus communicate important information efficiently in order to make dynamic and effective
changes.
3. Minutes
Minutes, also known as minutes of meeting (abbreviation MoM), protocols or, informally, notes, are
the instant written record of a meeting or hearing . They typically describe the events of the meeting and may
include a list of attendees, a statement of the activities considered by the participants, and related responses or
decisions for the activities.
Minutes may be created during the meeting by a typist or court reporter, who may
use shorthand notation and then prepare the minutes and issue them to the participants afterwards.
Alternatively, the meeting can be audio recorded, video recorded, or a group's appointed or informally
assigned secretary may take notes, with minutes prepared later. Many government agencies use minutes
recording software to record and prepare all minutes in real-time.
4. Incident Reports
An incident report is a form to document all workplace illnesses, injuries, near misses and accidents. An
incident report should be completed at the time an incident occurs no matter how minor an injury is.

MODULE 4
LESSON 6: COVER LETTER AND CURRICULUM VITAE & INTERVIEW

Cover Letter
A cover letter is an application document you pair with your resume that explains why you want a
particular job, and why you think you’re the right person for that job.
Curriculum Vitae
In English, a curriculum vitae is a short written summary of a person's career, qualifications, and
education. This is the most common usage in both North American and British English. In North America, the
term résumé is a common synonym for CV in the sense of a short career summary
Interview
An interview is a structured conversation where one participant asks questions, and the other provides
answers. In common parlance, the word "interview" refers to a one-on-one conversation between an interviewer
and an interviewee.

MODULE 5: COMMUNICATION FOR WORK PURPOSES

MODULE 5
LESSON 1: BASICS OF WRITING

Basic writing skills: These include spelling, capitalization, punctuation, handwriting, keyboarding,
and sentence structure. Basic writing skills are sometimes called the “mechanics” of writing.

SPELLING

Spelling is a set of conventions that regulate the way of using graphemes to represent a language in its
written form. In other words, spelling is the rendering of speech sound into writing. Spelling is one of the
elements of orthography, and highly standardized spelling is a prescriptive element.

A spelling is the correct order of the letters in a word.

Spelling is the ability to spell words in the correct way. It is also an attempt to spell a word in the correct
way.

Importance of Spelling:

Learning to spell helps a child to develop a strong connection between the letters and their sounds and
learning high-frequency 'sight words' (i.e. words that cannot easily be sounded out) will assist a child in both
their reading and writing.

CAPITALIZATION

Capitalization is the writing of a word with its first letter as an upper case and the remaining letters in
lower case.

What are the 10 rules of capitalization?

1. CAPITALIZE THE FIRST WORD OF A SENTENCE

This is one of the easiest, most straightforward rules of capitalization. Whenever you start a new
sentence, capitalize the first letter of the first word. Simple as that!

Ex:
Incorrect: she goes to school everyday.
Correct: She goes to school everyday.

2. CAPITALIZE PROPER NOUNS AND NAMES

A proper noun is a specific name for a person, place, or thing. These types of nouns should
always be capitalized, no matter where they land in a sentence. Proper nouns include but aren’t limited
to: companies, countries, cities, political parties, and religions.

Names should also be capitalized. That includes first, middle, and last names.

Ex:
Incorrect: He drives a ford F-150 pickup truck.
 Correct: He drives a Ford F-150 pickup truck

Incorrect: We’re going to the Park.

Correct: We’re going to Pastrana Park.

3. CAPITALIZE THE MAJORITY OF TITLES

Capitalization rules for titles can vary from style guide to style guide. As a rule of thumb, you
should capitalize the first word of a title, verbs, adjectives, nouns, and of course, proper nouns. This
leaves prepositions, articles, and conjunctions in lowercase.

Pro Tip: You should also capitalize someone’s title – like Doctor or Judge – if you directly address
them, even if you leave out their name.

Ex:
Incorrect: I’m reading Sample Stories Of the Year.
Correct: Caleb went to the theater to watch The Year of Examples.

Note: Articles, prepositions, and conjunctions shouldn’t be capitalized in titles.

4. CAPITALIZE EVENTS AND PERIODS

You will need to capitalize periods, eras, and specific events. However, centuries and century
numbers should not be capitalized.

Ex:
Incorrect: He watched a documentary about the great depression. - Great Depression (1993)
Correct: He’s fascinated with the Middle Ages.

5. CAPITALIZE “I” AS A PRONOUN

We’re all used to seeing words like iPhone, iPad, and iMac by now. You don’t have to capitalize
the “i” in these words. It would look strange if you did and wouldn’t be grammatically correct.
However, if the “I” is a pronoun, then it should always be uppercase.

Ex:
Incorrect: She bought the latest Iphone. (iPhone)
Correct: Sierra and I have a class together at noon.

Note: The “I” in the incorrect example is part of a trademark that begins with a lowercase letter. It’s
not a pronoun. It shouldn’t be capitalized.

6. CAPITALIZE ANY LOCATIONS AND DIRECT ADDRESSES

When a direction is part of a name, then you should capitalize it. For example, South Bend or
Northern California. However, if it’s just a direction and not part of a name, then it shouldn’t be
capitalized, like “turn east at the stop sign.”

Ex:
Incorrect: The green car is parked on north main street in Chicago.
Correct: The green car is parked on North Main Street in Chicago.

7. CAPITALIZE FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS

When you use a word to indicate a family relationship, it should be capitalized if it’s used as a
proper noun. For instance, “Uncle Bob.” However, if you aren’t referring to that person by name, then it
wouldn’t need to be capitalized. For example, “my grandpa” or “our uncle.”

Ex:
Incorrect: My Aunt owns that building.
Correct: Aunt Nell used to teach there.

8. CAPITALIZE MONTHS, HOLIDAYS, AND DAYS

The names of months, holidays, and days are considered to be proper nouns. This means they
need to be capitalized.
 Knowing this capitalization rule, a lot of people mistakenly capitalize the names of seasons. But
seasons like winter and summer should NOT be capitalized. They are not categorized as proper nouns.
Ex:
Incorrect: My favorite season is Winter.
Correct: We had a party last July at the house.

Note: Seasons do not need to capitalize. The names of the seasons—spring, summer, fall/autumn, and
winter—are common nouns rather than proper nouns.

9. CAPITALIZE TRADEMARK NAMES

Trademark and brand names are typically seen as proper nouns. This means you’ll need to
capitalize them.

Ex:
Incorrect: Shawn’s favorite bottled water is water brand.
Correct: Shawn’s favorite bottled water is Water Brand.

10. DON’T CAPITALIZE AFTER A COLON

The final rule on our list is a little different. This one tells you when NOT to capitalize. In
general, you shouldn’t capitalize the word following a colon. You aren’t starting a new sentence, so
there’s no need for it.

However, there is an exception to this rule. If the first word following a colon is a proper noun,
then it needs to be capitalized.

Ex:
Incorrect: Pauline has one hobby: Singing
Correct: Pauline has one hobby: singing

Incorrect: Liv’s favorite place to go on vacation: florida

Correct: Liv’s favorite place to go on vacation: Florida

Normally, you wouldn’t capitalize a word after a colon. However, if the first word is a proper
noun, then you should.

References: https://writer.com/blog/capitalization-rules/

PUNCTUATION

Punctuation is the use of spacing, conventional signs, and certain typographical devices as aids to the
understanding and correct reading of written text, whether read silently or aloud.

Punctuation is the use of symbols such as full stops or periods, commas, or question marks to divide
written words into sentences and clauses.

Punctuation is the symbols that you use to divide written words into sentences and clauses.

There are 14 punctuation marks that are used in the English language. They are:
1. Period ( . ) – a period is a form of punctuation used to end a declarative sentence

✓ ex: I love the way she makes me smile.

2. Question Mark ( ? ) – are punctuation marks used to end interrogative sentences, or questions

✓ ex: When did you stop smoking?

3. Exclamation Point ( ! ) – exclamation mark or exclamation point is a punctuation mark usually used
after an interjection or exclamation to indicate strong feelings or to show emphasis; warning signs

✓ ex: Get out of the house!

4. Comma ( , ) – separates words, ideas or phrases within a. sentence; used to indicate a pause, or
caesura, in a sentence
 ✓ A caesura (//), also written cæsura and cesura, is a metrical pause or break in a verse
where one phrase ends and another phrase begins. It may be expressed by a comma (, ), a
tick, or two lines, either slashed or upright.

✓ ex: I went to the store to buy milk, eggs, and bread.

5. Colon ( : ) – is a punctuation mark consisting of two equally sized dots aligned vertically; a colon
often precedes an explanation, a list, or a quoted sentence.

✓ ex: The entire family members are really excited: They’re going to Disneyland!

6. Semicolon ( ; ) – most commonly used to link (in a single sentence) two independent clauses that are
closely related in thought

✓ ex: Call me tomorrow; you can give me an answer then.

7. Dash – dash is a horizontal line that shows a pause or break in meaning, or that represents missing
words or letters

✓ hyphen – used to join words and to separate syllables of a single word

ex. I have five-year-old child.

✓ em dash --- replace commas, parentheses, colons, and semicolons

ex: Bob was tired---exhausted.

✓ en dash -- indicate a range of numbers or a span of time

ex: We will plant in August–October.

8. Hyphen – is used to join words and to separate syllables of a single word

9. Brackets [ ] - include information that is not essential to the main point; to contain "extra
information", or information that is not part of the main content

✓ ex: I read that novel [The Great Gatsby] in high school. Lisa said, “[I] can't believe that
he [Brad Pitt] is here!”

10. Braces { } – commonly called curly brackets or curly braces; to clarify a statement that uses multiple
sets of parentheses within other parentheses

✓ ex: The tree (a Christmas tree with red [or was it pink {really, really pink}] ornaments)
looked really nice.

11. Parentheses ( ) – is used to enclose additional, non-essential information to clarify, explain, or add a
side note in a sentence

✓ ex: She is coming to our house after work (around six o' clock). I am going to visit my
grandma (my dad's mom) today.

12. Apostrophe ( ‘ ) is –used to show possession

✓ ex: dog's dinner

13. Quotation Mark ( “ ” ) – use quotation marks if the word or words are meant to imply irony or
sarcasm; highlight certain words within a sentence.

✓ ex: The mayor told the people of his town that he “cares” about their well-being

14. Ellipsis ( … ) – Ellipses save space or remove material that is less relevant
 ✓ Full quotation: "Today, after hours of careful thought, we vetoed the bill."
✓ With Ellipsis: "Today … we vetoed the bill."

HANDWRITING

A Brief History of Handwriting

Early handwriting was based on pictures like the Egyptian system of hieroglyphics, but the first known
alphabet came from the Phoenicians, around the eleventh century BC. This alphabet was eventually used by the
ancient Greeks to develop a script. Then the Romans modified the Greek alphabet to develop the Latin writing,
that our alphabet is based on today.

In the 17th and 18th centuries handwriting was a status symbol. People received penmanship training
and Master Penmen were employed to copy official documents.

As computers became more common in the 1980s and 1990s penmanship became less important and not
such a focus of education in schools.

Handwriting is the writing done with a writing instrument, such as a pen or pencil, in the hand.
Handwriting includes both printing and cursive styles and is separate from formal calligraphy or typeface.
Because each person's handwriting is unique and different, it can be used to verify a document's writer.

Basic Types of Handwriting

1. Cursive Handwriting

Cursive handwriting is 'joined-up' writing where letters are

connected, making it faster to write as you needed to take your pen
off the page less. Cursive handwriting was first developed in the 17th
Century. Before the invention of the typewriter, cursive handwriting
was the preferred style of writing for professionals like lawyers and
doctors.

2. Print Handwriting

Print is a style where letters appear to be disconnected. It

can also be called block letters, print script or manuscript. These
styles are often used to write on official forms. This is because the
cursive style of writing is harder to read.
Print handwriting is when the pen lifts off the page after
each letter. It is considered clearer and easier to read and often
requested when you are filling in forms.

3. Modern Cursive

Modern Cursive Handwriting is a comprehensive guide to

script penmanship for adults and teens, with beginner-friendly
directions and guided practice pages.
There have been lots of variations to cursive writing over
the years to make it easier for children to learn. It has developed to
minimize unnecessary strokes so it is less tiring to write. Nowadays
there are fewer loops and flourishes than in older styles, and the
look is simpler and uncluttered.
As adults, we normally write in a combination of cursive
and print writing that we have developed over our lives.
What does your handwriting say about you?

We all have our own writing style and little quirks when we form our letters. Did you know that, according to
research from the National Pen Company, they are associated with different personality traits?

Letter Shapes

If your writing is curvy with rounded letters you are arty and creative. Sharp and pointy letters indicate you are
intelligent and curious about your surroundings.

Letter Size

Confident, outgoing people tend to write with big letters, whereas smaller writing is thought to indicate you are
shy and introverted. What if your writing is somewhere in the middle? This shows you are adaptable and well
adjusted.

Letter Spacing
People who leave lots of room around each word are said to enjoy freedom and independence, but dislike
feeling crowded. Those who squeeze their words together tend to like the company of others and fear being
alone.

Letter Angle

If your writing slants to the right you look forwards to meeting new people and having new experiences,
whereas a slant to the left means you prefer to keep to yourself and like things the way they are. If your writing
doesn’t slant you are logical and practical.

References:https://www.inscripture.com/inscripture-news/handwriting-styles-what-your-writing-reveals-about-
you/

KEYBOARDING

Keyboarding is the activity of typing information into a computer.

Is it called typing or keyboarding?

Isn't it just typing? The answer is simple: yes, Keyboarding and Typing are the same thing.
Keyboarding is the updated term for what used to be typing on a typewriter.

Keyboarding is a tech skill that is quickly becoming central in education, the marketplace, and in
people's lifestyles as a whole. Typing helps you improve and learn new skills through a computer or any other
device that is keyboard based.

What are basic keyboarding skills?

1. Keying Speed

The number of words someone can accurately type in one minute. Speed of keying remains the basic
goal of keyboarding instruction.

TRIVIA: Currently, the fastest English language typist is Barbara Blackburn, who reached a peak
typing speed of 212 wpm during a test in 2005, using a Dvorak simplified keyboard. The average wpm
speed is only 41.4 words in one minute.

2. Keying Accuracy
 Keying accuracy or typing accuracy is a percentage of correctly entered characters from the total
number of characters in the text.

“I type very fast, but the accuracy of my typing isn't very good.”

3. Keying Technique

Hand position: hands should be flat, but palms of hands not resting on the keyboard. Keep wrists off the
keyboard.

Feet position: feet should be flat on the ground, slightly apart (don't cross).

Eyes: keep eyes on the screen rather than the keyboard or hands.

Following proper keyboarding technique can not only increase speed and accuracy, but prevent
injuries and strains related to the repetitive and time-consuming typing that every college student
experiences.

SENTENCE STRUCTURE

Sentence structure is how the basic grammatical of a sentence are put together. The rules for how a
sentence is constructed are simple but firm. These include the necessity for a subject, predicate, and object (in
that order) in every sentence.

Basic Types of Sentence Structure:

1. Simple Sentence
✓ A simple sentence has the most basic elements that make it a sentence: a subject, a verb, and a
completed thought.
✓ A simple sentence is a sentence that consists of just one independent clause. In other words, a
simple sentence has no dependent clauses.

Example:
Joe waited for the train. The train was late.

2. Complex Sentence
✓ A complex sentence combines a dependent clause with an independent clause. When the
dependent clause is placed before the independent clause, the two clauses are divided by a
comma; otherwise, no punctuation is necessary.
✓ Some examples of conjunctions for dependent clause: as long as, because, after, even if, if,
unless, before, since, though, even though, although, while

Example:
Because the soup was too cold, I warmed it in the microwave.

3. Compound Sentence
✓ A compound sentence is made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating
conjunction
(for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so) and a comma or by a semicolon alone.

Example:
The pirate captain lost her treasure map, but she still found the buried treasure.

4. Compound-Complex Sentence
✓ A compound-complex sentence is comprised of at least two independent clauses and one or more
dependent clauses.

Example:
 I will get to watch television, but first, I have to clean up the dishes after we finish eating

MODULE 5
LESSON 2: SHORT REPORTS

A short report consists of significant information of a particular topic that is meant to inform a reader. A
report may either be oral or written in the report form of a memo or a letter. It generally consists of a summary
of the report, a brief background, a defined purpose, and a conclusion.
PURPOSE: When a brief written communication is necessary and can do the job for the reader. For
example, a weekly or monthly financial or production report can be handled by a Short Report. Or, a proposal
for a simple project or improvement on a process can be written up in a Short Report.

What are the characteristics of short reports?

An ideal report should be clear, concise, accurate and well-organized with clear section headings. What
is the characteristic of a good short report?
It should be factual: Every report should be based on facts, verified information and valid proofs.
Clear and easily understandable: Explained below. Free from errors and duplication.

Why are short reports important?

Short reports are written for readers who need to know the results of your work so that they can make a
decision. Include your conclusions and recommendations only if they are specifically asked for.
What should be included in a report?

There are no firm requirements for what’s included in a report. Every school, company, laboratory, task
manager, and teacher can make their own format, depending on their unique needs. In general, though, be on
the lookout for these particular requirements—they tend to crop up a lot:

Title page: Official reports often use a title page to keep things organized; if a person has to read multiple
reports, title pages make them easier to keep track of.

Table of contents: Just like in books, the table of contents helps readers go directly to the section they’re
interested in, allowing for faster browsing.

Page numbering: A common courtesy if you’re writing a longer report, page numbering makes sure the pages
are in order in the case of mix-ups or misprints.

Headings and subheadings: Reports are typically broken up into sections, divided by headings and
subheadings, to facilitate browsing and scanning.

Citations: If you’re citing information from another source, the citations guidelines tell you the recommended
format.

Works cited page: A bibliography at the end of the report lists credits and the legal information for the other
sources you got information from.

What do short reports focus on?

Use it to: Announce new events or internal changes. They are usually on an organization level. Short
reports are documents with less than ten pages; they're usually informal. They usually are internal reports since
they don't convey a lot of information.
 MODULE 6: COMMUNICATING WITH GENDER SENSITIVITY

MODULE 6
LESSON 1: GENDER SENSITIVE LANGUAGE

Gender-sensitive language is gender equality made manifest

through language. Gender equality in language is attained when
women and men – and those who do not conform to the binary gender
system – are addressed through language as persons of equal value,
dignity, integrity and respect.

Using gender-fair and inclusive language also helps reduce

gender stereotyping, promotes social change and contributes to
achieving gender equality.

What are examples of gender sensitivity?

Indicators of gender-sensitive service include: refraining from discriminating against or stereotyping

clients on the basis of sex or gender, treating all clients with equal respect, offering gender sensitivity training to
all employees, and providing adequate representation of female care providers.

Another example of gendered language is the way the words "Mr.," "Miss," and "Mrs." are used. "Mr."
can refer to any man, regardless of whether he is single or married—but women are defined by their
relationship to men (by whether they are married or not).

Is the Philippines gender sensitive?

While the Philippines is considered as one of the most gender equal countries in the world, Filipino
women still experience very high discrimination in different institutions, including the family, and with regard
to physical integrity, access to productive and financial resources, and civil liberties.

The Philippines has a number of women in especially difficult circumstances. These include:
(i) women in armed conflict
(ii) (ii) women victims of domestic violence
(iii) women in prostitution
(iv) (iv) women in prison
(v) (v) single women

Is Philippines a masculine or feminine culture?

Masculine

The Philippines scores 64 on this dimension and is thus a

Masculine society. In Masculine countries people “live in order to
work”, managers are expected to be decisive and assertive, the
emphasis is on equity, competition and performance and conflicts
are resolved by fighting them out.

MEMORANDUM CIRCULAR NO. 2014-06

SUBJECT: Promoting the Use of Gender-Sensitive Language in the Drafting and

Review of Legislative Measures
DATE : 19 December 2014

Pursuant to Section 14, Article II of the 1987 Constitution, the "State recognizes the role of women in
nation-building, and shall ensure the fundamental equality before the law of women and men." This State Policy
is affirmed in the President's Social Contract with the Filipino People as pursued through Executive Order No.
43 s. 2011, which includes Gender Equality in its sixteen-point agenda and commits to transform the
government "from a lack of concern for gender disparities and shortfalls, to the promotion of equal gender
opportunity in all spheres of public policies and programs."

Recognizing that the use of gender-fair language is the first benchmark of gender sensitivity, the Civil
Service Commission (CSC) issued Memorandum Circular No. 12, series of 2005, attached herein, which
encourages the use of non-sexist language in all official documents, communications and issuances. Republic
Act 9710, otherwise known as the
"Magna Carta of Women," reinforces the use of gender-sensitive language at all times.

While there has been growing observance on the use of gender-sensitive language in government
documents, it has been observed that sexist language and terms are still used in existing laws and in some
proposed legislative measures.
Language shapes thoughts, perceptions and attitudes and, thus, plays a very crucial role in promoting gender
awareness and consciousness. The use of generic masculine terms to refer to both sexes in the text of laws
renders women invisible, and could result to the nonconsideration of their needs and concerns in the
implementation of such laws.

In this regard, heads of agencies shall ensure that their GAD Focal Point Systems coordinate with and
assist their legislative liaison officers in enhancing the gender-sensitivity of legislative measures by
observing the use of gender-sensitive or non-sexist language in the drafting and review of their priority
legislative measures and implementing rules and regulations of laws.

https://pcw.gov.ph/assets/files/2019/04/PCW-MC_2014-06_Promoting-the-Use-of-Gender-Sensitive-
Language-in-the-Drafting-and-Review-of-Legislative-Measures.pdf

MODULE 6
LESSON 2: MULTICULTURALISM/ CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Multiculturalism is a situation in which all the different

cultural or racial groups in a society have equal rights and
opportunities, and none is ignored or regarded as unimportant.

Multiculturalism refers to:

(1) the state of a society or the world in which there

exists numerous distinct ethnic and cultural groups seen to be
politically relevant; and
(2) a program or policy promoting such a society.

What is the importance of multiculturalism?

Multiculturalism has many benefits. The main one

is that it encourages open-mindedness amongst different
groups of people and it dispels negative stereotypes. This is
extremely important as the UN reported that 1/3 of the
world's major conflicts have a cultural dimension to them.

What are the characteristics of multiculturalism?

A multicultural society is characterized by people of
various races, ethnicities, and nationalities living together in the same community. In a multicultural society,
people maintain, pass on, celebrate and share their unique way of life, language, traditions, and cultural
behavior.

What are the three types of multiculturalism?

Three kinds of multiculturalism can be identified as coexisting in the same society: ethnic, linguistic,
and national multiculturalism.

Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person's
own culture. Proponents of cultural relativism also tend to argue that the norms and values of one culture should
not be evaluated using the norms and values of another.
What is cultural relativism and why is it important?

Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a culture on its own terms

and not to make judgments using the standards of one's own culture. The
goal of this is promote understanding of cultural practices that are not
typically part of one's own culture.

What is a good example of relativism?

In other words, it would be morally wrong for Susan to have an
abortion if Susan believed that abortion is always morally wrong. (It would
also be morally wrong, according to relativists, if Susan had an abortion
when she believed that it was wrong for only her to have one.)

Is cultural relativism good or bad?

Is Cultural Relativism good? Cultural relativism is good because it
allows people to practice their beliefs and enjoy their cultural heritage or religious beliefs without having to fear
or have fear of others for why they do what they do.

What is cultural relativism how it affects to our society?

Cultural relativism maintains that man's opinion within a given culture defines what is right and wrong.
Cultural relativism is the mistaken idea that there are no objective standards by which our society can be judged
because each culture is entitled to its own beliefs and accepted practices.

MODULE 6
LESSON 3: GENDER ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

Gender Issue - any issue or concern determined by gender-based

and/or sex-based differences between women and men.
Girls and women suffer most of the negative impact of
rigid gender norms and roles, they are more likely to experience
restrictions of their freedom and mobility, and they experience
epidemic levels of violence and harassment across the globe and
have fewer opportunities to choose how to live their lives.
Women and girls are most likely to experience the negative
impacts of gender discrimination. It can mean restricted access to education, a lower standing in society, less
freedom to make decisions around their personal and family life, and lower wages for the jobs and work they
do.
How does gender issue affect society?
Gender stereotypes affect behaviour, study choices, ambitions and attitudes about relationships. Girls are less
likely to take part in organized sport. Girls are less likely to do advanced math subjects in their final years of
school.

What are the biggest barriers to gender equality?

The survey results:
1. Workplace culture.
2. Lack of female leaders.
3. Gender stereotypes.
4. Lack of flexible work practices.
5. Affordability and accessibility of childcare.
6. Sexism.
7. Lack of mentors.
 8. Societal expectations regarding gender roles (e.g. household work/childcare)

Why is gender important in development?

Gender is an important consideration in development. It is a way of looking at how social norms and
power structures impact on the lives and opportunities available to different groups of men and women.
Globally, more women than men live in poverty.

Why is gender important in society?

Gender is of key importance in defining the power, privilege
and possibilities that some people have and some people do not have
in a given society. It affects progress towards equality and freedom
from discrimination.

End of Lectures.