3

How to Choose Your

Research Methods

As we have seen in the previous chapter, research methods are

the tools you use to collect your data. Before you decide which
would be the most appropriate methods for your research, you
need to find out a little more about these tools. This chapter gives
a description of the methods of interviewing, focus groups,
questionnaires and participant observation. Chapters 7–10 will go
on to describe in detail how to use each of these methods.

USING INTERVIEWS
In social research there are many types of interview. The most
common of these are unstructured, semi-structured and struc-
tured interviews. If you want to find out about other types of
interview, relevant references are given at the end of this chapter.

Unstructured interviews
Unstructured or in-depth interviews are sometimes called life
history interviews. This is because they are the favoured approach
for life history researchers. In this type of interview, the researcher
attempts to achieve a holistic understanding of the interviewees’
point of view or situation. For example, if you want to find out
about a Polish man’s experiences of a concentration camp during
the war, you’re delving into his life history. Because you are

27
28 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods

unsure of what has happened in his life, you want to enable him
to talk freely and ask as few questions as possible. It is for this
reason that this type of interview is called unstructured – the
participant is free to talk about what he or she deems important,
with little directional influence from the researcher. This type of
interview can only be used for qualitative research.

As the researcher tries to ask as few questions as possible, people

often assume that this type of interviewing is the easiest.
However, this is not necessarily the case. Researchers have to be
able to establish rapport with the participant – they have to be
trusted if someone is to reveal intimate life information. This can
be difficult and takes tact, diplomacy and perseverance. Also,
some people find it very difficult to remain quiet while another
person talks, sometimes for hours on end.

In unstructured interviews researchers need to remain alert,

recognising important information and probing for more detail.
They need to know how to tactfully steer someone back from
totally irrelevant digressions. Also, it is important to realise that
unstructured interviewing can produce a great deal of data which
can be difficult to analyse.

Semi-structured interviews
Semi-structured interviewing is perhaps the most common type
of interview used in qualitative social research. In this type of
interview, the researcher wants to know specific information
which can be compared and contrasted with information gained
in other interviews. To do this, the same questions need to be
asked in each interview. However, the researcher also wants the
interview to remain flexible so that other important information
can still arise.
 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods 29

For this type of interview, the researcher produces an interview

schedule (see Chapter 7). This may be a list of specific questions or
a list of topics to be discussed. This is taken to each interview to
ensure continuity. In some research, such as a grounded theory
study, the schedule is updated and revised after each interview to
include more topics which have arisen as a result of the previous
interview. (See Chapter 2.)

Structured interviews
Structured interviews are used frequently in market research.
Have you ever been stopped in the street and asked about
washing powder or which magazines you read? Or have you been
invited into a hall to taste cider or smell washing-up liquid? The
interviewer asks you a series of questions and ticks boxes with
your response. This research method is highly structured – hence
the name. Structured interviews are used in quantitative research
and can be conducted face-to-face, online or over the telephone,
sometimes with the aid of lap-top computers.

CONDUCTING FOCUS GROUPS

Focus groups may be called discussion groups or group inter-
views. A number of people are asked to come together in a group
to discuss a certain issue. For example, in market research this
could be a discussion centred on new packaging for a breakfast
cereal, in social research this could be to discuss adults’
experiences of school or in political research this could be to
find out what people think about a particular political leader.

The discussion is led by a moderator or facilitator who introduces

the topic, asks specific questions, controls digressions and stops
break-away conversations. She makes sure that no one person
30 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods

dominates the discussion whilst trying to ensure that each of the

participants makes a contribution. Focus groups may be recorded
using visual or audio recording equipment.

TABLE 1: THE FOCUS GROUP METHOD:

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES

Can receive a wide range of Some people may be

responses during one meeting. uncomfortable in a group setting
and nervous about speaking in
front of others.

Participants can ask questions of Not everyone may contribute.

each other, lessoning impact of
researcher bias.

Helps people to remember issues Other people may contaminate

they might otherwise have an individual’s views.
forgotten.

Helps participants to overcome Some researchers may find it

inhibitions, especially if they difficult or intimidating to
know other people in the group. moderate a focus group.

The group effect is a useful Venues and equipment can be

resource in data analysis. expensive.

Participant interaction is useful Difficult to extract individual

to analyse. views during the analysis.

USING QUESTIONNAIRES
There are three basic types of questionnaire – closed-ended, open-
ended or a combination of both.
 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods 31

1. Closed-ended questionnaires
Closed-ended questionnaires are probably the type with which
you are most familiar. Most people have experience of lengthy
consumer surveys which ask about your shopping habits and
promise entry into a prize draw. This type of questionnaire is used
to generate statistics in quantitative research. As these question-
naires follow a set format, and as most can be scanned straight
into a computer for ease of analysis, greater numbers can be
produced.

2. Open-ended questionnaires
Open-ended questionnaires are used in qualitative research,
although some researchers will quantify the answers during the
analysis stage (see Chapter 11). The questionnaire does not
contain boxes to tick, but instead leaves a blank section for the
respondent to write in an answer.

Whereas closed-ended questionnaires might be used to find out

how many people use a service, open-ended questionnaires might
be used to find out what people think about a service. As there are
no standard answers to these questions, data analysis is more
complex. Also, as it is opinions which are sought rather than
numbers, fewer questionnaires need to be distributed.

3. Combination of both
Many researchers tend to use a combination of both open and
closed questions. That way, it is possible to find out how many
people use a service and what they think about that service on the
same form. Many questionnaires begin with a series of closed
questions, with boxes to tick or scales to rank, and then finish with
a section of open-questions for more detailed response.
32 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods

Increasingly, market research and opinion poll companies

distribute their questionnaires via the internet and pay respon-
dents for their answers. This enables them to build up a following
of loyal respondents to whom they can send questionnaires
quickly and simply, and receive responses back within shorter
deadlines and without the need to pay for postage or send
reminder letters. However, in this type of online research the
participants are self-selecting, that is they have chosen to take part
in the research on a voluntary basis. Some have done this because
they are going to be paid
TIP
and need the money, some
Visit www.yougov.co.uk to see an enjoy completing question-
example of a professional research
company that uses the internet to naires and others may have
collect in-depth data for market and a particular axe to grind. If
organisational research.
you choose to use this type
of ‘self-selecting sample’ you
must be aware of the biases that can occur and be cautious when
making generalisations about your findings. More information
about these issues is provided in Chapter 5.

UNDERTAKING PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION

There are two main ways in which researchers observe – direct
observation and participant observation. Direct observation tends
to be used in areas such as health and psychology. It involves the
observation of a ‘subject’ in a certain situation and often uses
technology such as visual recording equipment or one-way
mirrors. For example, the interaction of mother, father and child
in a specially prepared play room may be watched by psychol-
ogists through a one-way mirror in an attempt to understand
more about family relationships.
 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods 33

In participant observation, however, the researcher becomes much

more involved in the lives of the people being observed.

Using the same research topic described above, a participant

observer would not observe the family from a distance. Instead,
she would immerse herself in the life of the family in an attempt
to understanding more about family relationships.

Participant observation can be viewed as both a method and a

methodology (see Chapter 10). It is popular amongst anthropol-
ogists and sociologists who wish to study and understand another
community, culture or context. They do this by immersing
themselves within that culture. This may take months or years,
as they need to build up a lasting and trusting relationship with
those people being studied. Through participation within their
chosen culture and through careful observation, they hope to gain
a deeper understanding into the behaviour, motivation and
attitudes of the people under study.

Participant observation, as a research method, received bad press

when a number of researchers became covert participant observers;
entering organisations and participating in their activities without
anyone knowing that they were conducting research (see Chapter
13). Overt participant observation, where everyone knows who the
researcher is and what she is doing, however, can be a valuable and
rewarding method for qualitative inquiry.

CHOOSING YOUR METHODS

By now you should have thought quite seriously about your
research methodology. This will help you to decide upon the most
appropriate methods for your research. For example, if you’re
34 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods

leaning towards quantitative research, survey work in the form of

a questionnaire or structured interviews may be appropriate. If
you’re interested in action research, it might be useful to find out
more about semi-structured interviewing or focus groups.

In quantitative research you can define your research methods

early in the planning stage. You know what you want to find out
and you can decide upon the best way to obtain the information.
Also, you will be able to decide early on how many people you
need to contact (see Chapter 5).

However, in some types of qualitative research it may be difficult

to define your methods specifically. You may decide that semi-
structured interviews would be useful, although you’re not sure,
in the planning stages, how many you will need to conduct. You
may find also that you need to use other methods as the research
progresses. Maybe you want to run a focus group to see what
people think about the hypotheses you have generated from the
interviews. Or perhaps you need to spend some time in the field
observing something which has arisen during the interview stage.

Defining needs and means

It is not necessary to use only one research method, although
many projects do this. A combination of methods can be desirable
as it enables you to overcome the different weaknesses inherent in
all methods. What you must be aware of, however, when deciding
upon your methods, are the constraints under which you will
have to work. What is your time scale? What is your budget? Are
you the only researcher, or will you have others to help you?
There’s no point deciding that a large scale, national postal survey
is the best way to do your research if you only have a budget of £50
and two months in which to complete your work.
 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods 35

Thinking about purpose

Also, you need to think about the purpose of your research as this
will help point to the most appropriate methods to use. For
example, if you want to describe in detail the experiences of a
group of women trying to set up and run a charity, you wouldn’t
send them a closed-ended questionnaire. Instead, you might ask
to become involved and set up a piece of action research in which
you can decide to use interviews and focus groups. Or you might
decide to hold two semi-structured interviews with each of the
women involved, one at the beginning of their project and one at
the end. If your goal is detailed description, you do not need to try
to contact as many people as possible.

Let us return to the three examples in the exercises given in the

previous two chapters to find out which would be the most
appropriate methods for the research.

EXAMPLE 3: APPROPRIATE METHODS

Revised statement 1: This research aims to find out what primary
school teachers think about the educational value of ‘TheTeletubbies’
television programme.
This researcher is interested in attitude and opinion. She thinks
about running a series of semi-structured interviews with a small
sample of primary school teachers. However, the researcher is
concerned that some of the teachers may not have seen the
programme and might be unable to comment, or might comment
purely on ‘hearsay’. So she decides to gather together a group of
teachers and show them one episode of TheTeletubbies. Then she
discusses the programme with the teachers in a focus group
setting. This method works well and the researcher decides to
hold five more focus groups with other primary school teachers.
36 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods

Revised statement 2: The aim of this research is to find out how many
relatives of Alzheimer’s patients use the Maple Day Centre, and to
ascertain whether the service is meeting their needs.
This researcher decides to produce a questionnaire with a
combination of closed and open-ended questions. The first
part of the questionnaire is designed to generate statistics and
the second part asks people for a more in-depth opinion. He has
approached members of staff at the Maple Day Centre who are
happy to distribute his questionnaire over a period of one
month.

Revised statement 3: This research aims to find out how many people
from our estate are interested in, and would use, a children’s play
scheme in the school summer holiday.
Members of the tenants’ association approach the local school
and ask the head teacher if a questionnaire could be distributed
through the school. The head teacher feels that it is not
appropriate so the tenants’ association have to revise their
plans. They’re worried that if they distribute a questionnaire
through the post they won’t receive back many responses.
Eventually, they decide to knock on each door on the estate and
ask some simple, standard questions. They’re able to conduct
this type of door-to-door, structured interview as they are a large
group and are able to divide the work amongst everybody on the
committee.

If, at this stage, you are still unsure of the most appropriate
methods for your research, read the following chapters as these
explain in more detail how to go about using each method. This
will give you more of an insight into what would be required of
you if you were to choose that method.
 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods 37

As I stressed earlier, you need to think about your own personality,

your strengths and weaknesses, your likes and dislikes. If you’re a
nervous person who finds it difficult to talk to strangers, face-to-
face interviewing might not be the best method for you. If you love
working with groups, you might like to find out more about focus
group research. If a particular culture has fascinated you for years
and you know you could immerse yourself within that culture,
perhaps participant observa-
tion would interest you. If TIP
you love number crunching Remember to think about choosing a
or using statistical software, method or method(s) with which you
are happy as this is important to keep
a closed-ended question- your motivation levels high.
nair e may be the best
method for you.

SUMMARY
& Research methods are the tools that are used to gather data.

& Three types of interview are used in social research:

– Unstructured or life history interviews.
– Semi-structured interviews.
– Structured interviews.

& Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or over the tele-

phone.

& Focus groups are held with a number of people to obtain a

group opinion.

& Focus groups are run by a moderator who asks questions and
makes sure the discussion does not digress.
38 Chapter 3 . How to Choose Your Research Methods

& Questionnaires can be closed-ended, open-ended or a

combination of both.

& Participant observation is used when a researcher wants to

immerse herself in a specific culture to gain a deeper
understanding.

& The chosen research methodology should help to indicate the

most appropriate research tools.

& Research methods must be chosen within budget and time

constraints.

& The purpose of the research will provide an indicator to the

most appropriate methods.

& You should think about your personality, strengths and

weakness, likes and dislikes when choosing research methods.

FURTHER READING
Balnaves, M. and Caputi, P. (2001) Introduction to Quantitative
Research Methods: An Investigative Approach, London: Sage.
Berg, B.L. (2006) Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences,
6th edition, Harlow: Pearson Education.
Bickman, L. and Rog, D. (eds) (2008) The Sage Handbook of Applied
Social Research Methods, 2nd edition, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bryman, A. (2008) Social Research Methods, 3rd edition, Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Burns, R.B. (2000) Introduction to Research Methods, 4th edition,
London: Sage.
Denscombe, M. (2003) The Good Research Guide: for small-scale social
research projects, 2nd edition, Buckingham: Open University
Press.