CHAP 7: THE SKELETAL SYSTEM necessary for bone growth repair and

nutrition.
SKELETON
also found in the endosteum, which lines
- frameworks of joined bones
the medullary cavity.
- “dead” stonelike appearance of
-deposition is controlled by amount of
bones is due to mineral salts like
strain or pressure on the bone.
calcium phosphate embedded in
heel bone or calcaneum is large as it
inorganic matrix of bone tissue.
receives the weight of body.
FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL SYSTEM
osteoclast- bone cells derived from
1. supports and stabilizes surrounding
immune system cells responsible for
tissues. (Muscles, blood, lymphatic
reabsorption of bone.
vessels, nerves, fat and skin)
- and to straighten crooked bone.
2. protects vital organs and vital
osteocytes – mature osteoblasts.
tissues of the body.
microscopic cells forms bones.
3. assists in body movements.
4. manufactures blood cells in process
TYPES OF OSSIFICATION
called hematopoiesis that occurs in
1. intramembranous ossification
bone marrow.
-dense connective tissue are replaced by
5. storage area for mineral salts.
deposits of inorganic calcium salts, thus
associated with:
forming bones.
cartilage
-bones of cranium are formed by this
ligaments
process.
tendons
fontanelle- baby’s skull soft spot.
2. endochondral ossification
GROWTH AND FORMATION OF BONE.
-endo inside chondro cartilage.
- ossification formation of bone.
-cartilage is the environment where bone
- longitudinal growth of bones cont.
cells develop.
until approx. 15 years of age in girls
and 16 in boys.
both types result in compact and
- 21 years, maturation and
cancellous bones.
remodeling of bones.
- cartilage DOESN’T turn to bone but
MAINTAINING BONE
the ENVIRONMENT bone develops.
calcium stored in bone= calcium in blood=
protein matrix- responsible for bone’s
calcium excreted by the kidneys= balance.
‘elasticity’.
endocrine system- controlled proper Ca ion
mineral salts- deposited in protein matrix,
concentration.
responsible for strength of bone.
2 hormones control calcium concentration
in our body:
DEPOSITION OF BONE
calcitonin (produced in thyroid gland)
osteoblasts- spindle-shaped cells develop
- causes calcium to be stored in the
from undifferentiated bone cells called
bones.
osteoprogenitor. forms new bones.
parathormone (produced by parathyroids)
formed beneath fibrovascular membrane
covers a bone called periosteum.
 - calcium released in the trabeculae- meshwork of interconnecting
bloodstream sections of bones creates spongelike
appearance of bones.
spaces filled with bone marrow.
HISTOLOGY OF BONE nutrients exit blood vessels in the marrow
2 types of bone tissue: and pass by diffusion through canaliculi to
compact/dense- osteocyte in lacune.
cancellous/spongy-

The Haversian System of COMPACT BONE

haversian canal also called osteon named
after Clopton Havers an English physician.
- first described it as prominent
feature of compact bone.
- system allows for effective
metabolism of bone cells
surrounded by rings of mineral
BONE MARROW
salts.
red bone marrow – richly supplied with
haversian or central canal surrounded by
blood, stages of bone development is
concentric ring of bones each layer is called
found here.
lamella.
- function is hematopoiesis
lacunae- tiny cavities found between two
(formation of red, white blood cells
lamellae. each containing osteocytes.
and platelets.)
canaliculi- smaller canals that connect
- ribs, vertebrae, sternum and pelvis
lacunae to larger central canals.
bones.
perforating canals or Volkmann’s- runs
yellow bone marrow- connective tissue
horizontally to central canal contains blood
consisting of fat cells.
vessels.
- replace rbm when it’s depleted
tissue fluid circulates all canal and bathe
- found primarily shaft of long bone
osteocyte with O and food and carry away
w/in medullary cavity, central area
CO2 keeping osteocyte healthy.
of bone shaft.

CLASSIFICATION OF BONES BASED ON

SHAPE

CANCELLOUS BONE
 Irregular Bones
peculiar and irregular shape
spongy bone enclosed by thin layers of
compact bones.
Ex: vertebra, ossicles of ears.

Sesamoid Bones
small rounded bones
enclosed in tendon and fascial tissue,
located adjacent to joints.
assist functioning of muscles.

Long Bones- length exceed width. kneecap or patella- largest sesamoid

consists of diaphysis/shaft composed of bones.
compact bone.
and metaphysis/flare portion consist of BONE MARKINGS
cancellous bone. processes- surface projections of a bone.
epiphysis/two extremities separated from fossae- surface depression.
metaphysis by epiphyseal/growth line - help join bone to another
where longi. growth of bone occurs only at - provide surface for attachments of
superior end of bone. muscles.
medullary cavity- interior of shaft. filled - serves as passageway for blood
with yellow bone marrow. vessels and nerves.
Ex: obvious- clavicle, humerus, radius, ulna, Processes
femur, tibia, and fibula. 1. Spine: any sharp, slender projection such
not obvious- metacarpals, metatarsals and as the spinous process of a vertebra
phalanges of fingers and toes. 2. Condyle (KON-dial): a rounded or
knucklelike prominence usually found at
Short Bones the point of articulation with another bone
lack long axis such as the lateral and medial condyles of
irregular shape the femur
thin layer of compact tissue over majority 3. Tubercle (TOO-ber-kl): a small round
process like the lesser tubercle of the
of spongy bone.
humerus
Ex: carpal bone of wrist and tarsals of foot.
4. Trochlea (TROK-lee-ah): a process
shaped like a pulley as in the trochlea of
Flat Bones the humerus
thin bones found where there is a need for 5. Trochanter (tro-KAN-ter): a very large
extensive attachment or protection for soft projection like the greater and lesser
vital parts of body. trochanter of the femur
usually curved, consist of 2 flat plates of 6. Crest: a narrow ridge of bone like the
compact bone tissue. iliac crest of the hip bone
Ex: sternum, ribs, scapula, parts of pelvic 7. Line: a less prominent ridge of bone than
bones, some bones of skull. a crest.
8. Head: a terminal enlargement like the
head of the humerus and the head of the
femur
9. Neck: that part of a bone that connects
the head or terminal enlargement to the
rest of the bone, like the neck of the femur

Fosses
1. Suture: a narrow junction often found
between two bones like the sutures of the
skull bones
2. Foramen: an opening through which
blood vessels, nerves, and ligaments pass
and orbits- bony sockets of the eye.
like the foramen magnum of the occipital
important bone markings:
bone of the skull or the obturator foramen
orbital margin- ridge above orbit,
of the pelvic bone
3. Meatus or canal: a long tube-like eyebrows are found.
passage, like the auditory meatus or canal supraorbital ridge- middle of forehead
4. Sinus or antrum: a cavity within a bone coronal suture- where frontal bone joins
like the nasal sinuses or frontal sinus two parietal bones.
5. Sulcus: a furrow or groove like the parietal bones - joined at the sagittal
intertubercular sulcus or groove of the suture in midline.
humerus occipital bone- back and base of the
cranium joins parietal bones at the
DIVISIONS OF THE SKELETON lambdoid suture.
has 206 named bones. foramen magnum- large opening in the
axial part- skull (28 bones inc. the cranial inferior portion of the bone, where spinal
and facial bones.) hyoid bone and the cord connects with the brain.
vertebrae. occipital condyle- each lower side of
appendicular part- upper extremities of occipital bone. allows head to connect with
arms (64 bones inc. shoulder girdle bones.) and rest on the vertebrae.
and lower extremities/legs. (62 bones, inc. process for articulation with the 2st cervical
bones of pelvic girdle.) vertebra.
external occipital crest and external
The AXIAL SKELETON occipital protuberance- felt at base of the
skull- cranial and facial bones. neck.
2 temporal bones- form lower sides and
Cranial Bones base of cranium.
sutures- immovable junction lines that has 4 parts:
unites all the individual bones. 1. squamous portion- largest and
frontal bone- forehead, roof of nasal cavity most superior. projecting from its
lower part is zygomatic process
that forms lateral parts of
zygomatic arch or cheek bone.
 2. petrous part- deep base of the forms zygomatic arch-frontal process
skull where it protects and extends upward to articulate with the
supports the inner ear. frontal bone and smaller temporal process
3. mastoid part- behind ear, assist in joins laterally with the temporal bone.
moving your head. 2 lacrimal bones-part of orbit at inner
4. tympanic plate-floor and anterior angle of the eye.
wall of the external auditory lateral surface has fossa that holds the
meatus. lacrimal sac/tear sac and provides canal for
single sphenoid bone- anterior portion lacrimal duct.
base of cranium. shaped like a butterfly. 2 turbinates or nasal conchae bones-thin
single ethmoid bone-principal supporting and fragile found in each lateral side of
structure of nasal cavities helps form part nostril.
of orbits. lightest of cranial bones. 1 vomer bone-flat bone makes up lower
Wormian bones/sutural bones- within the posterior portion of nasal septum.
sutures of cranial bones. not included in mandible bone-develops in 2 parts.
total no. of bones in body. strongest and longest bone of the face.
each ramus has condyle for articulation
with the mandibular fossa of the temporal
bone, allowing wide range of movement.

The FACIAL BONES

- united by immovable sutures
except lower jawbone or The ORBITS
mandible. two deep cavities in the upper portion of
2 nasal bones-thin and delicate joins in a face that protects the eyes.
suture to form bridge of the nose.
2 maxillary bones-upper jaw.
each bone consists of 5 parts:
body-forms part of floor and outer wall of
nasal cavity, greater floor of orbit, anterior
The NASAL CAVITIES
face below temple.
framework of nose surrounding the two
zygomatic process-participate in formation
nasal fossae located in the middle of face
of cheek.
bet. hard palate inferiorly and the frontal
frontal process-extends upward to frontal
bone superiorly.
bone or forehead.
palatine process-anterior portion of roof of
the mouth.
alveolar process-bears teeth of upper jaw.
each tooth is embedded in an alveolus or
socket.
2 zygomatic bones-known as the malar
bones, form prominence of cheek.
 The TORSO or TRUNK
sternum, ribs, and vertebrae make up the
trunk of the axial skeleton.
vertebrae-rigid, provide support for the
body, the fibrocartilaginous disk between
vertebrae allows for ‘flexibility’

The FORAMINA of the SKULL

foramen magnum-largest foramen of the
skull.
smaller foramina-passageways for blood
vessels and nerves entering and exiting the
various organs of the skull.

The HYOID BONE

single hyoid bone-unique component of
axial skeleton because it has no articulation spinal column-formed from a series of 26
with other bones. irregular bones called vertebrae, cushioned
shaped like a horseshoe consisting of and separated by interverbal disk of
central body w/ two lateral projections. cartilage.
greater cornu-larger projections typical vertebra parts:
lesser cornu-smaller lateral projections. body-thick disk-shaped anterior portion
acts as a support for tongue. with numerous small holes for nerves and
helps elevate the larynx during swallowing blood vessels that nurture the bone.
and speech. neural arch-encloses space
neural/vertebral foramen-passage of the
spinal cord.
arch has three passes for muscle
attachment:
spinous process-quite large on the thoracic
vertebrae, directed backward.
transverse processes-one on each side of
the vertebra.
articular processes
vertebra above 2 superior articular
How to Study the BONES OF THE SKULL
processes and below two inferior articular
the older the skull the less obvious the
processes.
sutures.
vertebral arch 2 portions: lumbar vertebrae
pedicles- passage of nerves to and from - largest and the strongest. modifies
spinal cord for attachment of back muscles.
laminae-forms posterior wall of the sacrum-triangular and slightly curved bone.
vertebral column. coccyx-can move slightly to increase the
size of birth canal during delivery in the
vertebral column: female.
7 cervical vertebrae
12 thoracic vertebrae
5 lumbar vertebrae
5 sacral vertebrae become fused by adult
life and form single sacrum
4 coccygeal vertebrae unite to form coccyx
or tailbone.
odontoid process-axis of motion pivot
point on 2nd cervical vertebrae, permits us
to turn our head.
cervical vertebrae smallest vertebrae.
1.) atlas-supports the head by
articulation w/ the condyles of the
occipital bone.
2.) axis- acts as pivot on w/c atlas and
head rotate. The THORAX
made up of:
sternum, costal cartilages, ribs, and bodies
of the thoracic vertebrae.
supports:
shoulder girdle and bones of upper
extremities.
enclosed and protect heart and lungs.

The STERNUM
also known as breastbone.
three parts:
manubrium- articulates w/ the clavicle.
resembles handle of sword.
gladiolus- resembles blade of sword
thoracic vertebrae two distinguishing xiphoid process- where diaphragm and
characteristics: rectus abdominis muscles attach.
1.) long spinous process pointing terminal portion of sternum
downward and six facets bone landmark for CPR
2.) three on each side for articulation
with a rib.
 coracoid process-attachment for muscles
that move the arm.
glenoid fossa-helps form the shoulder
joint. receives the head of the humerus.

humerus-largest and longest bone of the

upper arm.
ulna- longer, medial bone of forearm
proximal end is the
olecranon process/elbow. funny bone.
radius- shorter lateral bone of forearm.
The RIBS
costae-refers to the 12 pairs of ribs that are carpals-bones of the wrist. (8)
named after their anterior attachments. proximal row, from medial to lateral:
upper seven true ribs-articulate directly pisiform
with the sternum triquetral
lower five pairs false ribs- also called lunate
floating ribs 11th and 12th ribs because they scaphoid/also known as navicular.
have no cartilage and do not attach at all distal row from medial to lateral:
anteriorly. hamate
all ribs attach posteriorly to the thoracic capitate
vertebrae. trapezoid/lesser
trapezium/greater mulitangular.

palm made up of 5 metacarpal bones.

- small long bones with base, shaft
and head. radiate out from wrist
bones.
- each articulate with a proximal
phalanx of a finger.
each fingers have proximal, middle, and
terminal/distal phalanx EXCEPT the thumb
has only proximal and distal.
THE APPENDICULAR SKELETON
The BONES of the UPPER EXTREMITIES
- includes shoulder girdle, arm,
forearm, wrist, the hand, and the
fingers.
scapula- shoulder blade
permit the attachment of muscles that
assist in arm movement and serve as a
place for the attachment of the arms
two prominent bony projections:
 hip/coxal bone
each hipbone is consisted of three fused
parts:
ilium- uppermost and largest portion of
hipbone.
ischium-strongest portion of a hipbone and
is directed slightly posteriorly. has the
rounded and thick ischial tuberosity, w/c
we sit on.
pubis-superior and slightly anterior to the
ischium.
obturator foramen-bet. pubis and ischium,
largest foramen/opening in the body,
allows passage of nerves, blood vessels and
nerves.
acetabulum-deep socket above obturator.
three parts of pelvic bone meet and unite
The BONES of LOWER EXTREMITIES here. receives head of femur to help form
- inc. pelvic girdle, thigh, kneecap, hip joint.
shin, calf, ankle bones, foot and
toes. femur-or thigh, largest and heaviest bone
pelvic girdle- made up of two hip or coxal of the body. articulates distally w/ tibia.
bones articulate with one another at pubic
symphysis. posteriorly, articulate at
sacrum. ring of bones is pelvis.
 tarsal bones of the forefoot:
medial I
intermediate II
lateral III cuneiforms.
5 metatarsals and phalanges (toes-long
bones) rest of the forefoot bones.

patella-kneecap, largest of the sesamoid

bones. enveloped with tendon of
quadriceps femoris muscle.
tibia-shinbone larger of the two bones
forming the lower leg.
rounded condyles of femur rest on flat
condyle at the proximal end of the tibia.
fibula- calf bone. most slender bone of the
body. attaches to the proximal end of tibia
via its head.

The ARCHES OF THE FOOT

two longitudinal arches:
medial longitudinal arch- is formed by
calcaneus, talus, navicular, the three
cuneiforms and the three metatarsals.
- highest arch of the foot.
lateral longitudinal arch- much lower and
is formed by calcaneus, cuboid, two lateral
metatarsals.
tarsal bones- bones of the ankle. tarsal transverse arch- perpendicular to longi
bones of hindfoot are arches and most pronounced at the base of
calcaneus/calcaneum, largest of tarsal the metatarsals.
bone and forms heel.
talus- ankle bone. pes planus /flatfoot indicates a decreased
navicular and the cuboid. height of the longitudinal arches.
 spina bifida- congenital defect in the dev’t
DISORDERS OF THE SPINE of the posterior vertebral arch, where
kyphosis-hunchback posterior curvature of laminae do not unite at midline.
spine is accentuated in upper thoracic - common disorder
region. - complete absence of laminae,
- also caused by tuberculosis of causing contents of spinal canal to
spine, osteomalacia or rickets. protrude posteriorly.
lordosis-swayback abnormal accentuated herniated disk- rupture of the
lumbar curvature. fibrocartilage surrounding an intervertebral
- can also result from rickets or disk.
spinal tuberculosis. - occurs most often in lumbar region
- temporary lordosis is common in and is also known as slipped disk.
man with potbellies and pregnant cleft palate and cleft lip
woman. more common in females, palatine
scoliosis- twisted condition. muscle processes of maxillary bones do not fuse
paralysis on one side of body. lower limbs properly, resulting in an opening bet. oral
of unequal length. and nasal cavities.
cleft lip more common in males. when
DISORDERS maxillary bones do not form normally.
osteoporosis- decrease in bone mass with black eye- blow to the supraorbital ridge.
increased susceptibility in bone fractures. deviated septum- nasal septum shift to the
- results from decreased levels of left.
estrogens. sinusitis- inflammation of one or more of
- estrogens help maintain bone the paranasal sinuses.
tissue by stimulating osteoblasts. - caused by infection, allergic
PAGET’s disease- nonmetabolic disease, reactions, changes in atmospheric
cause is unknown. pressure.
usually affects middle-aged and elderly whiplash- affects cervical vertebrae and
individuals. assoc. muscles and ligaments.
- irregular thickening and softening - caused by violent back-and forth
of bones. movement of the neck.
- excessive bone destruction and acromegaly- chronic condition caused by
unorganized bone repair. overactivity of the anterior pituitary
areas affected: - results in excessive growth
skull, pelvis, limbs. hormone.
gigantism- excessive endochondral - widening and thickening of the
ossification at the epiphyseal plates of long bones of the hands, face and jaws
bones. and feet.
- abnormally large limbs, - developing complications overtime
dwarfism- inadequate ossification at the includes heart disease,
epiphyseal plates of long bones. hypertension, excess blood sugar.
- abnormally small. fractured clavicle- most commonly broken
bone.
CAREER:
athletic trainers- provide guidance.
chiropractors
prosthetists
orthopedists
orthotists- make braces
paramedics and emergency medical
technicians
Acromial process
bony prominence on the scapula Neck
Acetabulum the part of a bone that connects the head
deep socket on lateral side of hipbone just or terminal enlargement to the rest of a
above the obturator foramen. long bone
Alveolus Osteoclasts
socket for articulation w/ a tooth bone cells present in almost all cavities of
Auditory Ossicles bone responsible for reabsorbing bone
another name for ear bones during remodeling
Capitate Suture
one of the bones of the wrist articulation in which the bones are united
Cervical Vertebrae by a thin layer of fibrous tissue
7 smallest vertebrae found in the neck. Trabeculae
Condyle fibrous connective tissue; extension of the
rounded prominence found at the point of capsule of a lymph node
articulation w/ another bone. Trochanter
Coronal suture very large projection on a bone
frontal bone joins two parietal bones Trochlea
Crest process shaped like a pulley on a bone
narrow ridge of bone Tubercle
External occipital crest small round process on a bone
a projection of the occipital bone for Sulcus
muscle attachment groove/furrow in a bone.
External occipital protuberance
a projection of the occipital bone for
muscle attachment
Foramen magnum
inferior portion of the occipital bone
through which the spinal cord connects
with the brain
Stapes
ear bone referred to as the stirrup
Incus
ear bone referred to as the anvil
Malleus
ear bone referred to as the hammer
Mastoid portion of temporal bone
located behind and below the auditory
meatus or opening of the ear; part of the
temporal bone
Line
a less prominent ridge of bone than a crest