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Detail about Amplifier Classes

 Class A Amplifiers

This is a high fidelity amplifier class. Class A amplifier's output transistors run at full power
whether there's an input signal or not. When there's no signal, the transistors' power
transforms into heat. When there is a signal, the power goes out the speaker terminals.

Also, each Class A output transistor amplifies both the negative voltage and the positive voltage
parts of the signal's AC waveform, increasing the workload and raising more heat. Class A amps
function at a 25% efficiency level and the remaining 75% of their power is turned into heat.

There are no turn-on, turn-off, warming, or cooling cycles that would affect the signal flow. In
this class, you get distortion-free performance. Besides there is no switching going on, meaning
there is no induced high-frequency interference. Pure Class A amplifiers are rare and expensive.

 Class B Amplifiers
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These ease the workload of each output stage by replacing the single transistor there with two
transistors set up in a commonly referred to as "push-pull" arrangement. Out of the two, one of
the transistors amplifies the negative voltage parts of the signal's AC waveform, while the other
one manages the positive voltage.

The two synergize into a unified output. The class B amplifiers are more efficient with low
fidelity, but produce much more distortion.

 Class AB Amplifiers

These amplifiers offer higher fidelity and efficiency. The push-pull pair of output transistors in a
Class AB amp are each on more than half the time, and they don't turn on and off abruptly.
There's an optimum bias current for each amplifier that cuts down the crossover distortion of
Class B design.

Class AB amplifiers have much higher efficiency than Class A amps for upto 60% and less
distortion than class B amplifiers. Class AB amplifiers are a practical and apt choice for home
theatre and stereo amplifiers.

Introduction to Class C Amplifier

During a Class C amplifier operation, the collector flows for less than half cycle of AC signal. A
class C amplifier is bias for operation for less than 180° of the input signal cycle and its value is
80° to 120°.

Less than 180° (half cycle) means less than 50% and would operate only with a tuned or
resonant circuit, which provides a full cycle of operation for the tuned or resonant frequency.
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Fig. 2 – Class C Amplifier Symbol

There is a trade-off between efficiency and distortion as the efficiency improves at a large
extended level by reduced conduction angle. However, it also leads to a lot of distortion. The
Class C amplifiers used in RF transmitters usually are operating at a single fixed carrier
frequency.

In such applications, the distortion is controlled by a tuned load on the amplifiers. The input
signal is applied to switch the active device (transistor) and so the current is directed to flow
through a tuned load.

Fig 3. – Input and Output waveform of Class C Amplifier

Working Principle of Class C Amplifier

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Fig. 4 – Circuit Diagram of Class C Power Amplifier

As shown in the above circuit diagram, Resistor Rb connects to the transistor Q1 base. A biasing
resistor which connects to the base of Q1 try to pulls the base of transistor further downwards
and set the operating pointer dc bias point below the cut-off point (In cutoff the collector
current is ICO which will be of micro amperes order and hence can be assumed to be zero) in the
DC load line. The dc load line is the locus of IC and VCE at which BJT remains in active region.
The reason for the major portion of the input signal is absent in the output signal is that the
transistor will start conducting only after the input signal amplitude has risen above the base
emitter voltage (Vbe~0.7V) and according to the result the downward bias voltage caused by
Rb.

2.5: Power and Efficiency

The terms power and energy are often used incorrectly as synonyms. Although related, they are
not the same thing. As already mentioned, energy is the ability to do work. In contrast, power is
the rate of energy usage. Power is denoted by the letter P� and has units of watts, although
other units are sometimes used such as the horsepower (1 horsepower ≈≈ 746 watts). One watt
is defined as one joule of energy consumed per second.

1 watt ≡1 joule /1 second (2.5.1)(2.5.1)1 watt ≡1 joule /1 second

As a formula,

P=W/t(2.5.2)(2.5.2)�=�/�
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Where

P� is the power in watts,

W� is the energy in joules,

t� is the time in seconds.

To better understand the concept, consider for a moment a delicious peanut butter and banana
sandwich. This sandwich contains a certain number of food calories, let's say 300 in total. A
food calorie refers to a certain amount of energy that humans can extract from an item of food.
That energy enables us to do some manner of work such as walking, swimming or just
breathing. The sandwich can be seen as an energy storage medium, a battery for biological
units called humans. The question is, what do we do with the energy, and more to the point,
how fast do we use it? For example, that sandwich might be sufficient to allow someone to run
a 5k (3.1 mile) road race in 17 minutes. In contrast, it also might be sufficient to allow that same
person to watch television for three hours. It's the same amount of energy being used, it's just
being used at a much faster rate in the former case. That rate is power. The 5k runner has a
much higher power output than the TV watcher.

Principle of Operation of Oscillator

Electronic devices function on a tank circuit to enable the sharing of information. Generally, an
amplifier with a sinusoidal input attains an amplified output signal. In a feedback amplifier and
transistor oscillator, the oscillator generates an amplified output signal without any intake of
input signals. The working of an oscillator is a repetitive process with the amplified input and
output resulting in feedback with persistent operations. This ensures the transmission of
information signals back and forth in an electronic device without any interval.

This infers a single input lead with endless outputs based on the feedback and frequency
regulated, the external signal delivers an alternating current which is self-sustainable.

(Image to be added soon)

Types of Feedback Amplifiers

In the working of an oscillator, feedback refers to the ability of the output signal to return to
the input. There are 2 types of feedback amplifiers:

1. Positive Feedback Amplifier

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As shown in the image, Vin is the input signal sourced through the transistor to Vout is
the output, further, the succeeding network formed with the sourcing of Vout back to
Vin is positive feedback indicated with Vf in the figure. These positive feedback
amplifiers are utilized for oscillations.

2. Negative Feedback Amplifier

On the contrary, a negative feedback amplifier indicates the incapacity of the (Vout)
output signal to return to the (Vin) input signal.

Types of Transistor Oscillators and Functions

Let's quickly take a look at some types of transistor oscillators and how they function.

1. Working of Colpitts oscillator

A variation of an oscillator tank circuit formed with 2 capacitors and 1 inductor. Its
connectivity can be achieved in series allowing the inductor to be placed in a parallel
position to the capacitors.

The working of the Colpitt oscillator was invented in 1918 and named after scientist
Edwin Colpitts. As compared to the working principle of the Hartley oscillator, it
stimulates preferable frequency stability.

2. Working Principle of Hartley Oscillator

Hartley Oscillator is a tank circuit composing 2 inductors and one capacitor. The
inductors are linked in a combining series whereas the capacitor is positioned parallel to
the series of inductors. It was invented in the year 1915 and named after an American
scientist Ralph Hartley. It generally operates with frequencies ranging from 20 kHz to
20MHz.

3. Working of Wien Bridge Oscillator

A Wein bridge oscillator is a bridge circuit formed with 4 resistors and 2 capacitors. It
produces sine waves with largely ranging frequencies. The working of the Wien bridge
oscillator was formulated and named after Max Wein in the year 1891 for measuring
impedances.
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Now that we have analyzed and understood the functioning of feedback amplifier and
transistor oscillator, we've comprehended the functioning of varied oscillations like the
working of Colpitts oscillator, working principle of Hartley oscillator, and working of
Wien bridge oscillator.

One of the factors that remain constant is the positive feedback gained to achieve
repetitive and long-term processing of signals.

4. Clapps Oscillator.
The Clapps oscillator consists of three capacitors and an inductor that is already set to
the oscillator frequency. The Clapps oscillator is also known as the Gouriet oscillator.
This is named after its founder James Klinton Clapp. Although, it is said that these kinds
of oscillators were built by several independent persons. One among them was Gouriet.
The Clapps oscillator has excellent frequency stability.

5. Robinson Oscillator
The Robinson oscillator is a further development of the already existing marginal
oscillator. It is therefore often referred to as marginal Robinson oscillator. A British
physics scientist named Neville Robinson is behind the invention of this oscillator.

6. Dynatron Oscillator
The dynatron oscillator was invented by a scientist named Albert Hull in 1918.
Like the Clapps oscillator, the dynatron oscillator also has better frequency stability. The
dynatron oscillator can oscillate between a huge range of frequencies and this can be
counted as one of its many advantages.

7. Phase Shift Oscillator

A phase shift oscillator is a combination of inverting amplifiers, resistors and capacitors.
These oscillators are also called auto oscillators as they are mainly used for audio
frequencies.

8. Pierce Oscillator
The Pierce oscillator is derived from the existing Colpitts oscillator. The name of the
oscillator is kept after its inventor George. W. Pierce.
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The components of the pierce oscillator are one resistor, two capacitors, and a quartz
crystal. All the digital clocks are run by a Pierce oscillator. It is a quartz oscillator.

9. Optoelectronic Oscillator
The optoelectronic oscillator is also known as OEO and is based on the concept of
transforming light energy into microwave signals. The optoelectronic oscillator is known
to have stability as well as a high-quality factor, among various other factors that aren't
generally found in basic electronic oscillators. This type of oscillator also has photonic
components and is known to operate at high speed. It is an optoelectronic circuit known
to modulate optical continuous wave signals.

10. Armstrong oscillator

The Armstrong oscillator was invented by a US engineer named Edwin Armstrong and
other Australian engineers Alexander Meissner. However, both of them have invented it
independently, so the oscillator is also named the Meissner oscillator. The feature that
makes it unique is the tickle coil that is used, hence sometimes it's also called a tickler
oscillator. This electronic oscillator uses a combination of a capacitor and an inductor to
produce oscillations.

What Does Phase Shift Mean?

Phase shift is a common term in the study of waveforms and communication of signals. It refers
to the displacement of two signals when propagated in a time domain. This displacement can
be caused by a signal processing device such as an electronic amplifier or a low- or high-pass
filter that performs certain operations on the signal, causing the output signal phase to shift
from its original input signal phase. Phase shift is also known as phase change.
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Inverting Schmitt Trigger

When the input signal is applied at the inverting terminal (-ve terminal) and ground is
connected to the non-inverting (+ve terminal) terminal of of Op-Amp, it is called Inverting
Schmitt Trigger.
The figure given below shows the transfer characteristics of Inverting Schmitt Trigger. The
curve shown is called the hysteresis curve. Let’s study the graph in detail.

Hysteresis Curve (Inverting)

The number ‘1’ marked on the above graph shows that when Vin < VUT, the output signal
remains HIGH.
The number ‘2’ marked on the above graph shows that when Vin> VUT, the output voltage
will become LOW.
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NOTE: The working of Inverting Schmitt Trigger is opposite of Non-Inverting Schmitt Trigger.
Hence, it will form a hysteresis curve that keeps on working continuously.
Schmitt Trigger Circuit and its Types
A Schmitt Trigger circuit is an electronic circuit that uses positive feedback to make hysteresis
and give two unique edge voltage levels i.e. ‘Upper Threshold Voltage (VUT)’ and ‘Lower
Threshold Voltage (VLT)’ for an information signal. It is divided into two parts:
 Op-amp based Schmitt Trigger
 Transistor based Schmitt Trigger
The Op-amp based Schmitt Trigger is further classified into two types based on the input
signal applied:
 Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger
 Inverting Schmitt Trigger
Op-amp based Schmitt Trigger
It is further classified into two types based on the input signal applied on the inverting or non-
inverting terminal of Op-amp:
 Inverting Schmitt Trigger.
 Non-inverting Schmitt Trigger
Inverting Schmitt Trigger
When the input is given at the inverting terminal of op-amp and the positive feedback is
applied from output to input, it is known as inverting Schmitt Trigger.

Inverting Schmitt Trigger

To determine the equation for Inverting Schmitt Trigger circuit, we use the Kirchhoff Law:
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V= Vin (according to virtual ground property of op-amp)

or,

Let’s say that Vout is HIGH at Vin = V1. If Vin is more than V1, then Vout has to become low.
Hence, V1 is known as Upper Threshold Voltage and similarly for the Lower Threshold
Voltage.
555 Timer

The 555 Timer IC got its name from the three 5KΩ5�Ω resistors that are used in its voltage
divider network. This IC is useful for generating accurate time delays and oscillations. This
chapter explains about 555 Timer in detail.

Pin Diagram and Functional Diagram

In this section, first let us discuss about the pin diagram of 555 Timer IC and then its functional
diagram.

Pin Diagram

The 555 Timer IC is an 8 pin mini Dual-Inline Package (DIP). The pin diagram of a 555 Timer IC is
shown in the following figure −
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The significance of each pin is self-explanatory from the above diagram. This 555 Timer IC can
be operated with a DC supply of +5V to +18V. It is mainly useful for generating non-
sinusoidal wave forms like square, ramp, pulse & etc

Functional Diagram

The pictorial representation showing the internal details of a 555 Timer is known as functional
diagram.

The functional diagram of 555 Timer IC is shown in the following figure −

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