DOE Fundamentals

ELECTRICAL SCIENCE
Module 8
Basic AC Reactive Components
Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components

TABLE OF CONTENTS
T able of Co nte nts

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... i

LIST OF FIGURES ...........................................................................................................ii
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ iii
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................iv
OBJECTIVES .................................................................................................................. v
INDUCTANCE ................................................................................................................. 1
Inductive Reactance .................................................................................................... 1
Voltage and Current Phase Relationships in an Inductive Circuit ................................ 2
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 4
CAPACITANCE ............................................................................................................... 5
Capacitors ................................................................................................................... 5
Capacitive Reactance .................................................................................................. 6
Summary ..................................................................................................................... 7
IMPEDANCE ................................................................................................................... 9
Impedance ................................................................................................................... 9
Impedance in R-L Circuits ......................................................................................... 11
Impedance in R-C Circuits ......................................................................................... 12
Impedance in R-C-L Circuits...................................................................................... 12
Summary ................................................................................................................... 16
RESONANCE ............................................................................................................... 17
Resonant Frequency ................................................................................................. 17
Series Resonance ..................................................................................................... 17
Parallel Resonance.................................................................................................... 18
Summary ................................................................................................................... 18

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Current, Self-Induced EMF, and Applied Voltage in

Inductive Circuit ....................................................................................... 2
Figure 2 Coil Circuit and Phasor Diagram .............................................................. 3
Figure 3 Voltage, Charge, and Current in a Capacitor ........................................... 5
Figure 4 Circuit and Phasor Diagram ..................................................................... 7
Figure 5 Relationship Between Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance ............ 10
Figure 6 Simple R-L Circuit .................................................................................. 12
Figure 7 Simple R-C Circuit ................................................................................. 13
Figure 8 Series R-C-L Impedance-Phasor ........................................................... 14
Figure 9 Simple R-C-L Circuit .............................................................................. 15
Figure 10 Simple Parallel R-C-L Circuit ................................................................. 16

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LIST OF TABLES

NONE

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Basic AC Reactive Components

REFERENCES

 Gussow, Milton, Schaum's Outline of Basic Electricity, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill.

 Academic Program for Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volume II, Columbia,
MD: General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517, 1982.
 Sienko and Plane, Chemical Principles and Properties, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill.
 Academic Program for Nuclear Power Plant Personnel, Volume II, Columbia,
MD: General Physics Corporation, Library of Congress Card #A 326517, 1982.
 Nasar and Unnewehr, Electromechanics and Electric Machines, 2nd Edition, John
Wiley and Sons.
 Nooger and Neville Inc., Van Valkenburgh, Basic Electricity, Vol. 5, Hayden Book
Company.
 Bode, H., 1977, Lead-Acid Batteries, John Wiley and Sons, New York.
 Lister, Eugene C., Electric Circuits and Machines, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill.
 Croft, Hartwell, and Summers, American Electricians’ Handbook, 16th Edition,
McGraw-Hill.
 Mason, C. Russell, The Art and Science of Protective Relaying, John Wiley and
Sons.
 Mileaf, Harry, Electricity One - Seven, Revised 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall.
 Buban and Schmitt, Understanding Electricity and Electronics, 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill.
 Kidwell, Walter, Electrical Instruments and Measurements, McGraw-Hill.

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Basic AC Reactive Components

OBJECTIVES

TERMINAL OBJECTIVE
1.0 Using the rules associated with inductors and capacitors, DESCRIBE the
characteristics of these elements when they are placed in an AC circuit.
ENABLING OBJECTIVES
1.1 DESCRIBE inductive reactance (XL).
1.2 Given the operation frequency (f) and the value of inductance (L),
CALCULATE the inductive reactance (XL) of a simple circuit.
1.3 DESCRIBE the effect of the phase relationship between current and
voltage in an inductive circuit.
1.4 DRAW a simple phasor diagram representing AC current (I) and voltage
(E) in an inductive circuit.
1.5 DEFINE capacitive reactance (Xc).
1.6 Given the operating frequency (f) and the value of capacitance (C),
CALCULATE the capacitive reactance (Xc) of a simple AC circuit.
1.7 DESCRIBE the effect on phase relationship between current (I) and
voltage (E) in a capacitive circuit.
1.8 DRAW a simple phasor diagram representing AC current (I) and voltage
(E) in a capacitive circuit.
1.9 DEFINE impedance (Z).
1.10 Given the values for resistance (R) and inductance (L) and a simple R-L
series AC circuit, CALCULATE the impedance (Z) for that circuit.
1.11 Given the values for resistance (R) and capacitance (C) and a simple R-C
series AC circuit, CALCULATE the impedance (Z) for that circuit.
1.12 Given a simple R-C-L series AC circuit and the values for resistance (R),
inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (Xc), CALCULATE the
impedance (Z) for that circuit.
1.13 STATE the formula for calculating total current (I T) in a simple parallel R-
C-L AC circuit.
1.14 Given a simple R-C-L parallel AC circuit and the values for voltage (VT),
resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance (Xc),
CALCULATE the impedance (Z) for that circuit.
1.15 DEFINE resonance.

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Basic AC Reactive Components

1.16 Given the values of capacitance (C) and inductance (L), CALCULATE the
resonant frequency.
1.17 Given a series R-C-L circuit at resonance, DESCRIBE the net reactance
of the circuit.
1.18 Given a parallel R-C-L circuit at resonance, DESCRIBE the circuit output
relative to current (I).

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Inductance

INDUCTANCE

Any device relying on magnetism or magnetic fields to operate is a form of

inductor. Motors, generators, transformers, and coils are inductors. The
use of an inductor in a circuit can cause current and voltage to become
out-of-phase and inefficient unless corrected.
EO 1.1 DESCRIBE inductive reactance (XL).
EO 1.2 Given the operation frequency (f) and the value of inductance (L),
CALCULATE the inductive reactance (XL) of a simple circuit.
EO 1.3 DESCRIBE the effect of the phase relationship between current
and voltage in an inductive circuit.
EO 1.4 DRAW a simple phasor diagram representing AC current (I) and
voltage (E) in an inductive circuit.

Inductive Reactance

In an inductive AC circuit, the current is continually changing and is continuously

inducing an EMF. Because this EMF opposes the continuous change in the flowing
current, its effect is measured in ohms. This opposition of the inductance to the flow of
an alternating current is called inductive reactance (XL). Equation (8-1) is the
mathematical representation of the current flowing in a circuit that contains only
inductive reactance.
E
I = (8-1)
XL
where
I = effective current (A)

XL = inductive reactance (Ω)

E = effective voltage across the reactance (V)
The value of XL in any circuit is dependent on the inductance of the circuit and on the
rate at which the current is changing through the circuit. This rate of change depends on
the frequency of the applied voltage. Equation (8-2) is the mathematical representation
for XL.
XL = 2πfL (8-2)
where
π = ~3.14

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Inductance

f = frequency (Hertz)
L = inductance (Henries)
The magnitude of an induced EMF in a circuit depends on how fast the flux that links
the circuit is changing. In the case of self-induced EMF (such as in a coil), a counter
EMF is induced in the coil due to a change in current and flux in the coil. This CEMF
opposes any change in current, and its value at any time will depend on the rate at
which the current and flux are changing at that time. In a purely inductive circuit, the
resistance is negligible in comparison to the inductive reactance. The voltage applied to
the circuit must always be equal and opposite to the EMF of self-induction.

Voltage and Current Phase Relationships in an Inductive Circuit

As previously stated, any change in current in a coil (either a rise or a fall) causes a
corresponding change of the magnetic flux around the coil. Because the current
changes at its maximum rate when it is going through its zero value at 90° (point b on
Figure 1) and 270° (point d), the flux change is also the greatest at those times.
Consequently, the self-induced EMF in the coil is at its maximum (or minimum) value at
these points, as shown in Figure 1. Because the current is not changing at the point
when it is going through its peak value at 0° (point a), 180° (point c), and 360° (point e),
the flux change is zero at those times. Therefore, the self-induced EMF in the coil is at
its zero value at these points.

Figure 1 Current, Self-Induced EMF, and Applied Voltage in an Inductive Circuit

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Inductance

According to Lenz's Law (refer to Module 1, Basic Electrical Theory), the induced
voltage always opposes the change in current. Referring to Figure 1, with the current at
its maximum negative value (point a), the induced EMF is at a zero value and falling.
Thus, when the current rises in a positive direction (point a to point c), the induced EMF
is of opposite polarity to the applied voltage and opposes the rise in current. Notice that
as the current passes through its zero value (point b) the induced voltage reaches its
maximum negative value. With the current now at its maximum positive value (point c),
the induced EMF is at a zero value and rising. As the current is falling toward its zero
value at 180° (point c to point d), the induced EMF is of the same polarity as the current
and tends to keep the current from falling. When the current reaches a zero value, the
induced EMF is at its maximum positive value. Later, when the current is increasing
from zero to its maximum negative value at 360° (point d to point e), the induced voltage
is of the opposite polarity as the current and tends to keep the current from increasing in
the negative direction. Thus, the induced EMF can be seen to lag the current by 90°.
The value of the self-induced EMF varies as a sine wave and lags the current by 90°, as
shown in Figure 1. The applied voltage must be equal and opposite to the self-induced
EMF at all times; therefore, the current lags the applied voltage by 90° in a purely
inductive circuit.
If the applied voltage (E) is represented by a vector rotating in a counterclockwise
direction (Figure 1b), then the current can be expressed as a vector that is lagging the
applied voltage by 90°. Diagrams of this type are referred to as phasor diagrams.
Example: A 0.4 H coil with negligible resistance is connected to a 115V, 60 Hz
power source (see Figure 2). Find the inductive reactance of the coil and
the current through the circuit. Draw a phasor diagram showing the phase
relationship between current and applied voltage.

Figure 2 Coil Circuit and Phasor Diagram

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Inductance

Solution:
1. Inductive reactance of the coil
XL = 2πfL
= (2)(3.14)(60)(0.4)
XL = 150.7Ω
2. Current through the circuit
E
I =
XL
115
I =
150.7
I = 0.76 amps
3. Draw a phasor diagram showing the phase relationship between current
and applied voltage.
Phasor diagram showing the current lagging voltage by 90° is drawn in
Figure 2b.

Summary

Inductive reactance is summarized below.

Inductive Reactance Summary

 Opposition to the flow of alternating current caused by inductance is called
Inductive Reactance (XL).
 The formula for calculating XL is:
XL = 2 π f L
 Current (I) lags applied voltage (E) in a purely inductive circuit by 90° phase
angle.
 The phasor diagram shows the applied voltage (E) vector leading (above) the
current (I) vector by the amount of the phase angle differential due to the
relationship between voltage and current in an inductive circuit.

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Capacitance

CAPACITANCE

There are many natural causes of capacitance in AC power circuits, such

as transmission lines, fluorescent lighting, and computer monitors.
Normally, these are counteracted by the inductors previously discussed.
However, where capacitors greatly outnumber inductive devices, we must
calculate the amount of capacitance to add or subtract from an AC circuit
by artificial means.
EO 1.5 DEFINE capacitive reactance (Xc).
EO 1.6 Given the operating frequency (f) and the value of capacitance (C),
CALCULATE the capacitive reactance (Xc) of a simple AC circuit.
EO 1.7 DESCRIBE the effect on phase relationship between current (I) and
voltage (E) in a capacitive circuit.
EO 1.8 DRAW a simple phasor diagram representing AC current (I) and
voltage (E) in a capacitive circuit.

Capacitors

The variation of an alternating voltage

applied to a capacitor, the charge on the
capacitor, and the current flowing through
the capacitor are represented by Figure 3.
The current flow in a circuit containing
capacitance depends on the rate at which
the voltage changes. The current flow in
Figure 3 is greatest at points a, c, and e.
At these points, the voltage is changing at
its maximum rate (i.e., passing through
zero). Between points a and b, the voltage
and charge are increasing, and the
current flow is into the capacitor, but
decreasing in value. At point b, the
capacitor is fully charged, and the current
is zero. From points b to c, the voltage
and charge are decreasing as the Figure 3 Voltage, Charge, and Current in a Capacitor
capacitor discharges, and its current flows
in a direction opposite to the voltage. From points c to d, the capacitor begins to charge
in the opposite direction, and the voltage and current are again in the same direction.

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Basic AC Reactive Components Capacitance

At point d, the capacitor is fully charged, and the current flow is again zero. From points
d to e, the capacitor discharges, and the flow of current is opposite to the voltage.
Figure 3 shows the current leading the applied voltage by 90°. In any purely capacitive
circuit, current leads applied voltage by 90°.

Capacitive Reactance

Capacitive reactance is the opposition by a capacitor or a capacitive circuit to the flow of

current. The current flowing in a capacitive circuit is directly proportional to the
capacitance and to the rate at which the applied voltage is changing. The rate at which
the applied voltage is changing is determined by the frequency of the supply; therefore,
if the frequency of the capacitance of a given circuit is increased, the current flow will
increase. It can also be said that if the frequency or capacitance is increased, the
opposition to current flow decreases; therefore, capacitive reactance, which is the
opposition to current flow, is inversely proportional to frequency and capacitance.
Capacitive reactance Xc, is measured in ohms, as is inductive reactance. Equation (8-3)
is a mathematical representation for capacitive reactance.
1
XC = (8-3)
2πfC
where
f = frequency (Hz)
π = ~3.14
C = capacitance (farads)
Equation (8-4) is the mathematical representation of capacitive reactance when
capacitance is expressed in microfarads (µF).
1,000,000
XC = (8-4)
2πfC
Equation (8-5) is the mathematical representation for the current that flows in a circuit
with only capacitive reactance.

E
I = (8-5)
XC
where
I = effective current (A)
E = effective voltage across the capacitive reactance (V)
Xc = capacitive reactance (Ω)

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Capacitance

Example: A 10µF capacitor is connected to a 120V, 60Hz power source (see Figure
4). Find the capacitive reactance and the current flowing in the circuit.
Draw the phasor diagram.

Figure 4 Circuit and Phasor Diagram

Solution:
1. Capacitive reactance
1,000,000
XC =
2πfC
1,000,000
=
(2)(3.14)(60)(10)
1,000,000
=
3768
XC = 265.4Ω
2. Current flowing in the circuit
E
I =
XC
120
=
265.4
I = 0.452 amps

3. Phasor diagram showing current leading voltage by 90° is drawn in Figure

4b.

Summary

Capacitive reactance is summarized below.

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Capacitance

Capacitive Reactance Summary

 Opposition to the flow of alternating current caused by capacitance is called
capacitive reactance (Xc).
 The formula for calculating Xc is:
XC = 1 / 2 π f C
 Current (I) leads applied voltage by 90° in a purely capacitive circuit.
 The phasor diagram shows the applied voltage (E) vector leading (below) the
current (I) vector by the amount of the phase angle differential due to the
relationship between voltage and current in a capacitive circuit.

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

IMPEDANCE

Whenever inductive and capacitive components are used in an AC circuit,

the calculation of their effects on the flow of current is important.
EO 1.9 DEFINE impedance (Z).
EO 1.10 Given the values for resistance (R) and inductance (L) and a simple
R-L series AC circuit, CALCULATE the impedance (Z) for that
circuit.
EO 1.11 Given the values for resistance (R) and capacitance (C) and a
simple R-C series AC circuit, CALCULATE the impedance (Z) for
that circuit.
EO 1.12 Given a simple R-C-L series AC circuit and the values for
resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive reactance
(Xc), CALCULATE the impedance (Z) for that circuit.
EO 1.13 STATE the formula for calculating total current (IT) in a simple
parallel R-C-L AC circuit.
EO 1.14 Given a simple R-C-L parallel AC circuit and the values for voltage
(VT), resistance (R), inductive reactance (XL), and capacitive
reactance (Xc), CALCULATE the impedance (Z) for that circuit.

Impedance

No circuit is without some resistance, whether desired or not. Resistive and reactive
components in an AC circuit oppose current flow. The total opposition to current flow in
a circuit depends on its resistance, its reactance, and the phase relationships between
them. Impedance is defined as the total opposition to current flow in a circuit. Equation
(8-6) is the mathematical representation for the magnitude of impedance in an AC
circuit.

(8-6)
where
Z = impedance (Ω)

R = resistance (Ω)

X = net reactance (Ω)

The relationship between resistance, reactance, and impedance is shown in Figure 5.

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

Figure 5 Relationship Between Resistance, Reactance, and Impedance

The current through a certain resistance is always in phase with the applied voltage.
Resistance is shown on the zero axis. The current through an inductor lags applied
voltage by 90'; inductive reactance is shown along the 90° axis. Current through a
capacitor leads applied voltage by 90°; capacitive reactance is shown along the -90°
axis. Net reactance in an AC circuit is the difference between inductive and capacitive
reactance. Equation (8-7) is the mathematical representation for the calculation of net
reactance when XL is greater than Xc.
X = XL - Xc (8-7)
where
X = net reactance (Ω)
XL = inductive reactance (Ω)
Xc = capacitive reactance (Ω)
Equation (8-8) is the mathematical representation for the calculation of net reactance
when Xc is greater than XL.
X = Xc - XL (8-8)
Impedance is the vector sum of the resistance and net reactance (X) in a circuit, as
shown in Figure 5. The angle Өis the phase angle and gives the phase relationship
between the applied voltage and the current. Impedance in an AC circuit corresponds to
the resistance of a DC circuit. The voltage drop across an AC circuit element equals the
current times the impedance. Equation (8-9) is the mathematical representation of the
voltage drop across an AC circuit.
V = IZ (8-9)

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

where
V = voltage drop (V)
I = current (A)
Z = impedance (Ω)
The phase angle Ө gives the phase relationship between current and the voltage.

Impedance in R-L Circuits

Impedance is the resultant of phasor addition of R and X L. The symbol for impedance is
Z. Impedance is the total opposition to the flow of current and is expressed in ohms.
Equation (8-10) is the mathematical representation of the impedance in an RL circuit.

(8-10)
Example: If a 100Ω resistor and a 60Ω XL are in series with a 115V applied voltage
(Figure 6), what is the circuit impedance?

Figure 6 Simple R-L Circuit

Solution:

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

Impedance in R-C Circuits

In a capacitive circuit, as in an inductive circuit, impedance is the resultant of phasor

addition of R and Xc. Equation (8-11) is the mathematical representation for impedance
in an R-C circuit.

(8-11)
Example: A 50Ω XC and a 60Ω resistance are in series across a 110 VAC source
(Figure 7). Calculate the impedance.

Figure 7 Simple R-C Circuit

Solution:

Impedance in R-C-L Circuits

Impedance in an R-C-L series circuit is equal to the phasor sum of resistance, inductive
reactance, and capacitive reactance (Figure 8).

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

Figure 8 Series R-C-L Impedance-Phasor

Equations (8-12) and (8-13) are the mathematical representations of impedance in an
R-C-L circuit. Because the difference between XL and Xc is squared, the order in which
the quantities are subtracted does not affect the answer.

(8-12)

(8-13)
Example: Find the impedance of a series R-C-L circuit, when R = 6Ω, XL = 20Ω, and
Xc = 10Ω (Figure 9).

Figure 9 Simple R-C-L Circuit

Solution:
)
)
)
)

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Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

)
)
Impedance in a parallel R-C-L circuit equals the voltage divided by the total current.
Equation (8-14) is the mathematical representation of the impedance in a parallel R-C-L
circuit.
VT
ZT = (8-14)
IT
where
ZT = total impedance (Ω)
VT = total voltage (V)
IT = total current (A)
Total current in a parallel R-C-L circuit is equal to the square root of the sum of the
squares of the current flows through the resistance, inductive reactance, and capacitive
reactance branches of the circuit. Equations (8-15) and (8-16) are the mathematical
representations of total current in a parallel R-C-L circuit. Because the difference
between IL and lc is squared, the order in which the quantities are subtracted does not
affect the answer.

) (8-15)

) (8-16)
where
IT = total current (A)
IR = current through resistance leg (A)
IC = current through capacitive reactance leg (A)
IL = current through inductive resistance leg (A)
Example: A 200Ω resistor, a 100Ω XL, and an 80Ω Xc are placed in parallel across a
120V AC source (Figure 10). Find: (1) the branch currents, (2) the total
current, and (3) the impedance.

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Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

Figure 10 Simple Parallel R-C-L Circuit

Solution:
1. Branch currents:
VT VT VT
IR = IL = IC =
R XL XC
120 120 120
= = =
200 100 80
IR = 0.6a IL = 1.2a IC = 1.5a

2. Total current:

3. Impedance

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Impedance

Summary

Impedance is summarized below.

Impedance Summary
 Impedance (Z) is the total opposition to current flow in an AC circuit.
 The formula for impedance in a series AC circuit is:

 The formula for impedance in a parallel R-C-L circuit is:

)
 The formulas for finding total current (IT) in a parallel R-C-L circuit are:

when IC > IL,

when IL > IC,

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Resonance

RESONANCE

In the chapters on inductance and capacitance we have learned that both

conditions are reactive and can provide opposition to current flow, but for
opposite reasons. Therefore, it is important to find the point where
inductance and capacitance cancel one another to achieve efficient
operation of AC circuits.
EO 1.15 DEFINE resonance.
EO 1.16 Given the values of capacitance (C) and inductance (L),
CALCULATE the resonant frequency.
EO 1.17 Given a series R-C-L circuit at resonance, DESCRIBE the net
reactance of the circuit.
EO 1.18 Given a parallel R-C-L circuit at resonance, DESCRIBE the circuit
output relative to current (I).

Resonant Frequency

Resonance occurs in an AC circuit when inductive reactance and capacitive reactance

are equal to one another: XL = Xc When this occurs, the total reactance, X = XL - Xc
becomes zero and the impendence is totally resistive. Because inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance are both dependent on frequency, it is possible to bring a circuit to
resonance by adjusting the frequency of the applied voltage. Resonant frequency (f Res)
is the frequency at which resonance occurs, or where XL = Xc. Equation (8-14) is the
mathematical representation for resonant frequency.

(8-14)

where
fRes = resonant frequency (Hz)
L = inductance (H)
C = capacitance (f)

Series Resonance

In a series R-C-L circuit, as in Figure 9, at resonance the net reactance of the circuit is
zero, and the impedance is equal to the circuit resistance; therefore, the current output
of a series resonant circuit is at a maximum value for that circuit and is determined by
the value of the resistance. (Z=R)

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Electrical Science
Basic AC Reactive Components Resonance

Parallel Resonance

Resonance in a parallel R-C-L circuit will occur when the reactive current in the
inductive branches is equal to the reactive current in the capacitive branches (or when
XL = Xc). Because inductive and capacitive reactance currents are equal and opposite in
phase, they cancel one another at parallel resonance.
If a capacitor and an inductor, each with negligible resistance, are connected in parallel
and the frequency is adjusted such that reactances are exactly equal, current will flow in
the inductor and the capacitor, but the total current will be negligible. The parallel C-L
circuit will present an almost infinite impedance. The capacitor will alternately charge
and discharge through the inductor. Thus, in a parallel R-C-L, as in Figure 10, the net
current flow through the circuit is at minimum because of the high impendence
presented by XL and Xc in parallel.

Summary

Resonance is summarized below.

Resonance Summary
 Resonance is a state in which the inductive reactance equals the capacitive
reactance (XL = Xc) at a specified frequency (fRes).
 Resonant frequency is:

 R-C-L series circuit at resonance is when net reactance is zero and circuit
current output is determined by the series resistance of the circuit.
 R-C-L parallel circuit at resonance is when net reactance is maximum and circuit
current output is at minimum

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