CHAPTER 1

PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND

THE WORLD

PATTERN

Patterns are regular, repeated or recurring forms or Mosaic (pebbles and steppingstones)
designs. Studying patterns helps us in identifying
Naturalistic drift (sand drift)
relationships and finding local connections to form
generalizations and make predictions. Natural patterns
may consist of spirals, symmetries, mosaics, stripes,
spots, etc.

EXAMPLE:

• layout of floor tiles

Serpentine (mineral, gem, ornamental stones,
• designs of buildings asbestos source)

• the way we tie our shoelaces Spiral

• Patterns in nature

PATTERNS IN NATURE

Radial Dendritic

SAMPLES OF NUMBERS IN NATURE

W. Gary Smith adopts eight patterns in his landscapes

work, namely: scattered, fractured, mosaic,
naturalistic drift, serpentine, spiral, radial and
dendritic.

SYMMETRY

Symmetry indicates that you can draw an imaginary line

across an object and the resulting parts are mirror images
of each other.

Example:

• butterfly

• Leonardo da Vinci’s Vitruvian Man

Scattered (clouds) Fractured (rocks) • Starfish

The butterfly is symmetric about the axis indicated by according to a system of "reaction-diffusion
the black line. Note that the left and right portions are equations."
exactly the same. This type of symmetry is called
FIBONACCI NUMBERS ON FLOWERS AND
bilateral symmetry.
NAUTILUS SHELL
Note that if you rotate the starfish by 72 degrees, you
can still achieve the same appearance as the original
position. This is known as the rotational symmetry.
The smallest measure of angle that a figure can be
rotated while still preserving the original position is
called the angle of rotation. A more common way of
describing rotational symmetry is by order of rotation.

ORDER O ROTATION

A figure has a rotational symmetry of order n (n- fold The Fibonacci sequence is a type series of numbers
1 where each number is the sum of the two that precede
rotational symmetry) is of a complete turn leaves the
n it.
figure unchanged. To compute for the angle of rotation,
we use the formula:

360°
Angle of rotation =
n

PACKING PROBLEM

● Packing problem involve finding the optimum

method of filling up a given space such as a
cubic or spherical container.
Mathematics used to model population growth with
● Claim: If hexagonal structure is used, then more the formula
area will be covered.

Where:

A is the size of the population after it grows,

P is the initial number of people,
Bees used hexagon in making honeycomb so that more
r is the rate of growth,
areas will be covered compared to other polygons
t is time and
OTHER MATHEMATICS IN NATURE AND THE e is the Euler’s constant with an approximately value
WORLD of 2.718.

According to Alan Turing, a British Mathematician, the

EXAMPLE:
formation of hyena’s spot and tiger stripes is governed
by a set of equations. What Turing proposed was that
If we have a population of zebras in 1990 that had 100
there are two chemicals interacting inside the embryo of
individuals, we know the population is growing at a
an animal. He did not know what these chemicals were,
rate of 5%, and we want to know what the population
so he named them morphogens and proposed that they
is in the year 2020.
reacted with each other and diffused through the embryo
 • mathematical language is devoid of emotional
content
• mathematical language is precise

MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS AND

SENTENCES
CHAPTER 2

MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND

SYMBOLS

LANGUAGE
• system of words, signs and symbols which people
use to express ideas, thoughts and feelings
• consists of the words, their pronunciation and the
MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS
methods of combining them to be understood by a
• consist of terms
community
• separated from other terms with either plus or minus
signs
MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE
• single term may contain an expression in
• the system used to communicate mathematical ideas
parentheses or other grouping symbols
• it has its own grammar, syntax, vocabulary, word
• variables or letters are used to represent numbers
order, synonyms, negations, conventions, idioms,
like in algebra
abbreviations, sentence structure and paragraph
• algebraic expression is a quantity which contains
structure
numbers and variables
• includes a large component of logic that leads to
learning of mathematics and its useful application to
EXAMPLES
problem situations
• 21(x – 8) – monomial
• 5x + 3y – binomial
FOUR MAIN ACTIONS ATTRIBUTED TO
• 3x + 2(x + y) – 36 – trinomial
PROBLEM-SOLVING AND REASONING
• MODELING AND FORMULATING: creating
• A mathematical expression with more than two
appropriate representations and relationships to
terms is called polynomial. A trinomial is a
mathematize the original problem
polynomial.
• TRANSFORMING AND MANIPULATING:
changing the mathematical form in which a problem
MATHEMATICAL SENTENCE
is originally expressed to equivalent forms that
• combines two mathematical expressions using a
represent solutions
comparison operator
• INFERRING: applying derived results to the
• either use numbers, variables, or both
original problem situation, and interpreting and
• comparison operators include equal, not equal,
generalizing the results in that light
greater than, greater than or equal to, less than, and
• COMMUNICATING: reporting what has been
less than or equal to
learned about a problem to a specified audience
• mathematical expression containing the equal sign is
an equation
CHARACTERISTICS OF MATHEMATICAL
• mathematical expression containing the inequality
LANGUAGE
sign is an inequality
• mathematical language is non-temporal
• open sentence in math means that it uses variables, FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS
meaning that it is not known whether the
mathematical sentence is true or false • SET - is a well-defined collection of distinct
• closed sentence, on the other hand, is a objects
mathematical sentence that is known to be either • FUNCTIONS - a binary relation between two
true or false sets that associates to each element of the first
EXAMPLES set exactly one element of the second set
• Equations: • RELATIONS - s a set of inputs and outputs,
• 4x + 3 = 19 oftentimes expressed as ordered pairs (input,
• 6y – 5 = 55 output)
• 10 + 1 = m • BINARY OPERATIONS - the term binary
Inequality: means consisting of two parts. In mathematics,
• 15x – 5 < 3y binary means that it belongs to a number system
• 18 > 16.5 with base 2 and not base 10. A binary number is
• 99 < x made up of only zeroes (0s) and ones (1s).
EXAMPLES
• open sentence ELEMENTARY LOGIC
• 2xy < 3y • Logic is the science of formal principles of
• 8ab – c = 1 reasoning or correct inference. It is the study of the
• The obtuse angle is N degrees. principles and methods used to distinguish valid
• true closed sentence arguments from those that are not valid.
• 2(x + y) = 2x + 2y • Mathematical logic is the study of reasoning in
• 3(m + n) = (m + n) + (m + n) + (m + n) mathematics. Mathematical reasoning is deductive,
• 9 is an odd number. meaning it consists of drawing conclusions from
• false closed sentence given hypotheses.
• 9 is an even number.
• 4 + 4 = 10 FORMALITY
CONVENTIONS IN THE MATHEMATICAL • is a relational concept
LANGUAGE • an expression can be more or less formal
• To understand the meaning of math symbols, there relative to another expression, entailing an
are two things to consider, namely: ordering of expressions; yet, no expression
• Context refers to the topics being studied, can be absolutely formal or absolutely
and it is important to understand the context informal
to understand mathematical symbols CHAPTER 3
• Convention is a technique used by
PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING
mathematicians, engineers, scientists in
which each particular symbol has particular A. INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING
meaning. Inductive and deductive reasoning are two fundamental
types of reasoning for mathematicians.
• The position of numbers and symbols in relation to
INDUCTIVE REASONING
each other has a bearing on their meanings. Usage of
subscripts and superscripts is also an important  Refers to the process of making generalized
convention. decisions after observing, and/or witnessing
repeated specific instances of something
  a process of reaching conclusions based on a Conclusion: Therefore, all squares have four sides.
series of observations
 used to form hypotheses
3. 1st Premise: All men are mortal.
 usually leads to deductive reasoning
 may or may not be valid 2nd Premise: Math teachers are men.

DEDUCTIVE REASONING Conclusion: Math teachers are mortal.

 refers to the process of taking the information

gathered from general observations and making
B. INTUITION, PROOF AND CERTAINTY
specific decisions based on that information
Intuition is the ability to understand something
 is a process of reaching conclusions based on
instinctively, without the need for conscious reasoning.
previously known facts
 used to prove ideas Mathematical proof is an argument which convinces

 correct and valid other people that something is true.

EXAMPLES OF INDUCTIVE REASONING: Certainty is total continuity and validity of inquiries to

the highest degree of precision.
1. 1st Premise: John is an excellent swimmer.

2nd Premise: John’s family has a swimming pool.

C. POLYA’S FOUR STEPS TO PROBLEM-
Conclusion: John’s sister Mary must also be an SOLVING
excellent swimmer. George Polya (1887 – 1985), known as the father of
modern problem-solving
2. 1st Premise: Elijah is good-looking.

2nd Premise: Elijah is well-behaved. 1. Preparation: Understand the problem.

Conclusion: Therefore, all good-looking are well-

behaved. 2. Thinking time: Devise a plan.

3. 1st Premise: The coin pulled from a bag is a dime.

3. Insight: Carry out the plan.
2nd Premise: A second coin from the bag is a dime.
4. Verification: Look back.
Conclusion: Therefore, all the coins in the bag are
dimes.

D. PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES
EXAMPLES OF DEDUCTIVE REASONING:
There are simple and common problem-solving
1st Premise: All numbers ending in 0 and 5 are divisible
strategies, to mention a few:
by 5.
▪ Guess (This includes guess-and-check and guess-and-
2nd Premise: The number 35 ends with a 5.
improve.)
Conclusion: Therefore, 35 is divisible by 5.
▪ Act it out. (Act it out and use equipment.)

▪ Draw (This includes drawing pictures and diagrams.)

2. 1st Premise: All squares are rectangles.
▪ List/Tabulate (This includes making a table.)
2nd Premise: All rectangles have four sides.
CHAPTER 4 INFINITE set has uncountable number of elements.
ex. A set of all whole numbers, W= {0, 1, 2, 3, 4,…}
FOUR BASIC CONCEPTS
SET
UNIVERSAL set is the totality of all the elements of
• A set is a well-defined collection of distinct
the sets under consideration, denoted by U.
objects.
ex. The elements of: A={1,3,6,8} B={2,3,4,5}
• Represented with CAPITAL LETTERS.
C={5,8,9}
• BRACES are usually used to specify that the
Find the universal set: U={1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9}
objects written between them belong to a set.
• ELEMENTS or members are the objects that
TWO OR MORE SET MAY BE RELATED TO
make up a set can be numbers, people, letters of
EACH OTHER AS DESCRIBED BY THE
the alphabet, other sets, etc.
FOLLOWING:
• SUBSET is a set every element of which can be
found on a bigger set. The symbol means “a
EQUAL sets have the same elements.
subset of” while means “not a subset of”.
EQUIVALENT sets have the same number
•
(cardinality) of elements.
TWO WAYS TO DESCRIBE A SET
JOINT sets have at least one common element.
 Roster/Tabular Method
DISJOINT sets have no common element
The elements in the given set are listed or enumerated,
separated by a comma, inside a pair of braces.
FOUR OPERATIONS PERFORMED ON SETS
 Builder Notation
 Union of Sets
A notation for describing a set by indicating the
For two given sets A and B, A∪B (read as A union B) is
properties that its members must satisfy.
the set of distinct elements that belong to set A and set B

ROSTER FORM: or both.

example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {4, 5, 6, 7},
(i) Let A be the set of even natural numbers less than 11. A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
In roster form we write A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}  Intersection of Sets
For two given sets A and B, A∩B (read as A intersection
(ii) A = {x : x is an integer and - 1 ≤ x < 5} B) is the set of common elements that belong to set A
In roster form we write A = {-1, 0,1, 2, 3, 4}
and B.
example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 7},
BUILDER NOTATION:
A ∩ B = {3, 4}
N = "x : x is a natural number”
 Set Difference
The set operation difference between sets implies
(ii) P = "x : x is a prime number less than 100”
subtracting the elements from a set which is similar to
the concept of the difference between numbers.
(iii) A = "x : x is a letter in the English alphabet”
KINDS OF SETS:
EMPTY/NULL/VOID set has no element and is example: If A = {1, 2, 3, 4} and B = {3, 4, 5, 7},

denoted by ø or by a pair of braces with no element A - B = {1, 2}

inside, i.e. { }.  Complement of Sets

The complement of a set A denoted as A′ or Ac (read as
FINITE set has countable number of elements. A complement) is defined as the set of all the elements
ex. P = { 0, 3, 6, 9, …, 99} in the given universal set(U) that are not present in set A.
example: If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9} and A = {1, 2,  A function can then be defined as a set of ordered
3, 4}, pairs:
A' = {5, 6, 7, 8, 9}
example: let Set X consists of four students and
Set Y consists of their favorite
subjects, respectively:

X = {Alyssa, Elijah, Steph, Shei}

Y = {Chemistry, Math, Physics,
Statistics}

Then, the result is a set of ordered pairs of the form (x,

y) written as: {(Alyssa,
Chemistry), (Elijah, Math), (Steph, Physics), (Shei,
Statistics)}

The domain is {Alyssa, Elijah, Steph, Shei} (the input

values)
The range is {Chemistry, Math, Physics, Statistics} (the
output values)
The pictorial representation of relationship and
operations of sets is the so-called Venn-Euler Diagrams
OPERATIONS OF FUNCTIONS, F AND G, ARE
or simply Venn Diagrams. The universal set is usually
THE FOLLOWING:
represented by a rectangle while circles within the
(f + g)(x) = f(x) + g(x) (ADDITION)
rectangle usually represent its subsets. The shaded
region in the given diagrams illustrates the sets relation
or operation.

FUNCTIONS (f - g)(x) = f(x) − g(x) (SUBTRACTION)

 A function f from a set of elements X to a set of
elements Y is a rule that assigns to each
element x in X exactly one element y in Y.
 In simple words, a function is a relationship (f · g)(x) = f(x) · g(x) (MULTIPLICATION)
between inputs where each input is related to
exactly one output.
 three most important parts: Input, Relationship,
Output
 Every function has a domain and a range.
 A function is generally denoted by f(x) where x
(f/g)(x) = f(x) / g(x) (DIVISION)
is the input. The general representation of a
function is y = f(x).

RELATIONS
-A set of inputs and outputs, oftentimes expressed as
ordered pairs (input, output).
- Used to describe a connection between the elements of
two sets
-They help to map the elements of one set (known as the
domain) to elements of another set (called the range)
such that the resulting ordered pairs are of the form
(input, output).

BINARY OPERATIONS
 binary means that it belongs to a number system
with base 2
 A binary number is made up of only zeroes (0s)
and ones (1s). examples: 1101 , 101100
 A bit is a single binary digit. The number 11010
has 5 bits.
 To distinguish a binary from a decimal number,
it is written with a subscript 2.