Make Each Day

Extra-Ordinarily Special

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 Using Maxwell’s Equations, the speed of light in vacuum was found to be about 3 x 108 m/s.
The question is: 3 x 108 m/s relative to what?
Prior to Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity, scientists thought that the speed was relative
to the assumed universal reference frame, the ether.
Thus, Albert Michelson and Edward Morley conducted an experiment, which they hoped would enable
them to prove the existence of the ether.

Michelson-Morley Experiment
• an experiment in which an interferometer was used to detect Earth’s motion through the ether

interferometer
• a device used to measure lengths with nanometer precision by means of interference fringes
 In spite of the high precision of the device used in Michelson-Morley experiment,
it failed to detect Earth’s motion through the ether.
This failure led to Einstein’s Theory of Special Relativity:

Theory of Special Relativity (or, simply, Special Relativity)

• a theory that explains how space and time are linked for objects in an inertial frame of reference
• It is based on two postulates:
i) The laws of Physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference.
ii) The speed of light in vacuum is the same in all inertial frames of reference.

• The 1st postulate implies that there is no experiment that can distinguish an inertial frame that is at rest
and one that is moving at constant velocity.

• The 2nd postulate implies the dependence of distance and time measurements (since speed involves distance
and time) on the state of motion of the observer, which leads to counterintuitive consequences such as:
a) time dilation
b) length contraction
c) mass-energy equivalence
d) relativistic momentum
e) relativistic velocity addition

inertial frame of reference

• a frame of reference that is either at rest or moving with constant velocity

postulate
• a statement that is assumed to be true
Time Dilation
• lengthening of the time interval between two events when seen in a moving inertial frame
• Time Dilation Equation:
t = γt0
t = dilated time interval
= time interval between two events measured by an observer who views the events as occurring at
different places
t0 = proper time interval
= time interval between the events measured by an observer who views the events as occurring at
the same place
γ = Lorentz factor
= 1/(1 – v2/c2)1/2 (v = relative speed of the two observers, c = speed of light in vacuum)
• In dealing with time dilation, decide which time interval is the proper time interval according to the
following two steps:
i) Identify the two events that define the time interval.
ii) Determine the reference frame in which the two events occur at the same place; an observer
at rest in this frame measures the proper time interval.

event
• a physical occurrence in particular place and time
Lorentz factor
• expresses how much time, length, and other physical properties change for an object while that object is moving.
 In 1971, American physicists Joseph Hafele and Richard Keating verified time dilation at low relative
velocities by flying extremely accurate atomic clocks around the world on commercial jets.

Since the speed of a jet plane is considerably less than c, the time-dilation effect is extremely small.
However, the atomic clocks were accurate to about ±10-9 s, so the effect could be measured.

The clocks were in the air for 45 h, and their times were compared to reference atomic clocks on land.
The experimental results revealed that, within experimental error, the readings on the clocks on the planes
were different from those on land by an amount that agreed with the prediction of Relativity.
 One of the puzzling consequences of time dilation is known as the twin paradox,
a thought experiment involving identical twins,
one of whom makes a journey into space in a high-speed rocket
and returns home to find that the twin who remained on Earth has aged more.

However, due to an incorrect application of time dilation, instead of the above result,
each should paradoxically find the other to have aged less.

The paradox is resolved by realizing that the travelling twin is undergoing acceleration,
which makes her a non-inertial observer and it is, therefore,
incorrect to claim that she observes the same effects as her Earth-bound twin.
Length Contraction
• shortening of the measured length of an object that is moving relative to the observer's frame of
reference:

Spaceship Moving at 0.9c

Spaceship Moving at Ordinary Speed

• Length Contraction Equation:

L = γ-1L0
L = contracted length
= length of an object that is measured in an inertial frame in which the object is moving
L0 = proper length
= length of an object that is measured in an inertial frame in which the object is at rest
γ = Lorentz factor
• This length contraction occurs only along the direction of motion. Those dimensions that are
perpendicular to the motion are not shortened.
 It should be emphasized that the word “proper” in the phrases proper time and proper length
does not mean that these quantities are the correct quantities in any absolute sense.

If this were so, the observer measuring these quantities would be using a preferred reference frame
for making the measurement, a situation that is prohibited by the first postulate.
According to this postulate, all inertial frames are equivalent.

Therefore, when two observers are moving relative to each other at a constant velocity,
each measures the other person’s clock to run more slowly than his own,
and each measures the other person’s length to be contracted!
Mass-Energy Equivalence
• a principle in Special Relativity which states that all objects having mass have a corresponding intrinsic
energy, even when they are stationary.
• For an object of mass m moving at a speed v, Einstein showed that the total energy E is given by:

E = γmc2
• For the special case where v = 0, the total energy of the object is called the rest energy E0 and is given by:

E0 = mc2
• When an object is accelerated from rest to a speed v, the object, in addition to its rest energy, acquires
kinetic energy KE and is given by:

KE = E - E0 = mc2E(γ – 1)
• The principle of Mass-Energy Equivalence implies that a gain or loss of mass can be regarded equally
well as a gain or loss of energy.
• Thus, any change in energy of a system causes a change in mass of the system:

ΔE0 = (Δm)c2
• It does not matter whether the change in energy is due to a change EM energy, potential energy,
thermal energy, or so on.
• And while any change in energy gives rise to a change in mass, in most instances the change in mass is
too small to be detected.
 Momentum is one of the most important concepts in Physics.
The broadest form of Newton’s 2nd Law is stated in terms of momentum.
Momentum is conserved whenever the net external force on a system is zero,
making momentum conservation a basic tool for analyzing collisions.
In Classical Physics, momentum p is a simple product of mass m and velocity v.
However, when special relativity is taken into account, massive objects have a speed limit.
The first postulate of relativity states that the laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames.
Does the law of conservation of momentum survive this requirement at high velocities?
The answer is YES, provided that the momentum is a relativistic momentum:

Relativistic Momentum
• momentum of objects having speeds comparable to the speed of light, and is given by:

p = γmv
p = magnitude of the relativistic momentum of an object
m= rest mass of the object
v = speed of object relative to an observer
γ = Lorentz factor

In Modern Physics, relativistic momentum is conserved,

and much of what we know about subatomic structure comes from the analysis of collisions
of accelerator-produced relativistic particles.
• The velocity of an object relative to an observer plays a central role in Special Relativity, for the effects
on time, length momentum, and energy depend on how fast the relative motion is.

• To determine the velocity of an object relative to an observer, it is sometimes necessary to

add two or more velocities.
• For instance, suppose a truck is moving at a constant velocity of v = +15 m/s toward an
observer. Suppose also that someone on the truck throws a ball toward the observer at a
velocity of u’ = +8.0 m/s relative to the truck:

u’ = +8.0 m/s

v = +15.0 m/s
• We might conclude that the observer sees the ball approaching at a velocity u = u’ + v = +23
m/s.
• Although this conclusion seems reasonable, careful measurements would show that this is
not quite right. Why?

• Because if the velocity of the truck were sufficiently close to the speed of light c, the
equation u = u’ + v would predict that the observer could see the ball moving at a velocity
greater than c.
• This is an impossibility, since no object with a finite mass can move faster than c. (See next
slide.)
• For the case where the “truck” and the “ball” are moving along the same direction, the
velocities should be related according to relativistic velocity addition formula:

u = (u’ + v)/(1 + u’v/c2)

u = velocity of the “ball” as measured by the observer on Earth
u’ = velocity of the “ball” as measured by the observer on the “truck,” which itself is moving at a velocity
v relative to Earth

Note:
• When motion occurs along a straight line, the velocities in the formula can have either + or – values,
depending on whether they are directed along the + or – direction.
One of the important results of Special Relativity is that objects with mass cannot reach the speed of light c.
Thus, the speed of light c represents the ultimate speed.

To see that this speed limitation is a consequence of Special Relativity,

consider the equation for the kinetic energy of a moving object:
KE = mc2E(γ – 1)
where γ = 1/(1 – v2/c2)1/2. As v approaches c, the denominator in γ approaches 0.
Hence, the kinetic energy becomes infinitely large.

However, according to the Work-Energy Theorem,

an infinite amount of work have to be done to give the object an infinite kinetic energy.

Since an infinite amount of work is not available,

we are left with the conclusion that:
Objects with mass cannot attain the speed of light c.