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This paper was prepared for presentation at the Offshore Technology Conference Asia held in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 22–25 March 2016.
This paper was selected for presentation by an OTC program committee following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the author(s). Contents
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Abstract
This paper provides a comparative study between gas to liquids (GTL) technologies that are targeted at
capturing stranded and associated gas. As a result, it should act as a preliminary guide to oil and gas
operators who intend to gain an overview of available miniaturised technologies. Subsequently, this would
assist operators with decision making regarding potential monetization of stranded and associated gas
available in their oilfields. The miniaturised GTL technologies will be compared by collating data
published from the companies’ website, online publications and journals as well as correspondence
between the author and company representatives. The paper examines intrinsic differences between the
fundamental chemistry between technologies used to produce synthesis gas in terms of steam methane
reforming, autothermal reforming and partial oxidation. Figures shall be used to compare the maturity and
commercial readiness of technologies provided by GTL companies. Maturity and commercial readiness
will be based on the availability of a pilot plant showcase and activity of the companies in presenting their
technology at oil and gas conferences. In addition, the status of the respective companies and their current
affiliates will be described. In summary, this paper provides a list of players in the GTL atmosphere who
are actively seeking to innovate the GTL process to make it feasible to handle stranded and associated gas;
i.e. monetizing small volumes of gas that would otherwise be overlooked or flared.
Introduction to GTL
The gas to liquid (GTL) process was developed in the early 1900’s and has experienced global success
with facilities being constructed in various countries such as Malaysia, South Africa and Qatar [6]. These
GTL facilities are constructed to capture and monetize large volumes of natural gas present in the
respective regions. Large scale GTL plants are capable of producing up to 140,000 barrels per day (bpd)
of synthetic liquid hydrocarbons. As such, these GTL plants are highly capital intensive. For instance,
Shell’s Pearl GTL facility in Ras Laffan, Qatar cost the company approximately USD18-19 billion and
utilizes large volumes of natural gas feedstock; up to 1.6 billion cubic feet per day (bcf/d) [8]. As new
discoveries of large green fields are becoming increasingly scarce, there is a shift towards monetizing
smaller volumes of natural gas present in marginal fields and brownfields. It is in these types of fields
where smaller scale or miniaturized GTL technology are becoming an increasingly viable option.
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Proven natural gas reserves globally stand at approximately 187.1 trillion cubic meters (tcm) [1].
Associated gas is currently being flared on platforms and stranded gas is often deemed unfeasible for
monetization due to limitations in terms of cost and availability of technologies to capture this valuable
resource. There is a significant monetary gain if flared gas is captured and monetized as the total flared
natural gas amounts to approximately 5 Tcf globally [2].
Besides financial gain, there is a global movement towards zero flaring for oil fields. The initiative is
from both local governments and private sectors that aim to capture associated gas which is currently burnt
off as there are no other viable options to monetize this hydrocarbon resource [6]. This movement is aided
by the World Bank and its Global Gas Flaring Reduction (GGFR) authority which provides flaring data
and supports oil companies find the best possible method of managing their flares. Table 1 shows the
countries, oil companies and organizations that are actively involved with GGFR in flaring reduction [5].
This is indicative of the vested interest of various entities committed to address the issue of their flaring
operations.
The parties listed in Table 1 are continually looking at ways to reduce their flaring operations. This is
where technologies such as gas to liquids come into play. Figure 1 shows the available technologies
capable of capturing and monetizing associated and stranded gas.
OTC-26473-MS 3
[3]
Figure 1—Available Technologies for Capturing Associated and Stranded Gas
For the purpose of capturing associated gas, there are numerous technologies available. Based on
Figure 1, the volume of gas handled and its distance to market play a key role in determining technology
selection. Available methods such as liquefied natural gas (LNG) and compressed natural gas (CNG)
require physical change of state for natural gas which in turn requires specialty handling and storage
equipment. LNG requires extensive dehydration for the removal of water to sub-ppm level, which makes
the gas acceptable for the downstream cryogenic unit or for export requirements [6]. The required
infrastructure and highly specialized equipment making it capital intensive to implement especially on a
smaller scale. As a result, Figure 1 indicates that GTL technology is ideal for monetizing low volumes of
gas for transportation over large distances.
Moreover, the need for smaller scale versions of GTL plants have arisen due to the following factors:
i. The disparity between natural gas and crude oil prices[6]
ii. Demand for cleaner fuels in some regions such as North America. Diesel produced from synthetic
crude oil have low sulfur content and high cetane number providing a cleaner burn with less CO2
emissions. [6]
iii. Growing natural gas reserve estimates. A large part of the reserves are located more than 5,000 km
from centers of consumption are not able to utilize traditional transport technologies. Gas is more
abundant than oil. Additionally, prices in most locations are lower than oil. For example, the shale
gas revolution in North America indicates low-cost natural gas feedstock for the foreseeable
future. [6]
iv. Infrastructure for the transport and distribution of liquid fuels is already in place and can be used
to market GTL products. [6]
[6]
Figure 3—Typical Cost Breakdown for GTL facility
The following section of the paper describes the various technologies used in synthesis gas production
in further detail.
Steam Methane Reforming (SMR)
Steam reforming of hydrocarbons is often deemed the benchmark technology for the production of
hydrogen in refineries. SMR can be performed in various different types of reactors. The major types of
reactors are adiabatic, tubular and heat exchanger reformers. The key reactions in this process are
summarized in the Table 2. The enthalpy of the reactions are shown to gauge the potential energy
requirements for each process and to identify whether reactions are endothermic (energy consuming) or
exothermic (energy producing).
OTC-26473-MS 5
As shown in Table 2, SMR is an endothermic reaction, consuming 206 kJ/mol of energy. The output
also consists of a 3:1 ratio of carbon monoxide to hydrogen. The the ideal ratio of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen is 2:1 as it enables the efficient production of synthetic crude in the downstream F-T process.
A summary of the various characteristics of SMR technology is described in Table 3.
[4,12,13]
Table 3—SMR Technology Characteristic and Explanation
Item Characteristic Explanation
Based on Table 4, ATR can be seen as a technology which combines both SMR and partial oxidation
(POX). This is because both combustion (POX) and reforming (SMR) are present within the process. This
technology has also seen applications in large scale GTL facilities onshore. A summary of the various
characteristics of ATR technology is described in Table 5.
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[4,12,13]
Table 5—ATR Technology Characteristic and Explanation
Item Characteristic Explanation
Partial oxidation produces energy as seen in its negative enthalpy. It also produces a hydrogen to
carbon monoxide ratio of 2 which is ideal for feedstock into the FT reactor. A summary of the various
characteristics of POX technology is described in Table 7.
[4,12,13]
Table 7—POX Technology Characteristic and Explanation
Item Characteristic Explanation
Cost Low ● Cost of reactor is low as partial oxidation process shows fastest reaction times resulting in compact
reactor requirements.
● Low heat supply requirements
● No steam required
● Desulphurisation of feed not necessary
Product Composition Ideal ● Hydrogen to carbon monoxide ratio close to 2.
● Minimal CO2 production
Heat Requirements Low ● Heat required for reaction ignition. Reaction proceeds further independently as process is exothermic.
Oxygen Requirement Yes ● Reaction is based on oxygen mixing with hydrocarbon feedstock over catalyst at a specific ratio, thus
supply of oxygen to reactor is essential.
Robustness High ● Considered to be more tolerant to sulphur and other contaminants in feedstock
● Disadvantage – High temperatures could lead to catalyst degradation.
oils. This implied that synthetic products could be produced from sources of hydrogen and carbon
monoxide [15].
The reactions that take place in an FT reactor are summarized in Table 8.
[14]
Table 8 —Chemical Reactions involved in FT Process
Primary Reactions Chemical Equation
The FT reaction has been around long enough for various companies to work laboriously in optimizing
the catalyst and reactor configuration. Most GTL companies now tout a catalyst lifespan of around 2 years
and low energy requirements of their FT reactors. The history of FT process and their progress throughout
the last decade is shown in Table 9.
[15]
Table 9 —History of the FT Process
Year FT Developments
The findings were then described on a graph with overall risk and time to commercialisation considered
based on the information processed by the author. This was then represented in a figure as shown in Figure
5.
[2]
Figure 4 —Overall Risk and Time to Commercialization for various GTL companies – Dec’ 2013
[2]
Figure 5—Overall Risk and Time to Commercialization for various GTL companies – Jan’14 Update
The report then commented on the state of new and emerging GTL companies. The new mini GTL
players that were introduced are shown in Table 11.
OTC-26473-MS 9
For the new GTL players, the report published a similar comparison which outlines the overall risk and
time to commercialization of these companies. This is represented in Figure 5.
It should be noted that this report was updated in January 2014, after which some of the companies
listed have made progress in terms of technology development, commercial sale and tie-ins with other
companies that are keen on reducing their flaring operations to make way for natural gas monetization.
The following section of the paper discusses individual companies and their status in GTL development
based on publicly available information. In particular, it briefly describes their technology and provides
information on their progress based on press releases and presentations made at conferences around the
globe.
Mini-GTL Company Update
CompactGTL
CompactGTL’s patented process uses a 2 stage FT process which it claims can significantly increase
catalyst life and reduce operating costs [17]. Based on its simplified process flow diagrams (PFDs) shown
during the 2015 International Gas Technology Conference, the company provides proprietary Compact
GTL SMR and FT modules. As an option, CompactGTL may provide a hydro-processing unit that
separates synthetic diesel product. If this option is unutilized, the products from the FT reactor would
include waxes, naphtha, waxes and middle distillates that may be blended with natural crude.
The company has a 0.2 MMscfd demonstration plant in Aracaju, Brazil which cost USD 45 million to
build. The unit was built as part of an agreement between CompactGTL and Petrobras that was signed in
2008 [52]. CompactGTL provides option to use conventional SMR or ATR modules as well. Based on
information on their website, CompactGTL has a collaborative agreement with Single Buoy Moorings
Inc. (SBM) for offshore GTL solutions.
In March 2014, MoU was signed with Kazakhstan Oil Ministry. The plant is to be located in the
Aktobe region and would accept gas that would otherwise be flared. The plant is scheduled to be
operational some time in 2018 [29]. The 2,500 bpd plant in Kazakhstan is estimated to cost USD$275
million [17].
In December 2015, CompactGTL announced its settlement in the patent infringement case with
Velocys for an undisclosed amount. The patent lawsuit was filed against CompactGTL’s activities at its
Wilton pilot plant facility which infringed two separate patents [29].
Velocys
Velocys presented at the Global FPSO forum on the 18th of September 2015. Here, the company touted
15 years and over USD$300 million spent on product development. Their patent portfolio is also extensive
with more than 7,600 granted GTL patent claims. Besides that, Velocys has a suite of partners which help
deliver their GTL facility. Their partners include Haldor Topsoes, Ventech, Hatch, Mourik, MODEC and
Toyo [16]. Based on information on their presentation at the conference, Velocys has a collaborative
agreement with Mitsui Ocean Development & Engineering Co., Ltd (MODEC) for its offshore GTL
solutions.
Velocys offers both SMR and FT technology but information on its website is more towards the
description of its FT reactor. It claims to have a high CO conversion (⬎91%) using a 1 stage (with recycle)
approach [32].
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In May 15 2015, ENVIA Energy, LLC held the ground-breaking ceremony for its first gas-to-liquids
(GTL) plant. ENVIA Energy Oklahoma City, LLC, is to be located adjacent to Waste Management’s East
Oak landfill site. This project was executed as part of a joint venture formed in March 2014 between
various companies. In particular, ENVIA Energy is a Joint Venture between Waste Management, Inc
(NYSE:WM), NRG Energy, Inc (NYSE:NRG), Ventech Engineers International LLC, and Velocys plc
(LSE:VLS) [30].
This project is key to Velocys as it would provide a commercial reference plant for the use of Velocys’
technology with a combination of landfill gas/natural gas as feedstock and will deploy a number of
Velocys’ full scale Fischer-Tropsch reactors [30].
The fabrication of the FT reactors was officially completed on the 2nd of September 2015 with all
ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers) certifications required for the reactors prior to
installation and commissioning of the plant have been issued. In addition, all other QA/QC protocols have
been fully achieved [31].
Greyrock
Greyrock claims to have over 10 years of engineering design and refinement of its GTL technology. It’s
Direct Fuel Production™(DFP) platform enables value creation by transforming flare gas, bio-gas, natural
gas or natural gas liquids into premium diesel fuel. In addition, Greyrock’s proprietary GreyCat™
catalyst, directly converts syngas into diesel fuel with high selectivity. The catalyst is unique as it
eliminates the wax upgrading stage and therefore reduces complexity and cost associated with small scale
DFP systems [51]. The company also has a commercial demonstration facility in Toledo, Ohio and a pilot
plant in Sacramento, California [2]. Its system can handle a feedstock with ethane, propane, butane,
associated gas and waste gas.
28 September 2015 saw Greyrock announcing its performance results from the testing of the
company’s zero sulfur design fuel. The press release also indicated that Greyrock’s diesel fuel meets
existing ASTM standards, but also has premium properties including zero sulfur, no aromatics, high
cetane and excellent lubricity. The diesel produced can also be used as a blend-stock to upgrade the quality
of petroleum-based diesel fuels [25].
The company advocates the use of DME in commercial vehicles. 26 February 2015 saw the state of
California approving DME for legal use as a vehicle fuel resulting in positive growth for Oberon fuels [35].
On 15 September 2015, Oberon partnered with Ford and FVV on 3 year, $3.5 million euro deal to test
world’s first production passenger car running on DME [23].
Verdis Fuels
Verdis Fuels’ Gas to Diesel technology is bolstered by its catalyst that it claims to improve on the
traditional Fischer Tropsch process thanks to the patented cobalt-ruthenium based catalyst [38]. The
company also has had its process reviewed and endorsed by the World Bank Global Gas Flaring
Reduction Partnership.
Verdis provides solutions for fixed and mobile units. Fixed units have capacities of 4MMscfd
producing 400 barrels of diesel. Mobile units can be as small as 0.25 MMscfd producing 25 barrels of
diesel [20]. There is no current information on its website.
Synfuels International Inc.
Synfuels International’s technology converts methane to acetylene in a pyrolysis reactor which is then
converted in ethylene [21]. As such, the company claims that their technology is superior over the
12 OTC-26473-MS
traditional Fischer Tropsch process as it dramatically reduces capital costs and plants can be configured
to produce a variety of products, syuch as gasoline blendstock, ethylene and acetylene [39].
In April 2015, SABIC Global Technologies, a subsidiary of Saudi Basic Industries Corporation
announced that it has executed an agreement with Synfuels to license its patented process [22].
Primus Green Energy
Primus GE’s primary selling point is that their GTL unit produces no wastewater produced and represents
a single loop process. The company markets its technology as STG⫹ technology (STG⫹ - Syngas to
Gasoline Plus). The first step uses conventional Steam Methane Reforming (SMR). Intermediate steps
involve production of methanol and DME before gasoline is produced. Thus, their GTL can produce either
methanol, dimethyl ether (DME) or gasoline. The company claims to handle a feedstock of 4 MMscfd and
above [41].
Primus GE built a USD$12 million demonstration plant in 2013 producing 5 barrels of oil per day. The
main investor for Primus’ technology is IC Energy. Total investment in technology development is
USD60 million [42].
On October 2015, Jereh, a world leading oil and gas company agreed to collaborate and launched
Jereh-Primus GTL solution. Jereh and Primus will jointly market and deploy their range of GTL systems
which includes gas-to-gasoline and gas-to-methanol systems [40].
Siluria Technologies
Siluria Technologies use oxidative coupling of methane in a direct catalysed reaction to produce ethylene
and water. Siluria also offers the option for a second stage called Ethylene to Liquids (ETL). This process
converts ethylene produced into liquid hydrocarbons [45].
On the 1st of April 2015, the company announced the successful start-up of its demonstration plant
located in La Porte, Texas which Siluria wholly owns. This was a landmark day as the plant represented
the world’s first large-scale production of ethylene directly from natural gas through Oxidative Coupling
of Methane (⬙OCM⬙) [43]. The demonstration plant is designed to produce approximately one ton of
ethylene per day (350⫹ tons per year) [44].
Emerging Fuels Technology
Emerging Fuels Technology utilises its own advanced fixed bed FT catalyst/reactor system. This system
has been developed by its R&D team and the company claims that its reactor productivity is 2-3 times
more than a conventional fixed bed reactor system [48].
In November 2014, Black & Veatch and Emerging Fuels Technology, Inc. (EFT) agreed to collaborate
in hopes to propel their initiative market alternative/renewable transportation fuel projects worldwide [47].
EFT was recently selected to collaborate in the supply of its Fischer Tropsch technology for conversion
of syngas to diesel and jet fuel to Fulcrum BioEnergy. The unit will be part of a bio refinery using
gasification technology to convert municipal solid waste into syncrude that will be upgraded into jet fuel.
The contract is worth approximately USD$200 million [46].
Proton Ventures
Proton Ventures differs from most GTL technologies as its target output is ammonia. Their process is
available in modular skids capable of producing 120 kg/hr of ammonia [49]. Another unique feature of this
technology is the ability of the plant to run for 15 years with catalyst change [2]. This capability has a
significant advantage as most GTL plants using F-T reactors have catalysts with a limited two year
lifespan.
Proton Ventures has a partnership with Casale and have developed 1000 tonnes/year mini-ammonia
plants. [49] The company has yet to release any new information in the news update section of its website.
For other companies provided in the list, information that is publicly available has been limited. The
companies with limited press releases and update are shown in Table 13.
OTC-26473-MS 13
Conclusion
Gas to liquids is a technology that has been tried and tested in an industrial scale. Since the early 1900’s,
governments and private companies have been working diligently to develop this technology that offers
them a means to diversify their revenues from natural gas feedstocks. At the turn of the 21st century, GTL
is now seen as a means to solve one of the oil and gas industry’s most pertinent challenge; to curb flaring
operations in a commercially viable manner. Companies that were established in the mid to late 2000’s
are now ready to bring their technology out of their research labs and into the commercialization.
Leading the pack are CompactGTL and Velocys, both of which have secured contracts to bring their
GTL facilities into active projects in Kazakhstan and the United States respectively. Other players who
are active in this space are INFRA technology who have successfully fabricated their GTL units and
delivered them to their respective clients. Greyrock Energy and Oberon Fuels have also seen success in
their GTL technology and future potential for offshore placement could become a reality.
The main goal of these minitiarusied GTL companies are to turn hydrocarbons, mainly methane gas,
into some sort of high value fuel. Most opt for the synthesis gas and FT reaction route, however, there are
some such as Gas Technologies and Synfuels International that are promoting their alternative process to
achieve the same goal.
At this juncture, it is imperative that oil and gas operators make reasonable assessments of these
technologies by visiting the pilot plants built by many of the miniaturized GTL companies and verifying
their claims. Although the cost of such technology may be relatively high, operators should plan for when
government bodies and industry regulators impose strict fines on flaring in the future. With the help of
studies and data provided by the World Bank via its Global Gas Flaring Reduction partnership pro-
gramme, operators will equipped with the best knowledge in the Gas to Liquids space to bring this
technology into fruition.
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