Philosophy and Its Sub-Areas

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Dr. Anupam Yadav
Defining Features of Philosophy

• Philo+Sophia = love of knowledge/wisdom

• Rational, reflective and critical inquiry (not scientific,
empirical, experimental)
• Scope of philosophy: fundamental nature and principles of
existence, knowledge, mind, values, language etc.
• The fundamental laws or underlying principles or the
essential nature of things, i.e. Truth or Reality.
• Baroque and Romantic Art – What art essentially is.
• Normative Function

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 Defining Features of Philosophy

Subject Matter:
Bertrand Russell: Philosophy is ‘no man’s land’ exposed to attacks both from theology
& science.
• Is the world divided into mind and matter?
• What is mind and what is matter?
• Is mind subject to matter, or is it possessed of independent powers?
• Does the universe have any unity or purpose?
• Is it evolving towards some goal?
• Are there really laws of nature, or do we believe in them only because of our innate
love of order?
• Is there a way of living that is noble and another that is base, or are all ways of
living merely futile?
• If there is a way of living that is noble, in what does it consist, and how shall we
achieve it?

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Conversational
The virtuous man, Meno confidently informed Socrates, was someone of great wealth who
could afford good things. Socrates asked a few more questions:

SOCRATES: By good do you mean such things as health and wealth?

MENO: I include the acquisition of both gold and silver, and of high and honorable office in
the state.
SOCRATES: Are these the only kind of good things you recognize?
MENO: Yes, I mean everything of that sort.
SOCRATES: … Do you add ‘just and righteous’ to the word ‘acquisition’, or doesn’t it
make any difference to you? Do you call it virtue even if they are unjustly acquired?
MENO: Certainly not.
SOCRATES: So it seems that justice or temperance or piety, or some other part of virtue
must attach to the acquisition [of gold and silver] … In fact, lack of gold and silver, if it
results from a failure to acquire them … in circumstances which would have made their
acquisition unjust, is itself virtue.
MENO: It looks like it.
SOCRATES: Then to have such goods is no more virtue than to lack them …
MENO: Your conclusion seems inescapable.

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Defining Features

Methods:
• Socratic- Dialogical, Questioning, conceptual
clarification, definitions
• Plato – Dialectic
• Method of doubt (Rene Descartes)

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Traditional Divisions

Metaphysics
First principles, causes of things
Appearance/Reality (Beyond the world of visible and
perceptible there is a world of Ideas or Forms which give
reality to the changeable things)
Structure of reality, existence, causality, mind, matter,
consciousness
Substance: Monism, dualism, pluralism
Space, Time
Free will & determinism
Allegory of Cave
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Epistemology

Theories of Knowledge about the origin and process of

knowledge.
Episteme and doxa
• What are the criteria and limits of Knowledge.
• Sources of Knowledge
• Which are reliable? Senses or Reason?
• Faulty Knowledge and theories of Error
Logic
Science of correct reasoning and is the basis of all
inquiries.

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Philosophy of Religion

Religious language
The question about the belief in the existence of God and
Proofs
Ontological Proof
Causal Proof
Teleological Proof
Pantheism: Nature is God, Immanence of divinity
Absolute Indefinable Highest Being
Immortality of the Soul

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Ethics

The question of the good and bad, right and wrong

actions.
Its not about the prescriptions but knowing about what
‘good’ is:
Various ethical theories:
• Deontological Theory
• Utilitarian Theories
• Virtue Ethics
Questions of Justice, Moral Dilemma

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Aesthetics

Philosophy of art

• Appreciation of art experience or taste and beauty in natural

and artistic creations.
• Does it have a validity of its own?

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 Pre-Socratic Greek
Philosophy
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Dr. Anupam Yadav
Development of Early
Greek Thought
 The early Greek thinking rooted in religious thinking and having
traces of the mythical ideas, developed in complex and comprehensive
systems, laid the foundation to the Western Philosophy. The early
Greek thinking is the product of the Hellenic civilization, flourished in
Athens, Rome, Alexandria and in Asia Minor.

 The initial orientations of their thinking were directed toward inquiries

into the essence of the objective world.

Gradually the interests shifted from the objective reality to the study
of the human mind and of the human conduct: of logic, ethics,
psychology, politics, and poetics.

In the course of investigation, the study of metaphysics and of human

knowledge also became indispensible. And finally the problem of God
and man’s relation to him became central.

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 The Problem of Substance
 Thales:
Thales was born in Miletus, a colony of Greece, about 624 B.C.
According to him, water is the original stuff, basing it on the fact
that nourishment, heat, seed which are essential to life contain
moisture.
He believed in the process of transformation and looked upon
nature as moving, acting and changing.
 Anaximander:
To him, the essence of the things is not water but the Boundless
or Infinite, an eternal, imperishable substance out of which all
things are made. It is understood as an “indeterminate potential
matter” or “qualitative undifferentiated matter”. Contd.

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The Problem of Substance

From this mass of ‘undifferentiated matter’ different

substances are separated; first the hot and then the cold,
the hot surrounding the cold as a sphere of flame…..

 Anaximenes:
The first principle of things is One and Infinite, but not
undifferentiated. It is Air according to him. The reason for
selecting this is that being dry and cold it is intermediate
between fire (warm and dry) and water (cold and moist).
Air or breath is the life-giving element. As man’s soul,
which is air, holds him together so it also sustains the
whole world. The cosmic air is animate, extends infinitely
through space and sustains the whole world.

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Pythagoreans
 Pythagoras, the founder of this group, was less interested in
the essence of things than with the question of the form and
relations of things. As mathematicians they were interested in
quantitative relations, which are measurable, and they began
to speculate upon the problem of the uniformity or regularity
in the world.
Numbers are the principles of things, not as being stuff or
substance but as their formal or relational structure. Things
are the copies or imitation of numbers. (This distinction
between matter and form became central to Platonic and
Aristotelian systems of metaphysics)
Numbers are odd and even, so limited and unlimited. The
corporeal world is also numerical being based on the unit.
The point is one, the line two, figure three, solid four.
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The Problem of Change

The early physicists focused on the primal unity and its

transformation. The problem of Change didn’t draw their
attention.
 Heraclitus: The Universe is in the state of ceaseless
change. “One cannot step twice into the same river”. He
chose the most mobile substance as the first principle, i.e,
fire. Fire changes into water and then into earth, and the
earth changes back into water and fire. The way upward
and the downward are one. Everything is in permanent flux
though we do not perceive them.
The world is a union of opposites, there is a harmony.

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 Parmenides’ Idea of Permanence

 Parmenides was a metaphysician and challenged

Heraclitus’ teaching that everything changes. Fire
becomes water , water earth and earth fire. How can a
thing both be and not be? If being is also becoming; it
must have come either from non-being or from being. If
it has come from non-being, it comes from nothing
which is impossible, if from being then it has come
from itself. It is identical with itself.
Being and thought is one, i.e. reality is rational. It is
homogeneous, continuous and eternal. The world of
senses is illusion.
Logical thought compels us to see the world as a unity,
as unchangeable. But he does not explain how the idea
of permanence and change can be reconciled.
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Xenophanes

In Xenophanes we find the first traces of scepticism in Greek

thought. Absolutely certain knowledge about God and
nature of things is impossible. Our conjectures might
approach the truth.
He was a theologian who believed that God is one, eternal
and unlimited and rejected polytheism.
He was also a pantheist. Seeing oneness with God and the
forces of nature. He was interested in reducing God to the
level of the forces of nature, rather than elevating the world
to the level of the divine. He didn’t resolve the
incompatibility between the One and the sensible world of
the constant changes.

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Zeno: the Dialectician

He was a pupil of Parmenides. He challenged the

idea of plurality and motion as self-contradictory.

If the whole of being is plurality, it is made up of

many parts, and this whole can be proved to be both
infinitely small and infinitely great: infinitely small
because it consists of infinitely small parts (which
can be further subdivided) and infinitely great,
because to any finite part we can always add an
infinite number of other parts. It is an absurdity that
the same whole is infinitely small and great.

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Summary
• Early Greek thinkers were engaged in inquiring about the
nature of Physical reality.
• The underlying quest is for knowing the Substance.
• Change and Permanence become central problems.
• Instead of matter, form or number is considered to be the
basis of reality.
• Unity and plurality are sometimes understood as integral
but also as self-contradictory.
• The idea of One is equated with God and God is
equated with Nature.

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Plato’s Theory of Knowledge
• The Sophists – truth and knowledge not attainable.
• Men is the measure of all things.
• Socratic Dialogical Method
• Knowledge is virtue
• Appearance/Reality Becoming/Being Senses/reason
• Sense perceptions do not give the true nature of reality.
• Opinions are knowledge though they may happen to be true.
• Genuine knowledge must authenticate itself.
• The desire for genuine knowledge is the desire for truth eros.
• Dialectic to move from sense perceptions to conceptual
knowledge, particular to universal, synthesizing and
particularizing.
• We cannot call a person just or unjust unless we have a notion of
justice.

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Plato’s Theory of Knowledge

• Experience is not the source of genuine knowledge.

• No sense experience exactly corresponds to the concepts
of truth, beauty and good.
• Is conceptual knowledge genuine knowledge?
• Knowledge is the correspondence of thought and reality.
• Something real must correspond to it, pure, absolute
beauty must exist corresponding to the concept of beauty.
• Truths of mathematics, ideals of beauty, truth and
goodness must be real.
• Conceptual knowledge presupposes the reality of
corresponding ideal or abstract objects.

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The Divided Line
Forms or Ideas Rational Insight
The form of the Good Dialectic

Mathematical entities like numbers, lines Discursive intellect- hypothetical

etc. Proceeds deductively from unproved
assumptions
Material objects Belief – knowledge of sensible objects

Images, shadows, dreams etc. Conjectural Knowledge

A mirage seen on a desert.

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Plato’s Theory of Ideas
 The idea holds together the essential qualities common
to many particulars.
Ideas or forms are not mental processes, in the minds of
men or even in the mind of God.
They have the character of sustainability. They are
substances. the original, transcendent archetypes of things;
existing prior to things and apart from them.
The particulars are imperfect copies or reflections of the
eternal patterns. Particulars are transient.
There are many copies but there is one idea of a class of
things.

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Plato’s Theory of Ideas

 There are ideas of things, relations, qualities, actions and

values.
The ideas are not disorganized, they constitute a well-
ordered world, or rational cosmos. They are subsumed
under the highest idea, the idea of the Good.
Unity includes plurality.
The truly real and the truly good are identical.
The ideas are a-temporal and a-spatial.
They are not physical.

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The Rational Soul
In Plato’s cosmology, the world is divided into
ideal and corporeal, hence rational and physical.
Good, rational and purposive in the universe is
due to reason; evil, irrational and purposeless is
due to matter.
 Division of doxa and episteme:
In opinion and sensation the soul is dependent on
the body, but the soul, insofar as is capable of
knowing the world of ideas, is pure reason and
eternal. Like can only know like.

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 The Immortality of the Soul
 The copies in the physical world incite the rational soul to think.
 Sensations do not produce knowledge (genuine). The soul
must possess these ideas prior to its contact with the world of
experience.
 Soul has viewed such ideas before and forgotten them; the
world of senses help in remembering them.
 All knowledge is reminiscence and all learning is a
reawakening.
 Through this Plato establishes the prior existence of the soul.
 Soul is rational and when it enters into body, a mortal and
irrational part is added to it which fits it for the existence of the
sense-world.
 Simple and vital.
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The Rational and Irrational
 The union with the body is a hindrance to the intellectual
aspirations of the soul. Similarly, the presence of desires and
impulses are hindrances to the ethical supremacy of the soul.
 Soul has a higher or rational part and also lower and irrational
part which is further divided into spirited and appetitive.
 The rational faculty is intellectual. But he also includes traits
like gentleness, humility and reverence. The spirited is an
executive faculty, resembles will. Emotions, sentiments and
traits like anger, ambition, resentment etc. without freedom
and choice.
 The appetitive corresponds to desire. Desires for wealth,
pleasure other bodily satisfactions.
 Often there are clashes in the faculties; the spirited rebels but
also controls the appetites.

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Ethics

 What is the meaning of good life? Reason alone is

capable of knowing the highest good. The rational part is
wise and must command over the impulses. The spirited
part resists and rebels but must work as an ally to
reason.
 An individual is brave when the spirited part holds fast
through pleasure and pain, to the instructions of reason
what is to be feared and what is not. An individual
acquires mastery over other impulses and desires. When
the three traits; wise, brave and temperance work
properly, an individual is just.

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The Ethical Ideal and State

 The ethical ideal is a well-ordered soul, in which the higher

functions rule the lower functions, one exercises the virtues
of wisdom, courage, self-control and justice. A life of
reason, or of virtue is the highest good.
 Happiness attends such a life and the just man is after all
the happy man.
 Since virtue is the highest good and the individual cannot
attain the good in isolation, but only in the society, the
mission of the state is to promote virtue and happiness.
 If all men are rational and virtuous there is no need of the
state. The state owes its existence in imperfections of the
human nature.

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 State and Functions of the classes

o There are many classes in the state just as there are many
functions of the soul.
o Those who have philosophical insights embody reason and
ought to be the ruling class. The members of the warrior
class possess the spirited element: their task is defense;
the agriculturists, artisans and merchants represent the
lower appetites and their function is the production of
material goods.
o Justice is realized when each class does its own work .
o The state is an educational institution, the instrument of
civilization and its foundation must be in philosophy.

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 Aristotle
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Dr. Anupam Yadav
Problems with Plato’s
Theory of Ideas
 The separation of eternal ideas from the actual world of experience.
 Degrading the physical world as appearance.
 The ideas of ‘copies’ and ‘participation’ are unsatisfactory.
To say that the individual man participates in the
ideal man does not add to our understanding of the
individual.
 Between an individual man and ideal-type, there is an Ideal relation a
‘third man’. A fallacy.
 The forms are static and changeless, so how can we
explain the reality of change and motion. Change requires both
being and becoming.
 Platonic Matter, To him, matter is dynamic.
 Forms are not apart from things, but inherent in them.

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 The Substance
• For Aristotle individual material things cannot be separated from
their forms. Matter and form are indivisible.
• Essence or form is required to understand the nature of a
thing, it cannot be separated from the matter and its unique
properties. For example, the idea of gold cannot be understood
from its various properties like its being yellowish, shiny and
malleable.
• Aristotle here differs from Plato who thinks only about the reality
of forms and other Greek thinkers who thought about formless
matter alone to be the basis of everything.
• For him, form and matter are indivisible. Even a raw matter is
some or other form, an irregular shape.

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The Substance

• Aristotle’s metaphysical position is pluralistic.

• Different individual substances like physical objects,
plants, animals and men lie between two extremes
– the indeterminate matter at the bottom and God
or pure form at the top.
• The individual object changes or grows. There must
be something which is responsible for the change.
• This particularizing and individuating principle is
matter. When we say that an object changes its
form, it is not the form that changes; rather, it is
matter that assumes different forms.

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Potentiality and Actuality

• Parallel to matter and form, Aristotle talks about

the concepts of potentiality and actuality.
• Matter has a potentiality to become something.
A seed has a potentiality to be sapling and a
tree. But each stage is a form realized or
actualized. Matter and form are thus relative. An
acorn is a potential tree and the tree is an
actualized acorn.
• Aristotle’s explanation of change, that is, the
physical world is teleological. The world is not
mechanical but purposive and teleological. To
him, nature does not create anything in vain.
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Teleology and God

• The teleology leads him to view God as the highest form

or actuality, having no potentiality, as the Actus Purus or
Prime Mover who remains outside the world-process and
supplies motion to it. Every stage is an actualization of
God.
• Now, as the prime mover, the highest form, Aristotle also
embodies the Platonic realism that there is something
that does not change and is eternal.
• One question that becomes important here is why the
world is imperfect if it is the realization of the purest
form? Aristotle attributes this to matter. Matter is
incapable of achieving the purpose or goal or to be
actualized to the maximum.
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 Causality
Every change natural or manmade is brought by certain
causes. Aristotle here says that we can ask four
questions here:

 What is it?
 What is it made of?
 By what is it made?
 For what end or purpose is it made?

These four questions represent four causes that

simultaneously operate in the cosmic and human
productions.
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Four Causes

1. Material Cause: To make a pot need a raw

material, clay.
2. Formal Cause: The very idea of pot or its
design conceived of by the potter. The formal
cause unfolds the definition of the concept as
an effect.
3. Efficient Cause: The agency or the energy
which brings the change in the matter. Potter
here.
4. Final Cause: The aim or the purpose towards
which the energy is directed. Pot is to store or
cool the water. BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
 Rene Descartes
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Dr. Anupam Yadav
Rene Descartes

 Practical character of philosophy

 Mathematics as the model of his philosophical method.
 System of thought or knowledge must possess certainty of
mathematics.
 Everything in the natural and human world can be known
mechanically without the aid of forms or essences.
 Also accepted spiritualistic philosophy, problem of
reconciling the mechanism of nature with the freedom of
God and human soul.

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 Method and criterion of Knowledge

o Solid foundations on some certain and self-evident truths.

o Mathematical model.
o Axioms then deducing other propositions logically for them.
o Beginning with simple and then moving to more complex:
method is synthetic or deductive.
o We must search after truth and not on authority, transmitted
beliefs and prejudices.

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Method of Doubt

• We should guard against our prejudices, transmitted beliefs, faith

in sensations, even demonstrations of mathematics.
• Are we not sure that our bodies and actions are real?
we believe we have realities in our dreams. Perhaps we are
dreaming now.
• One thing is certain that I doubt, I think.
• Doubt implies a doubter, thinking applies a thinker (res cogitans).
• To doubt is to think, to think is to be . I think therefore, I am.
Cogito ergo sum.
• A certain, self-evident truth. Also criterion of truth –anything
clearly and distinctly perceived is true.

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Proofs for the Existence of
God
Causal argument:
Whatever exists must have a cause. Nothing can come from
nothing. (self-evident)
The cause must have as much reality as the effect.
That which contains greater reality cannot be a consequence,
or dependent on the less.
I cannot be the cause of the idea of God as perfect, infinite
being.
Not ontological proof (of St. Anselm) but causal.
Infinity is not negative.
Doubt implies doubter, imperfection implies a standard of
perfection.

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Proofs for the Existence of God

• I cannot be the cause of my own existence, I would have

created myself perfect and preserve himself.
• From the notion of perfect God it follows that he exists.
• It is not possible to conceive of God without his existence.
• Self-caused, otherwise, fallacy of infinite regress.
• Innate, it is also the archetype of our existence
• Source of all goodness,
• The power of distinguishing truth from falsity is not infinite,
• Error is the concurrence of faculty of cognition and election,
understanding and will.
• By choosing the false and evil, instead of truth and good,
the will falls into error.

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Existence of the External
World
• How do we know that the bodies outside us actually
exist?
• We cannot prove the existence of bodies from the
existence of experiences – feelings of pleasure and
pain, appetites, sensations.
• Though we may be deceived by sensations and misled
by appetites, God has given us the power to dispel and
correct such delusions. Hence, there must be real
bodies.
• Bodies exist independently of our thinking. They do not
need our existence.
• But relative to God who is an absolute substance.

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Substance, Attributes and
Modes
God is the substance in the absolute sense. Mind and
body are two other independent substances but are
dependent on God.
We know them through their attributes. The attribute of
the self is thinking and the attribute of the body or matter is
extension. Attribute inheres in the substance, i.e without
which it cannot be conceived.
We know the attributes through their modes or
modifications. We cannot conceive figure without
extension, nor motion in the extended space. Similarly, we
cannot conceive of imagination and will without the thinking
thing. But we can conceive of extension without figure or
motion, and thought without imagination and will.

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Contd.
• What we clearly and distinctly perceive is that the attribute of
bodies is extension- three-dimensional spatial continuum.
• Wherever there is space there is body. Space is infinitely
divisible so is matter, i.e. there are no atoms. Smallest parts
are not atoms but corpuscles.
• All processes of the external world are modes of extension,
parts united or separated. All variations depend on motion.
• There is no action at distance – all occurrences are due to
pressure and impact.
• Bodies as extension are passive, cannot move, hence
recourse to God as the prime mover who has given the world
a certain amount of motion.
• Since God is immutable, all changes in the world of bodies
follow constant rules, or laws of nature/laws of motion.

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 The Dualism of Substances
 Mind and body are distinct; for, their attributes are distinct. Body
is extended but passive, mind is active and free. Mind is
absolutely without extension and no body can think.
 We have a clear and distinct idea of ourselves as thinking and
unextended beings. We may exist without the body. We may
also conceive of ourselves without the faculties of imagination
and perception.
 However, Descartes’ broader idea of the thinking substance
can be understood as ‘consciousness’ as one that doubts,
understands, conceives, affirms, denies, wills, refuses,
imagines as well as feels.

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Mind-Body Dualism
 With the two substances nature is left free for the
mechanical explanations of science, without any
purpose or the final cause. Mind is eliminated from
nature.
 This dualism Descartes applies to the entire organic
world and to the human body. The human body, like
the animal body is a machine. The moving principle
in the body is the heat in the heart; the organs of
motion are the muscles; the organs of sensations,
the nerves. The arrangements of movements are
coordinated like the mechanical movements in a
watch.

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Mind-Body Interaction?

 If two substances exclude each other, there can

be no interaction between them. Mind cannot
cause change in the body and the body cannot
cause change in the mind.
 There are however certain facts which point the
union between mind and body. Appetites of
hunger and thirst; emotions and passions of the
mind; sensations of pain, color, light ,sound etc.
They require explanation in terms of the union of
the two. If I were just a thinking being, without
the body, I would probably know that I am
hungry but not feel that I am hungry.
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Descartes’ Position

 Thought and extension, he says, are combined in man

but the unity is that of composition not that of nature.
 Sensations, feelings and appetites are disturbances in
the soul resulting from its union with the body. In spite of
the union, body and soul remain distinct.
 God has put them together but they are separate in their
nature.
 His position is that mind and body is not such that a
physical state becomes or produces or causes a mental
state and vice-versa but that mind is simply troubled by
the organic process.

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 Descartes’ Solution
• Movements in the animal spirits are caused by sensible
objects and transferred to the pineal gland; in this way
sensations are produced.
• The soul can also move the gland in different ways; this
motion is transferred to the animal spirits and conducted
by them over the nerves into the muscles.
• The relation between the mind and body is conceived as
causal through the mediation of the pineal gland.
• But Descartes does not succeed in showing how this
interaction is compatible with his metaphysical dualism of
thinking and extended substance.

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Spinoza’s Parallelism

 Like Descartes, Spinoza believed in the power of

human reason to secure sure and universal knowledge
and that it is the mathematical proceeding from axioms
can only give logical certainty in our thinking.
 For him, the idea of dependent substance is
inconsistent. God is the only substance and thought and
extension cannot be separate substances; God is the
bearer of all qualities. Dualism of substance disappears
but dualism of attributes remains. There can be no
interaction between the two. They are parallel.
Wherever there are mental processes there are
physical processes and vice-versa.

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