We are IntechOpen,

the world’s leading publisher of

Open Access books
Built by scientists, for scientists

6,700
Open access books available
180,000
International authors and editors
195M
Downloads

Our authors are among the

154
Countries delivered to
TOP 1%
most cited scientists
12.2%
Contributors from top 500 universities

Selection of our books indexed in the Book Citation Index

in Web of Science™ Core Collection (BKCI)

Interested in publishing with us?

Contact [email protected]
Numbers displayed above are based on latest data collected.
For more information visit www.intechopen.com
 Chapter 2

Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in

Distribution Networks

Soliman Abdel-Hady Soliman and

Rashid Abdel-Kader Alammari

Additional information is available at the end of the chapter

http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

1. Introduction

The power quality problem is now of a great concern to electric utilities of power industry and
they are trying hard to supply their customers with a good quality of power especially in the
open market. Due to the wide spread use of power electronics in every place in the power
industry, the power supplied to the customers are now distorted in either the voltage signal
or current signal or both of them. This distortion has a great effect on the sensitive equipments
and may cause interruption to such equipments that result in very expensive consequence. It
has been reported that 30% voltage sag for very short duration can reset programmable
controllers for the entire assembly line. As such an accurate algorithm is needed for identifi‐
cation and measurements of these events

Power quality involves how close the voltage waveform is to being a perfect sinusoid with a
constant frequency and amplitude. Historically, it has been the utilities’ responsibility to
provide a “clean” voltage waveform, and most customers’ load did no affect the quality of
their power. Today, a new factor, harmonics, has been added to the power quality scenario
because utility customers, including residential ones, are using electronic devices that require
non-sinusoidal currents, currents rich in harmonics.

The presence of power system harmonics is not a new problem; it has been well known since
the first generator was built. However, nowadays due to the widespread use of electronic
equipment, arcing devices, such as arc furnaces and equipment with saturated ferromagnetic
cores, such as transformers, power engineers pay more attention to power system harmonics.
The presence of voltage and current waveform distortion is generally expressed in terms of
harmonic frequencies that are integral multiples of the power system nominal frequency. It is

© 2013 Soliman and Alammari; licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
22 Power Quality Issues

a steady phenomenon in a power system, and it is completely different from the distortion
results from the transient, such as faults, in a power system.

The subject of harmonics has been deemed so important that there are international confer‐
ences dedicated to the subject, working groups and committees in international engineering
societies, which deal only with harmonics, and several dedicated books on the topics. Power
system, harmonics are become one of the important index to the power quality issues these
days. Good power quality means less distortion, less harmonics, in the voltage and current
sources.

Good harmonic prediction requires clear understanding of two different but closely related
topics. One is the non-linear voltage/ current characteristic of some power system components
and its related effect, the presence of harmonic sources. The main problem in this respect is
the difficulty in specifying these sources accurately. The second topic is the derivation of the
suitable harmonic models of the predominantly linear network components, and of the
harmonic flows resulting from their interconnection. This task is made difficult by insufficient
information on the composition of the system loads and their damping to harmonic frequen‐
cies. Further impediments to accurate prediction are the existence of many distributed non-
linearities, phase diversity, the varying nature of the load, etc.

To assess the quality of delivered power, especially in open markets, it is necessary to estimate
the harmonic components in a power system. The quality of power delivered necessitates
knowledge regarding the magnitude of harmonic components and phase angle of these
components. The reduction of harmonics in a system means good system quality. Installing
filters at feeding points along the network can do this if the harmonic components magnitudes
as well as their phase angles are known in advance.

Over the past 25 years major improvements in the field of signal theory have been achieved
and many algorithms and techniques have been published in the literature. In Ref. [1] an
algorithm for tracking the voltage envelope based on calculating the energy operator of a
sinusoidal waveform is presented. It is assumed that the frequency of the sinusoidal waveform
is known and a lead-lag network with unity gain is used. An approach to power quality
assessment based on real-time (RT) hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation is proposed in Ref.
[2]. The RT-HIL platform is being used for power quality studies of NAVY all-electric ships.
Ref. [3] describes an analytical method for evaluating the voltage sag performance of a power-
supply distribution network, different evaluation algorithms are proposed to account for each
type of sensitivity.

Ref. [4] proposes a fuzzy pattern recognition system for power quality disturbances. It is a two-
stage system in which a multi-resolution S-transform is used to generate a set of optimal
features vectors in the first stage. In the second stage a fuzzy logic-based pattern recognition
system is used to classify the various disturbances waveforms generated due to power quality
violations. The Teager energy operator (TEO) and the Hilbert transform (HT) are introduced
in Ref. [5] as effective approaches for tracking the voltage flicker levels. It has been found that
TEO and HT are capable of tracking the amplitude variations of the voltage flicker and supply
frequency in industrial systems with an average error 3%. Root-mean-square (rms) calculation
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 23
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

is a popular method adopted in power system parameter classification such as voltage sag
classification and relay protection. Ref. [6] studies the characteristics of the rms method, for
both the single-frequency and mixed-frequency signals. Analysis is made on its dependence
on sampling rate, sampling window size, as well as point-on-wave through strict mathematical
deductions.

Ref. [7] presents a control technique for flicker mitigation. This technique is based on the
instantaneous tracking of the measured voltage envelope. The ADALINE (ADAptive LINear)
neuron algorithm and the Recursive Least Square (RLS) algorithm are introduced for the flicker
envelope tracking. Presented in Ref. [8] is a fuzzy-expert system for automated detection and
classification of power quality disturbances. The types of concerned disturbances include
voltage sags, swells, interruption, switching transients, impulses, flickers, harmonics and
notches from a signal that is available in sampled form. Fourier transform and wavelet analysis
are utilized to obtain unique features for the waveforms. Ref. [9] and Ref. [10] present concepts
based on fuzzy expert system for power quality study, the concept integrates the power system
modeling, classifying and characterizing for power quality events, studying equipment
sensitivity to the event disturbance, and locating point of event occurrence into one unified
frame. Both Fourier and wavelet analyzes are applied for extracting distinct features of various
types of events as well as for characterizing the events. Ref. [11] presents a technique for
learning power- quality waveforms based adaptive neuro-fuzzy systems to learn power
quality signature waveforms. Ref. [12] compared three signal processing tools for power
quality analysis; the continues wavelet transform, the multi-resolution analysis and the
quadratic transform. It has been concluded that the continues Wavelet transform is as reliable
as these methods but has been the advantage of giving directly the magnitude of the 50/60 Hz
signal, and is suitable for quantifying power quality when detecting and measuring voltage
sags, transients over voltages or flicker. None of these techniques are as adequate to detect and
measure the voltage magnitude of harmonic content as the Fourier transform. Reference [15]
presents an optimal measurements scheme for tracking the harmonics in power system voltage
and current waveforms. The proposed scheme was based on Kalman filtering. Reference [15]
implements the well-known LES algorithm for identification and measurement of power
system harmonics. The mathematical model for the identification and measurement process
is presented in this reference. The samples used in this reference are for one of the three- phase
voltage or current signals. Reference [16] presents a comparative study for power system
harmonic estimation, where it compares the results obtained using discrete Fourier transform
(DFT), the well known least errors square (LES) parameter estimation algorithm and the least
absolute value (LAV) parameter estimation algorithm. It has been concluded that the three
algorithms produce the same estimate, if the signal under study is free of noise. However, if
some data samples are missed, the least absolute value produces better estimates than the DFT
and LES algorithms. The algorithms in this reference use the samples of a one-phase voltage
or current signal. An approach based on singular value decomposition (SVD) for estimating
harmonic components in a power system is presented in Reference [17]. Three different
techniques are investigated in this reference; the standard averaged SVD, the total LS and
double SVD. Reference [18] implements the neural network in its analogue form for estimation
of harmonics. It has been shown that such problem formulation leads to a quadratic objective
24 Power Quality Issues

of the global minimum, which can be found by using simple electronic circuitry in real time.
Reference [19] presents an approach for the estimation of harmonic components of a power
system using a linear adaptive neuron called Adaline. The proposed estimator tracks Fourier
coefficients of signal data corrupted with noise and decaying DC components. Reference [28]
develops a fast Newton type solution of the six-pulse rectifier and dc system in the harmonic
domain. The nonlinear equations are solved using Newton’s method, which employs a
Jacobian matrix of partial derivatives. A twelve states Kalman filtering algorithm is applied in
Reference [29], using an 8-bit microprocessor, for continues real-time tracking of the harmonics
in the voltage or current waveforms of a power system to obtain in real time the instantaneous
values for a maximum of six harmonics as well as the existing harmonic distortion. Reference
[30] reviews the problems associated with direct application of the Fast Fourier Transform to
compute harmonic levels of non-steady state distorted waveforms, and various ways to
describe recorded data in statistical terms. Reference [31] presents an approach based on fuzzy
linear regression for the measurement of power system harmonic components. The non-
sinusoidal voltage or current waveform is written as a linear function. The parameters of this
function are assumed to be fuzzy numbers having certain middle and spread value. The
problem in this reference is formulated as a linear optimization problem, where the objective
is to minimize the spread of voltage or current samples. The on-line digital measurement on
power systems for the power quality analysis under non-sinusoidal conditions is considered
in Reference [32]. The proposed instrument, in this reference, adopts a floating point digital
signal processing (DSP) hosted on a IBM PC and interfaced with a special high-speed data
acquisition system (DAS). Voltage and current waveforms are acquired and processed by
using a fast recursive least-square (FRLS) measurement algorithm. Using such an algorithm,
different quantities are obtained, such as the current and voltage rms values, their harmonic
content, the active power, the harmonic active power, the power factor, etc. Reference [33]
applies a technique to the computation of individual harmonics in digital protections, where
only certain isolated harmonics, rather than the full spectrum, are needed. This leads to O
(log2N) computations per harmonics. A technique based on modeling and identification
method is proposed in Reference [34] using a mathematical model describing the signal in
question. The recursive least-square-error identification algorithm is used to identify the
harmonic parameters. These are including the frequency, the amplitude and phase angle.
Because of the limitations associated with conventional algorithms, particularly under supply-
frequency drift and transient situations, an approach based on non-linear least squares
parameter estimation has been proposed in Reference [35]. To reduce the computational time
the Hopfield type feedback neural networks for real-time harmonic evaluation. The neural
network implementation determines simultaneously the supply frequency variation, the
fundamental-amplitude/phase variation as well as the harmonics-amplitude variation.
Reference [36] considers state estimation of harmonic signals with time varying magnitudes.
Harmonic signals are modeled using elliptical set-theoretic methods and an optimal reduced-
order estimator, which has one-half the dimension of the state vector, is developed for
predicting the unknown time-varying harmonic magnitudes. Reference [37] proposes the
optimization of spectrum analysis to reduce the restriction on Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
[38] resulting mismatch the frequency scale with signal characteristics. By using this method
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 25
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

both of the picket-fence effect and the leakage effect are reduced, and it makes the harmonic
parameters show on spectrum more accurately. Reference [39] proposes a harmonic model
based on Wavelet Transform (WT) for on-line tracking of power system using Kalman filtering.
The close relation between the Wavelet and Multi-resolution analysis is utilized to express the
harmonic magnitudes and phase angle as a sum of Wavelet and scaling function.voltage sags
define as an rms reduction in the AC voltage, at the power frequency, for duration from a half
a cycle to a few second. If the voltage drops below normal level for several cycles it would
affect the critical load and cause shutdown to these loads. Voltage sags constitute the majority
of power line problem representing about 60% of all problems. In addition to these quantities,
sags also characterize by unbalance, non-sinusoidal wave-shapes and phase angle shift (phase
jump). These factors are important for determining the behavior of ac motor drives during
sags [40]. The main sources for the voltage sags are start-ups of large motors, sudden increase
in line loads, electrical faults on utility power lines caused by animals, trees, storms, or other
objects in contacts with power lines. A majority of faults on a utility system are single-line-to-
ground faults (L-G). During L-G faults, the voltage on the faulted phase goes to nearly zero
volts at the fault location. The corresponding voltage at a customer bus depends on the system
configuration, location of the fault, the impedance of the system upstream of the fault, the
feeder impedance, the distance of the fault and the transformer connections between the
faulted system and customer bus. Furthermore, Electronic loads that pull large currents such
as copy machines, laser printers can cause voltage sags. Further more, loose wiring in the
distribution installation can cause voltage sags [14]. To quantify the effect of sensitive equip‐
ment to voltage sags, it is necessary to characterize the parameters of voltage sags. Most often,
voltage sags characterize by a duration and depth parameter and represent in a two-dimen‐
sional rms voltage magnitude versus duration plot. This simplified representation of voltage
sag characteristics does not take into account the different in individual phase voltages (voltage
asymmetry or unbalance) and the associated phase angle shift during voltage sag. Further‐
more, it does not take into account the non-sinusoidal nature of the voltage waveform during
the sag. The magnitude of voltage sag can be determined from the rms voltage. As long as the
voltage is sinusoidal, it does not matter whether rms voltage, fundamental voltage, or peak
voltage used to obtain the sag magnitude. But especially during a voltage sag this is often not
the case.[15] Chapter 4 in Ref. [15] explains in details the voltage sag characterization, the
different available techniques used to measure the voltage sags at different modes of operation
of power systems Fast Fourier Transform used to measure the phase angle jumps using the
moving window length technique.

In Reference [42], a method for voltage disturbances such as voltage sags, voltage swells,
flicker, frequency change in the utility voltage, and harmonic distortion of a single-phase or
poly phase voltage disturbances is explored The algorithm is based on the theory that allows
a set of three-phase voltages be represented as dc voltages in a d–q synchronous rotating frame.
In this case, the utility input voltages are sensed and then converted to dc quantities in the d–
q reference frame. The output of the algorithm is compared with a set of reference voltages,
and the error is used as a measure to such disturbances. Reference [43] presents a Monte Carlo
based approach to evaluate the maximum voltage sag magnitudes as well as the voltage
unbalance in transmission systems. In this context, investigations have been conducted on a
26 Power Quality Issues

system model taking into consideration the uncertainty in several factors associated with the
practical operation of a power system.

Reference [44] has discussed the limitations of the conventional sag characterizing method and
proposed a new sag characterizing method. The conventional method overestimates the
nonrectangular sag and cannot reflect the exact effect of voltage sag according to the voltage
tolerance characteristics. The method has approximated the voltage profile during voltage sag
using order radical root function. It has modified the voltage sag duration using the known
parameters, and which are measured at PQ monitors. With the modified sag duration, the
method has evaluated the effect of voltage sag correctly. Moreover, it can be applied to not
only rectangular sag but also nonrectangular sag.

Reference [45] proposes the concept of “voltage sag state estimation” and associated algo‐
rithms to achieve this goal. The method has the characteristics: 1) It makes use of the radial
connection characteristic of a distribution feeder, 2) it is based on a limited number of metering
points, and 3) it employs a least-square method to predict the sag profile along a distribution
line. The results of sag state estimator can be used to calculate the feeder power quality
performance indices such as the System Average RMS Frequency Index (SARFIx). Reference
[46] presents a technique for accurate discrimination between transient voltage stability and
voltage sag by combining damped sinusoids-based transient modeling with neural networks.
Transient modeling is accomplished by energy adapted matching pursuits with an over-
complete dictionary of damped sinusoids. In this approach, the information provided by the
damped sinusoids-based transient modeling stage is applied to a Neural Network, which
determine in a fast and accurate fashion the class to which the waveform belongs. In Reference
[47] a power quality assessment method was proposed. Test results show that the method can
tolerate highly distorted voltages, significant sudden frequency change, and three-phase
voltage sags, but it cannot tolerate certain short-term phase-shifted single-phase voltage sags.
In Reference [40] a control algorithm for the (Distributed Generation) DG interface based on
the Hilbert transform (HT) is presented. The HT is employed as an effective technique for
tracking the voltage flicker levels in distribution systems. The technique can be used on-line
tracking of voltage flicker. The accurate tracking of the HT facilitates its implementation for
the control of flicker mitigation devices. The HT realized with long filter length provides a
minimum error in tracking the voltage envelope but with higher computation cost and a larger
delay time than that of the short filter length. The HT can surpass the Kalman Filter in voltage
tracking in a sense that it requires less computation effort and avoid the pitfalls of the FFT. In
Reference [48], an algorithm for tracking the voltage envelope based on calculating the energy
operator of a sinusoidal waveform is presented. This algorithm is used to evaluate the
instantaneous changes in the amplitude and so track the envelope of the waveform. The
algorithm is fast and robust and uses only a few samples to calculate the energy. It is not
sensitive to the noise or the distortion in the waveform. The results show the capability of the
algorithm to track different shapes of envelopes associated with high signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR). However, there will be a delay between the actual and the tracked envelope, due to
using the lead/lag networks
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 27
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

A prototype wavelet-based neural network classifier for recognizing power-quality distur‐

bances is implemented and tested in Reference [50], under various transient events. The
discrete wavelet transform (DWT) technique is integrated with the probabilistic neural-
network (PNN) model to construct the classifier. First, the multi resolution-analysis technique
of DWT and the Parseval’s theorem are employed to extract the energy distribution features
of the distorted signal at different resolution levels. Then, the PNN classifies these extracted
features to identify the disturbance type according to the transient duration and the energy
features. Various transient events are tested, such as, momentary interruption, capacitor
switching, voltage sag/swell, harmonic distortion, and flicker. The results show that the
classifier can detect and classify different power disturbance types efficiently. Reference [51]
proposes a wavelet-based extended fuzzy reasoning approach to power-quality disturbance
recognition and identification. To extract power-quality disturbance features, the energy
distribution of the wavelet part at each decomposition level is introduced and its calculation
mathematically established. Based on these features, rule bases are generated for extended
fuzzy reasoning. The power-quality disturbance features are finally mapped into a real
number, in terms of which different power-quality disturbance waveforms are classified. One
prominent advantage of this approach is that the power-quality engineers’ knowledge about
features of the disturbance waveforms can be easily included into the algorithm using
linguistic description.

Reference [52] presents a procedure for stochastic prediction of voltage sags based on the
Monte Carlo method. A medium size distribution network is used to analyze, the convergence
of the Monte Carlo method, the influence of protective devices and the importance of voltage
sag indices is studied. This reference has presented the scope and advantages of an EMTP-
based procedure for voltage sag analysis. The aim of a stochastic prediction is not only to
deduce the number of voltage sags but also the number of trips of sensitive equipment.
Therefore, the representation of equipment sensitivity is also required. In Reference [53] the
Recursive Least Square (RLS) algorithm are introduced for the flicker envelope tracking. Both
the ADALINE and the RLS algorithms are used to track the voltage envelope. The difference
between the estimated envelope and the required voltage level is passed to the controller to
obtain the required reactive power to compensate flickers. A fast response, accurate tracking,
and robustness of the proposed control system are revealed from the results. In addition, the
performance of the ADALINE and the RLS algorithms for the estimation of flicker envelopes
are investigated.

Reference [54] presents and verifies a voltage sag detection technique for use in conjunction
with the main control system of a DVR. A problem arises when fast evaluation of the sag depth
and phase shift is required, as this information is normally embedded within the core of a main
DVR control scheme and is not readily available to either user monitoring the state of the grid
or parallel controllers. The voltage sag detection method in this reference proposes a matrix
method, which is able to compute the phase shift and voltage reduction of the supply voltage
much quicker than the Fourier transform or a PLL. DPQ sites have widely dispersed power
quality. Many sites have many more sags than other sites. Rural sites have many more sags
and momentary interruptions than suburban and urban sites. The three strongest indicators
28 Power Quality Issues

of voltage sags are 1) circuit exposure, 2) lightning, and 3) a term with transformer size and
number of feeders. A linear model can predict sags based on a small number of site charac‐
teristics. Load density and three-phase circuit exposure most strongly affect momentary [55].
In Reference [56] a potential problem area in using RMS values in power quality assessment
are identified and discussed. The RMS can be computed either using a fixed window (s-RMS)
or a moving average technique (m-RMS). In both cases, RMS is a function of window length,
and is a constant function for periodic signals of fundamental period.

Reference [57] presents an expert system for automatic classification of power quality record‐
ings. The classification procedure is based on segmenting the voltage waveforms in points of
sudden changes in the fundamental magnitude. Based on the segmentation results, a set of
classification modules is utilized to classify the event. Classification is based on features
extracted from the voltage waveforms. The system successfully classifies the largest part of
the recordings. The only problems that are found are related with either the failure in detecting
very small changes in the voltage magnitude or the time resolution problems of the magnitude
estimation and the detection. The expert system enables fast and accurate analysis of large
databases and classification of the recordings in terms of the origin. Event classification
(instead of disturbance classification) offers the means for better understanding and descrip‐
tion of the operation of the system in terms of power quality.

Reference [58] uses the continuous wavelet transform to detect and analyze voltage sags and
transients. Recursive algorithm is used and improved to compute the time-frequency plane of
electrical disturbances. Characteristics of investigated signals are measured on a time-
frequency plane. A comparison between measured characteristics and benchmark values
detects the presence of disturbances in analyzed signals and characterizes the type of distur‐
bances. Duration and magnitude of voltage sags are measured; transients are located in the
width of the signal. Furthermore, meaningful time and frequency components of transients
are measured. Detection and measurement results are compared using classical methods. This
algorithm enables very accurate time location and magnitude measurements of voltage sags
and meaningful transient identifications. Furthermore, the method enables an accurate
classification of transient events to be performed, and characteristics are easily read from the
time-frequency plane. Reference [59] shows that it is possible to use sampled voltage and
current waveforms to determine on which side of a recording device a disturbance originates.
This is accomplished by examining the energy flow and peak instantaneous power for both
capacitor energizing and voltage sag disturbances. By examining sampled voltage and current
waveforms, it is possible to make a judgment as to which side of a recording device a power
quality disturbance event originates. This is accomplished by examining the disturbance
power and energy flow and the polarity of the initial peak of the disturbance power. If several
recording devices are available in a network, the source of the disturbance may be pinpointed
with a higher degree of accuracy.
2. αβ-Transformation for identifying the power quality events (Clarkes transformation)αβ-
Transformation (Clarks Transformation) is a dc transformation used to transfer the three-
phase ac system of voltage or current to a dc system. This section presents the application of
this transformation to identifying the power quality events, such as harmonics, voltage
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 29
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

sages, flicker, swell and transients. This transformation can be implemented for a single
phase or three- phase system of voltage. The phasor voltage resulting from the combination
of V α and V β has a magnitude proportional to the system operating voltage and rotates with
a speed of the frequency of the system voltage. The estimated shape of the phasor voltage
over the data window size gives the nature of the power quality event. The proposed techni‐
que can be implemented in off-line or on-line modes. Simulated results, for different types
of events are presented in the text and the results show excellent identification using the
proposed technique.

2.1. Modeling the voltage signals [1]

The three phase voltages of the power systems can be written at any sample k, k=1, m, m is the
total number of samples available

v ( k ) = V sin(w k DT + j ) + z ( k )
a ma a a
v ( k ) = V sin(w k DT + j - 1200 ) + z ( k ) (1)
b mb b b
0
v ( k ) = V sin(w k DT + j + 120 ) + z ( k )
c mc c c

Where we define the parameters in (1) as:

V m is the signal amplitude

ω is the signal nominal frequency

1
ΔT is the sampling time= ,F is the sampling frequency
Fs s

k is the sampling step; k = 1, .., m

φ is the signal phase angle

ζa(k ), ζb(k )
are the noise terms which may contain harmonics
, ζc (k)

The well-known αβ- transformation for the three-phase signal is given as:

ùé a ù
v (k)
é va ( k ) ù 2 é1 -0.5 -0.5
ê ê ú
ê v (k) ú = 3 - 3 ú ê vb ( k ) ú (2)
ë b û 3 êë 0 úû v ( k )
2 2 ëê c ûú

Equation (2) can be rewritten as:

30 Power Quality Issues

2
v (k) =
a 3
[ va ( k ) - 0.5vb ( k ) - 0.5vc ( k ] (3)

2 é 3 3 ù
v (k) = ê v (k) - v (k) ú (4)
β 3 ë 2 b 2 c û

For m samples of three-phase signals, m samples for vα (k), vβ (k)are obtained. By using this
transformation, harmonics of order three and their multiples are suppressed. Equation (3) and
(4) gives the transformed voltage vα (k ), vβ (k )at any sample k. The complex voltage phasor
formed from these two voltages which having the same frequency ω and phase angle φ as the
original three phases is:

v( k ) = v ( k ) + jv ( k )
a b
(5)
j(w k DT + j )
= V ( k )e

Where the amplitude V (k) of the complex signal is calculated at any sample k as:

V ( k ) = é v 2 ( k ) + v 2 ( k )ù (6)
2
êë a b úû

and the rms magnitude is given as:

1
1 m é 2 2 ( k )ù 2 (7)
V = å êva ( k ) + vb
m k =1 ë ûú

Equation (6) gives the value of phasor voltage at any instant k, while equation (7) is used to
calculate the rms value of the phasor voltage.

The phase angle of this transformed voltage is:

vb ( k )
q ( k ) = tan -1 (8)
va ( k )
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 31
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

2.2. Testing the algorithm

The proposed algorithm explained in the previous section is used to identifying the power
quality events for a three phase balanced voltage. These are including voltage swell, voltage
flicker, momentary interruption, voltage sags, and harmonics and voltage transients due to
switching on/off capacitors used in reactive power compensation.

2.2.1. Voltage swell

In this test a voltage swell is assumed on the system, over voltage, for a short period. The rms
value for the complex phasor is calculated, using equation (7) as well as the phasor phase angle
in radian is computed using equation (8)

Figure 1. A system of three-phase voltage experiences a voltage swell.

Figure 1 gives the amplitude, rms value and the phase angle of the phasor for a system of three-
phase voltage experiences a voltage swell. It can easily be noticed, from the phasor amplitude
that the voltage is experienced a voltage swell of magnitude 1.53, normal voltage is 1.224 p. u,
during the time that equivalent to sample number 83 to the time that equivalent to sample
number 163.

2.2.2. Voltage flickers

In this test we assume that the three phase voltages are experienced a flicker the complex
phasor of the voltage is extracted from the available samples for the three phase voltages.

Figure 2 gives the results obtained. Examining this figure reveals that this amplitude is
modulated amplitude during the data window size under investigation, i.e. looking to this
figure one can conclude that a flicker signal is imposed on the nominal voltage signal.
32 Power Quality Issues

Figure 2. Phasor amplitude for a voltage flicker

2.2.3. Momentary interruption

A momentary interruption for a small period of time is implemented in this test, and then the
voltage is restored again. Figure 3 gives the phasor amplitude when the system voltage
experienced a momentary interruption. Examining this curve reveals that the proposed
algorithm is succeeded in estimating the voltage amplitude and the period of interruption.

Figure 3. Phasor Amplitude for a momentary interruption

This figure also reveals that the phasor amplitude tends to zero from the time equivalent to
the samples between 85 and 162, the time of interruption is (162-85)*sampling time, and after
the sample number 162 the system voltage is restored again to nominal voltage.

2.2.4. Voltage sags

In this test voltage is assumed to experience voltage sag, where the voltage is reduced to 0.6
pu, the voltage phasor amplitude of equation 6 is calculated. Figure 4 gives the results obtained,
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 33
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

examining this curve reveals that the proposed algorithm is succeeded in estimating the
voltage amplitude as well as the sags period.

Figure 4. Phasor amplitude for a Voltage experiences voltage sag

2.2.5. Voltage transients

In this test the three-phase voltage signal is experienced voltage transient, this may come from
faults and/or lightning. The phasor amplitude is calculated using the proposed algorithm.

Figure 5. Phasor amplitude for voltage experiences voltage transients

Figure 5 depicts the results obtained. Examining this curve reveals that the proposed trans‐
formation is succeeded in estimating the voltage amplitude as well as the transient period.
34 Power Quality Issues

2.2.6. Harmonics

The voltage signal in this test is assumed to be polluted by harmonics up to the fifth order, and
the proposed algorithm is used to estimate the voltage phasor amplitude. Figure 6 depicts the
results obtained. If we examine this figure we can conclude that the phasor amplitude is a
harmonically polluted one, and is following exactly the system voltage.

Figure 6. Voltage signal polluted with harmonics

2.3. Conclusion

We present, in this section, the application to αβ-Transformation for identifying and discrim‐
inating between different types of power quality events. Simulated examples for these events
are presented in the body of the text and more results for the nature of the transformed voltages
are given. It has been shown, through extensive runs, that if one of the phase is experienced a
power quality event alone while the others are not, the algorithm is succeeded in identifying
this events which is not the case of the other earlier algorithms in the past.

3. Kalman filtering algorithm

Power quality involves how close the voltage waveform is to being a perfect sinusoid with a
constant frequency and amplitude. In this section, we review the applications of linear Kalman
filtering algorithm for on-line electric power quality analysis. These applications include the
measurement of harmonics and voltage sags. Mathematical models for each problem are
developed to suite the filter and tested using simulated examples.

3.1. Harmonics model

The voltage signal can be written as Fourier series as:

 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 35
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

N
v(t ) = å 2V cos(nwt + f ) (9)
n n
n=0

A d.c component may exist in the voltage signal, this occurs at n=0. Equation (9) can be written,
for a specific number of harmonics, as:

Equation (9) can be rewritten as:

v(t ) = V + 2V cos f cos wt - 2V sin f sin wt + 2V cos f cos 2wt - 2V sin f sin 2wt
o 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
(10)
+ 2V cos f cos 3wt - 2V sin f sin 3wt
3 3 1 3

In equation (10) we assume that the voltage signal is contaminated up to the third harmonic.
But the incoming steps are generally enough to apply for any number of harmonics.

Define the following states as :

X =V
o o
X = 2V cos f
1 1 1
Y = 2V sin f
2 1 1
X = 2V cos f (11)
2 2 2
Y = 2V sin f
2 2 2
X = 2V cos f
3 3 3
Y = 2V sin f
3 3 3

Moreover, define the following coefficients as:

ho =1
h 1(kΔt) = cos2πfkΔt
h 2(kΔt) = − sin2πfkΔt
h 3(kΔt) = cos4πfkΔt
h 4(kΔt) = − sin4πfkΔt
h 5(kΔt) = cos6πfkΔt
h 6(kΔt) = − sin6πfkΔt

Equation (10) can be written as:

36 Power Quality Issues

v( k Dt ) = X + X h ( k Dt ) + Y h ( k Dt ) + X h ( k Dt ) + Y h ( k Dt ) + X h ( k Dt ) + Y h ( k Dt ) (12)
o 1 1 1 2 2 3 2 4 3 5 3 6

In equation (12) k=1,2,..,m, and Δt is the sampling time.

Equation (12) can be written as an observation equation as:

é v( Dt ) ù é 1 h ( k Dt ) h ( k Dt ) h ( k Dt ) h ( k Dt ) h ( k Dt ) h ( k Dt ) ù é X ù
ê ú ê 1 2 3 4 5 6 ú o
ê v(2Dt ) ú ê 1 h (2 k Dt ) h (2 k Dt ) h (2 k Dt ) h (2 k Dt ) h (2 k Dt ) h (2 k Dt )ú êê X úú
ê ú ê 1 2 3 4 5 6 úê 1ú
ê ú ê úêY ú
ê . ú ê úê 1 ú
ê . ú=ê .
ú ê X2 ú (13)
ê ú ê . úê ú
ê . ú ê. . . . . . ú ê Y2 ú
ê . ú ê .
úê ú
ê ú ê ú ê X3 ú
ê ú ê ú
ê ú ê 1 h (mDt ) h (mDt ) h (mDt ) h (mDt ) h (mDt ) h (mDt ) ú êë Y3 úû
ë v( mD t ) û ë 1 2 3 4 5 6 û

Equation (13) can be written in vector form as:

Z = Hq + x (14)

Where Z is an m × 1 samples of voltage, H is an m × 7 measurement matrix which can be

_
calculated off line, θ is 7 × 1 parameters vector to be identified and ξ is m × 1 errors vector to be
_ _
minimized. Note that the order of H matrix as well as the vector X depends on the number of
harmonic expected to contaminate the voltage signal.

We assume that the system state equation is given by

q ( k + 1) = f q ( k ) + u ( k ) (15)

Where φ is 7 × 7 state transition matrix, and it is assumed to be identity matrix. Moreover, υ (k )

_
is 7 × 1 errors vector associated with the states when they move from stage k to k+1. Now
equations (14) and (15) are suitable for Kalman filter application
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 37
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

3.2. Computer experiments

3.2.1. Harmonics identification

The voltage signal in this test is assumed to be contaminated with harmonics, 3rd, 5th, and 7th
order. The voltage signal in this case is given as:

v(t) = 2 cos(ωt + 60o ) + 0.25cos(3ωt + 15o ) + 0.15cos(5ωt − 10o ) + 0.05cos(7ωt)

Where ω = 2πf , f =50 Hz, and it is assumed to be constant during the estimation process. This
signal is sampled at frequency of 2000 Hz, 40 samples per cycle.

Figure 7 shows the estimated fundamental, 3rd, 5th components when the voltage signal is
modeled using up to the 7th harmonic. While Figure 8 shows the estimated phase angle for
each harmonics component including the fundamental component. The following observation
can be concluded from these two Figures:

• Kalman filtering algorithm is succeeded in estimating the magnitude of harmonics compo‐

nents, as well as the phase angle of each component, providing that the voltage signal is
accurately modeled

• It has been shown through extensive runs that the sampling frequency and number of
samples do not affect the estimates of the magnitudes and phase angles of each harmonics
component. Providing that the sampling frequency satisfies the sampling theory.

Figure 7. Estimated Magnitudes

38 Power Quality Issues

Figure 8. Estimated phase angle

Another test is conducted, where we modeled the voltage signal in the observation equation
to take only the fundamental component i.e we assume that the voltage signal does not
contaminated with harmonics, but in reality, it does. Figure 9 and 10 gives the estimated
fundamental magnitude and its phase angle respectively.

Figure 9. Estimated Fundamental Magnitude

 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 39
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

Figure 10. The estimated fundamental phase angle

Examining these curves reveals the following remarks:

• Although the fundamental component is the only one modeled in the waveform, good
estimates are obtained for both amplitude and phase angle.
• The proposed algorithm can easily estimate the fundamental component and its phase angle
using 20 samples, since the estimates are periodical, i.e a half cycle data window size is
enough.

3.2.2. Voltage sags

3.2.2.1. A pure sinusoidal voltage signal

The source voltage in this case takes the following waveform equation:

v(t ) = 2Vs cos(wo t + 60o ) (16)

Where ωο is the nominal frequency = 2πfo, fo=50 Hz, Vs is the value of the voltage during the
period of measurements, presage value, during sage and post sage voltage. In this simulation,
we assume the following values for this voltage

{1.0
V s = 0.2
1.0
0 ≤ t ≤ Ts
Ts ≤ t ≤ Tf
T f ≤t ≤T
40 Power Quality Issues

where Ts is the time at which the voltage sag starts, while Tf is the time at which the voltage
sage restrain. T is the time at which the measurements end up. Figure 11 shows such type of
voltage signal.

Figure 11. Voltage Sag

This signal is sampled at a sampling frequency of 40 kHz with a one-cycle data window size
for the three stages. The proposed technique, Kalman filter algorithm, is implemented to
estimate the voltage magnitude as well as the phase angle.

Figure 12. The estimated Voltage Amplitude (p.u)

 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 41
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

Figure 12 gives the estimated rms voltage during the three stages, while Figure 13 gives the
estimated phase angle. Examining the two curves reveals the following remarks;

• The proposed algorithm estimates the voltage amplitude accurately in the first cycle and
with a fair accuracy during the voltage sages and after the voltage sages

• One cycle data wind size during voltage sages is not enough to reach the actual voltage
sages at least we need more than four cycles. This will be discussed in the next test

Figure 13. The estimated phase angle

• There is a phase jump during the voltage sags period, and the proposed algorithm estimates
the phase angle accurately during pre voltage sages and after voltage sages.

Another test is conducted in the same voltage signal, where we increase the voltage sages’
period to three cycles. Figure 14 gives such waveform

The estimated voltage amplitude and the phase angle are given in Figure 15, 16. Examining
these two curves reveals that:

• Kalman filter is succeeded in identifying the period, where the voltage sags are occurred,
as well as the amplitude of the voltage sags with an acceptable accuracy

• Increasing the number of cycles for the voltage sags makes the filter able to identify pre,
during and after sags amplitudes with acceptable accuracy.

• It has been shown, as a common practice, that there is phase jump always occurs during the
period of voltage sags

Another test is performed in this study, where we assume that the voltage signal contaminates
with third and fifth harmonics with magnitude 0.25 and 0.125 respectively. Figure 17 gives the
42 Power Quality Issues

Figure 14. A Voltage sag

waveform of this voltage signal, while Figures 18, 19 give the estimated rms value of the
fundamental component and its phase angle.

Figure 15. The estimated voltage amplitude

 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 43
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

Figure 16. The Estimated Phase Angle

Figure 17. A Non-sinusoidal voltage experienced voltage sag

44 Power Quality Issues

Figure 18. Estimated Fundamental Component

Figure 19. Estimated Fundamental Phase Angle

Examining these curves reveals that:

• Although the voltage signal is contaminated with harmonics, the proposed algorithm is
succeeded to estimate the amplitude of the fundamental components in pre, during and
after voltage sags with fair accuracy.

• The proposed technique estimates exactly the period of the voltage sags,
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 45
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

• The phase angle jump during the voltage sags, in this case, is greater than that of non-
harmonics contamination.

3.3. Conclusions

The main contributions of this section are:

• Kalman filtering algorithm is applied to estimate the harmonic components in a voltage
signal of a power system. A full spectrum for identification of the fundamental component
is not necessarily. Since the proposed algorithm estimates this component with a good
accuracy.

• The proposed algorithm is succeeded in estimating the magnitude of the voltage signal that
experienced voltage sag. Good estimates are produced for the voltage signal before, during
and after the voltage sags.

• An accurate estimate for the phase angle and the phase angle jump is produced using the
proposed algorithm.

• The proposed algorithm produces good estimate for the period of the voltage sags. The
starting and ending time of the voltage sags is shown in the Figures within the text.

• The proposed Kalman filtering technique does not affect by the number of samples for
harmonics measurements. A small data window size can provide all the information for
harmonics components. Furthermore, the sampling frequency has no effect on the estimated
components. Providing that the sampling theorem be satisfied.

4. Parks’ transformation

Park’s transformation is a well known transformation used in the analysis of electric machines,
where the three rotating phases abc are transferred to three equivalent stationary dq0 phases
(d-q reference frame). In this section this transformation is implemented to recognizing and
classifying the power quality events, either for three-phase or single phase circuits. The
proposed algorithm transferred the utility signal to a complex phasor. The magnitude of this
phasor depends on the magnitude of the utility signal either a three-phase or a single phase
signal. This technique produces the complex phasor loci that depend on the power quality
event; voltage sags, voltage flickers, voltage swell and harmonics. The time of starting the
disturbance is chosen randomly and the length of disturbance is arbitrary. Implementation of
this technique is succeeded in recognizing and classifying the power quality events. Simulated
results are presented, for three-phase and single phase events. wi

4.1. Identification processes

In the following steps we assume that m samples of the three phase currents or voltage are
available at a pre-selected sampling frequency that satisfying the sampling theorem.
46 Power Quality Issues

The forward transformation matrix

é ù
ê sin wt sin(wt + 120) sin(wt + 240) ú
2ê ú
P= êcos wt cos(wt + 120) cos(wt + 240)ú (17)
3ê ú
ê 1 1 1 ú
ëê 2 2 2 ûú

The matrix given in equation (17) can be computed off line if the frequency of the voltage and/
or current signals as well as the sampling frequency and the number of samples are known in
advance. If the matrix given in equation (17) is multiplied digitally by the samples of the three-
phase voltage that are sampled at the same sampling frequency of matrix (17), a new set of
three -phase samples are obtained, we call this set a dqo set (reference frame). If we use only
the samples for the two perpendicular phases d and q, then the resulting phasor at a sample
k is given by;

V ( k ) = Vd ( k ) + jVq ( k ) (18)

The magnitude of this phasor is given by

V ( k ) = Vd2 ( k ) + Vq2 ( k ) (19)

While the phase angle is given by

Vq ( k )
f ( k ) = tan -1 = w k DT + d ( k ) (20)
Vd ( k )

In this study we may assume, during the power quality events, that the frequency of the voltage
signal is constant and equals to the nominal frequency of the system, 50/60 Hz. However if
this frequency is not constant, it can be calculated from equation (20) using the least error
squares estimation algorithm. Equation (19) is a good indicator to the status of the system
signal. Where V(k )is plotted with against the time, and every event has a form that different
from other events. If the relation between V d (k ) and V q (k ) a loci is produced that describes the
event. In the next section a computer simulation is carried out for different types of power
quality events.
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 47
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

4.2. Computer simulation

In this study we assume that the voltage signal frequency is constant at 50Hz during the events,
and a sampling frequency of 10000 Hz is used ((ΔT = 0.1ms), 200 samples per cycle and 500
samples are used. Before the event 200 samples, 1cycles, are used as pre-estimated period and
100 samples, 0.5 cycles as the event period, and finally 200 samples, 1 cycles, are used as after
event period. Different types of power quality events are simulated, these including voltage
flickers, voltage sags, voltage swell, momentary interruption and finally voltage harmonics.

4.2.1. Voltage sags

In the first part of this study we assume that one of the phases has only voltage sag, where the
voltage is dropped from 1 p.u to 0.25 p.u, single- phase sag. While in the second study, the
three phases have the same amount of sags, where the voltage in the three phases is dropped
from 1.0 p.u to 0.25 p.u. Figure 20 to 22 gives the results obtained for the single phase sag.

Magnitude (p.u) Phasor Amplitude (p.u)

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

00
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time(s)

Figure 20. Variation of the phasor magnitude Single Phase voltage sags,
48 Power Quality Issues

1.5
Vq (p.u)

0.5

Vd(p.u)

0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Figure 21. Locus of Vd and Vq for a single phase sag

Magnitude (p.u)
1.5
(p.u) Vd(p.u) Vq(p.u)

0.5
Time(s)

00
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

0.5
-1

-1.5

Figure 22. Waveforms for Vd and Vq for single phase sag.

 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 49
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

1.2
Magnitude (p.u)
Phasor amplitude(p.u)
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Time(s)

Figure 23. Variation of the phasor magnitude three- Phase voltage sags,

1.5
Vq (p.u)

0.5
Vd (p.u)

0
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Figure 24. Locus of Vd and Vq for three- phase sag

50 Power Quality Issues

1.5
Magnitude (p.u) Vd(p.u) Vq(p.u)

0.5

Time (s)
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Figure 25. Waveforms for Vd and Vq for three-phase sag.

Examining these figures reveals:

• For the single phase sage, during the sage period the rms value of the voltage is dropped
to a value that does not equal to the voltage magnitude at that period, but it does for
three -phase voltage sag. Figures 20 and 26. experienced a voltage sage, while in the This
is due to the nature of the transformation, where in the single pahse sags one of the
phases is only three phase, the three phases are experienced the voltage sags. It does
mean that during the sage period, for single phase, two phases are balanced while the
third one is distorted, while in the three- phase the three phases are distorted. This is
clearly indicated in Figures 21 and 23

• Figures 22 and 25 indicate that the variation of the two voltages V d and V q in the time domain
is not the same for single phase sags, but they are the same for the three phases. In the single
phase V q is a little bit distorted during the sag period while for three -phase sag V d and V q
are large distorted during the sag period.

4.2.2. Voltage flicker

In the first part of this study we assume that one of the phases has only voltage flicker, single
phase flicker. While in the second study, the three phases are experienced the same voltage
flicker, Figure 26 to 9 gives the results obtained for the single phase flicker while Figures from
19 to 21 give the results obtained for the three phase voltage flicker, where the three phases
are assumed to experience the same voltage flicker. Examining these curves reveals the
following remarks:
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 51
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

• The phasor amplitude in figure 26 has an amplitude modulation during the data window
size

• The locus of Vd and Vq in Figure 27 is not a pure circle as it should be, but it is an ellipse with
distorted amplitude.

• The signals waveform for the two voltages Vd and Vq are distorted signals.

Indeed looking to Figure 26, one can notice that the system experiences a voltage flicker

Magnitude (p.u)
1.4
Phasor Amplitude (p.u)

1.3

1.2

1.1

0.9

0.8
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time(s)

Figure 26. The phasor voltage in the Time domain for a single phase flicker

Examining figures 29 to 31, one can conclude the following remarks:

• The phasor amplitude decreases down during the data window size, and looking to this
figure one can notice that the system experiences voltage flicker.

• The locus of Vd and V q is an open ellipse despite of the single phase voltage flicker where
this locus is a distorted closed ellipse

• The wave form of the voltage Vd and Vq is an amplitude modulated wave.

General speaking, for voltage flicker, the amplitude of the transformed signals is demodulated
amplitude with amplitude greater than one per unit.
52 Power Quality Issues

2
Vq (p.u)
1.5

0.5
Vd(p.u)
0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-0.5

-1

-1.5
-2

Figure 27. Locus of Vd and Vq for a single phase flicker

2
Magnitude(p.u)
Vd(p.u) Vq(p.u)
1.5

0.5

0 Time(s)
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

Figure 28. Vd and Vq in the time domain for a single phase flicker
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 53
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

1.8
Magnitude(p.u) Phasor Amplitude
1.6 (p.u)
p.u)
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

Time(s)

Figure 29. Phasor magnitudes in the time domain for a three phase flicker

Vq(p.u)
2

1.5

0.5

Vd(p.u)
0
-2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

Figure 30. Locus Vd and Vq for a three phase flicker

54 Power Quality Issues

Magnitude(p.u)
2

Vd(p.u) Vq(p.u)
1.5

0.5

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

-2.5

Time(s)

Figure 31. Vd and Vq in the time domain for a three-phase flicker

4.2.3. Voltage swell

In this test a single phase swell is implemented on the voltage signal, where the voltage is
increased 50 percent more for a short period, about 10ms. Figures 32, 33 and 34 give the results
obtained. Examining these figures one can reveal the following remarks:

• Examining Figure 32, the phasor amplitude equal to 1 per unit in the pre-swell period, then
it increases during swell period and then comes back again to a value of one per unit.
• The locus of Vd and Vq is not a pure circle, but it is a distorted circle during the time of voltage
swell.
• The signal for Vd and Vq is not pure sinusoids, especially during the time of swell.

In the second part of the test an equal swell is implemented for the three phase signals, and
Vd and Vq are calculated. Figures 35, 36 and 37 give the results obtained. Examining these
figures reveals the following

• Looking to Figure 35, immediately one can notice that the voltage has a swell with a
magnitude of 1.5 p.u during the swell period
• The locus of Vd and Vq is not a pure circle, but it is a distorted circle during the time of voltage
swell.
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 55
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

1.4

Phasor Amplitude (p.u)

1.2 V(p.u)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

Time(s)

Figure 32. Phasor Magnitude for single phase swells

• The signal for Vd and Vq is not pure sinusoids, especially during the time of swell.

2
Vq(p.u)

1.5

0.5

0
Vd(p.u)
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0
0.5 1 1.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Figure 33. Locus diagram for a single phase swell

56 Power Quality Issues

Vd(p.u)
Vq(p.u)
1.5

1
Magnitude(p.u)

0.5

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

-1

-1.5

Time(s)

Figure 34. Vd and Vq in the time domain for a single phase swell

1.6

Phasor Magnitude (p.u)

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time(s)

Figure 35. Phasor magnitudes in the time domain for a three phase swell
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 57
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

Vq(p.u)
1.5

.5
0
Vd(p.u)

-2 1 00
-1.5 -
-0.5 0.5 1 1.5

- 0.5

-1

-1.5

Figure 36. Locus diagram for a three phase swell

2.5
Magnitude(p.u)
Vd(p.u)
Vq(p.u)
2

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

Time (s)

Figure 37. Vd and Vq in the time domain for a three phase swell
58 Power Quality Issues

4.2.4. Voltage harmonics

In this test the voltage signal is contaminated with third harmonics only. In the first part of the
test we assume that one phase is only contaminated with harmonics, while the other two
phases are not. Figures 38 to 40 gives the results obtained. Examining this curves one can notice
the following:

• The phase magnitude in the time domain is a time varying magnitude and it is not a pure
sinusoidal.

• The locus diagram is a distorted locus not a pure circle as it should be for uncontaminated
phase.

• The voltages Vd and Vq in the time domain are not sinusoidal signals, but they are distorted.

In the second part of this test, we assume that the three phases are contaminated with the same
order of harmonics, a balanced three phase harmonics contaminated system. Figures 41 to 43
give the results obtained. Examining these curves reveals the following remarks:

• Phasor magnitudes in the time domain for three- phase harmonics contamination is a pure
sinusoidal with amplitude greater than one per unit, maximum value is 1.2447 per unit and
the minimum value is 0.75 per unit and the average value between the two peaks is about
one per unit.

• The locus diagram for three- phase harmonics contamination is a symmetrical shape about
both axes

• Vd and Vq in the time domain for three- phase harmonics contamination are harmonics
contaminated signals, distorted signals

Magnitude (p.u)
1.6

V(p.u)
1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

Time(s)

Figure 38. Phasor magnitudes in the time domain for a single phase harmonics contamination
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 59
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

1.5
Vq(p.u)

0.5
Vd(p.u)

00
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0.5 1 1.5 2

- 0.5

- 1

- 1.5

Figure 39. Locus diagram for a single phase harmonics contamination

Vd(p.u) Vq(p.u)

1.5

0.5
Magnitude(p.u)

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
Time(s)

Figure 40. Vd and Vq in the time domain for a single phase harmonics contamination
60 Power Quality Issues

1.4
V(p.u)
V(p.u)

1.2

1
Magnitude(p.u)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05
Time(s)

Figure 41. Phasor magnitudes in the time domain for three- phase harmonics contamination

2
Vq(p.u)

1.5

0.5

Vd(p.u)
0
-2 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2

Figure 42. Locus diagram for three- phase harmonics contamination

 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 61
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

Vd(p.u) Vq(p.u)

1.5

0.5
Magnitude(p.u)

0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0.045 0.05

-0.5

-1

-1.5

-2
Time(s)

Figure 43. Vd and Vq in the time domain for three- phase harmonics contamination

4.3. Conclusions

The main contributions of this section are:

• Park’s transformation is implemented to recognizing and classifying the power quality
events; voltage sags, voltage flickers, voltage swell and harmonics, either for three-phase or
single phase circuits.
• The proposed algorithm is succeeded in identification and classification of power quality
events.
• The utility signal is transformed to a complex phasor. The magnitude of this phasor
depends on the magnitude of the utility signal. The proposed technique produces the
complex phasor loci that depend on the power quality event. Computer simulation
results are presented within the text, these results indicate that the proposed technique
is efficient, and one can recognize the type of event just by looking to the locus dia‐
gram of the two voltages Vd and Vq.
• No metering instruments are needed to measure these events, since it is hard to find an
instrument that can be used to measure such events.
• Classifying these events can help in making a decision to install the suitable power condi‐
tioning devices to suppress these events or part of them.
• It has been shown that the starting time of disturbance as well as the length of the disturbance
has no effect on the Park's phasor.
62 Power Quality Issues

Author details

Soliman Abdel-Hady Soliman1 and Rashid Abdel-Kader Alammari2

1 Misr University of Science and Technology, Electrical Power and Machines Department,
Giza, Egypt

2 Qatar University, Electrical Engineering Department, Doha, Qatar

References

[1] Eldery, M. A, Saadany, E. F, & Salama, M. M. A Novel Operator Algorithm for Volt‐
age Envelope Tracking” IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, (2005). , 20(1), 510-512.

[2] Liu, Y, Steurer, M, & Riberio, P. A Novel Approach to Power Quality Assessment:
Real Time hardware-in-the-Loop Test Bed”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
(2005). , 20(2), 1200-1201.

[3] Wang, J, Chen, S, & Lie, T. T. System Voltage Sag Performance Estimation”, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery (2005). , 20(2), 1738-1747.

[4] Chilukuri, M. V, & Dash, P. K. Multi-resolution S-Transform-Based Fuzzy Recogni‐

tion System for Power Quality Events”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery
(2004). , 19(1), 323-330.

[5] Abdel-galil, T. K, Saadany, E. F, & Salama, M. M. Online Tracking of Voltage Flicker

Utilizing Energy Operator and Hilbert Transform” IEEE Transactions on Power De‐
livery (2004). , 19(2), 861-867.

[6] Wang, F, & Bollen, M. H. J. Frequency-Response Characteristics and Error Estimation

in RMS Measurement”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, (2004). , 19(4),
1569-1578.

[7] Marie, M. I, Saadany, E. F, & Salama, M. M. Envelope Tracking Techniques for Flick‐
er Mitigation and Voltage Regulation”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery,
(2004). , 19(4), 1854-1861.

[8] Liao, Y, Lee, J. B, & Fuzzy- Expert, A. System for Classifying Power Quality Distur‐
bances” Electrical Power and Energy System, (2004). , 26, 199-205.

[9] Ibrahim, W. R, & Morcos, M. M. A Power Quality Perspective to System Operational

Diagnosis Using Fuzzy Logic and Adaptive Techniques” IEEE Transactions on Pow‐
er Delivery, (2003). , 18(3), 903-909.

[10] Kezunovic, M, & Liao, Y. A Novel Software Implementation Concept for Power
Quality Study”, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, (2002). , 17(2), 544-549.
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 63
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

[11] Anis, W. R. Ibrahim, and M. M. Morcos, “An Adaptive Fuzzy Technique for Learn‐
ing Power- Quality Signature Waveforms”, IEEE Power Engineering Review, Janu‐
ary (2001). , 56-58.

[12] Poisson, O, Rioual, P, & Meunier, M. New Signal Processing Tools Applied to Power
Quality Analysis” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, (1999). , 14(2), 561-566.

[13] Gaouda, M, Salama, M. M, Sultan, M. R, & Chikhani, A. Y. Power Quality Detection

and Classification Using Wavelet- Multi-resolution Signal Decomposition” IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, (1999). , 14(4), 1469-1476.

[14] Girgis, A. A, Chang, W. B, & Makram, E. B. A Digital Recursive Measurement

Scheme for on-line Tracking of Power System Harmonics”, IEEE Transaction on
Power Delivery, (1991). , 6(3), 1153-1160.

[15] Soliman, S. A, Christensen, G. S, & Naggar, K. M. A State Estimation Algorithm for

Identification and Measurement of Power System Harmonics” Electric Power System
Research Jr. (1990). , 19, 195-206.

[16] Soliman, A. M. A. L-K. a. n. d. a. r. i, S. A. and K.EL-Naggar, “Digital Dynamic Iden‐

tification Of Power System Sub-Harmonics Based On The Least Absolute Value,”
Electric Power Systems Research, Jr. (1993). , 28, 99-104.

[17] Abu, E. A, & Al-feilat, I. El-Amin, and M. Bettayeb,” Power System Harmonic Esti‐
mation: A Comparative Study”, Electric Power System Research Jr. (1994). , 29, 91-97.

[18] Soliman, S. A, & Hawary, M. E. Measurement of Power Systems Voltage and Flicker
Level for Power Quality Analysis”, Int. Jr of Electrical Power & and Energy Systems,
(2000). , 22, 447-450.

[19] Soliman, S. A, Alammari, R. A, & Hawary, M. E. Frequency and Harmonics Evalua‐

tion in Power Networks Using Fuzzy Regression Technique,” Electric Power Systems
Research Jr., (2003). , 66, 171-177.

[20] Soliman, S. A, Alammari, R. A, Mantawy, A. H, & Hawary, M. E. On the Application

of Park’s Transformation for Power System Harmonics Identification and Measure‐
ments” Electric Power Systems Components Journal (Formally Electric Machines and
Power Systems Journal), (2003). , 31(8)

[21] Soliman, S. A, Mantawy, A. H, & Hawary, M. E. Simulated Annealing Algorithm for

Power System Quality Analysis”, International Journal of Electrical Power and Ener‐
gy Systems, (2004). , 26, 31-36.

[22] Al-kandari, A. M, Soliman, S. A, & Alammari, R. A. Power Quality Analysis Based

on Fuzzy Estimation Algorithm: Voltage Flicker Measurements" Int. Jr. of Electrical
Power and Energy Systems, (2006). , 28, 723.

[23] Al-kandari, A. M, Soliman, S. A, & Measurement, O. F. A POWER SYSTEM NOMI‐

NAL VOLTAGE, FREQUENCY AND VOLTAGE FLICKER PARAMETERS" Electri‐
64 Power Quality Issues

cal Power and Energy Systems (2009). http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/

article/pii/S0142061509000143, 31(2009)

[24] Osowski, S. Neural Network for Estimation of Harmonic Components in a Power

System,” IEE Proc. C, Gener. Trans. Distrib. (1992). , 139(2), 129-135.

[25] Osowski, S. SVD Technique for Estimating of Harmonic Components in a Power Sys‐
tem: A Statistical Approach”, IEE Proc. Gener. Trans. Distrib. Vol.5, (1994). , 141,
473-479.

[26] Dash, P. K, Swain, D. P, Liew, A. C, & Rahman, S. An Adaptive Linear Combiner for
on-line Tracking of Power System Harmonics”, IEEE Transactions on Power Sys‐
tems, (1996). , 11(4), 1730-1735.

[27] Smith, B. C, Watson, N. R, Wood, A. R, & Arrillaga, J. A Newton Solution for the
Harmonic Phasor Analysis of AC/DC “, IEEE Trans. on Power Delivery, April
(1996). , 11(2), 965-971.

[28] Moreno, V. M. Saiz, J. Barros Guadalupe, “Application of Kalman Filtering for Con‐
tinuous Real-Time Tracking of Power System Harmonics”, IEE Proced on Genera‐
tion, Transmission and Distribution, Part C Jan.(1997). , 144(1), 13-20.

[29] “Time- Varying Harmonics: Part I- Characterizing Measured Data”Probabilistic As‐

pect Task Force of the Harmonics Working Group, IEEE Trans on Power Delivery,
(1998). , 13(3), 938-944.

[30] Soliman, S. A, Helal, I, & Al-kandari, A. M. Fuzzy Linear Regression for Measure‐
ment of Harmonic Components in a Power System”, Electric Power Systems Re‐
search (1999). , 50, 99-105.

[31] Bucci, G, & Landi, C. On-Line Digital Measurement for the Quality Analysis of Pow‐
er Systems Under Non-sinusoidal Conditions” IEEE Trans. on Instrumentation and
Measurement, N0. 4, (1999). , 48, 853-857.

[32] Exposito, A. G. J. A. Rosendo Macias, “ Fast Harmonic Computation for Digital Re‐
laying” IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, (1999). , 14(4), 1263-1268.

[33] Kim, F, Enbouch, L, Chaouiand, A, & Michel, M. Novel Identification-Based Techni‐

que for Harmonics Estimation”, Can. J.Elect. & Comp.Eng. (1999). , 24(4), 149-154.

[34] Lai, L. L, Chan, W. L, & Tse, C. T. Real-Time Frequency and Harmonic Evaluation
Using Artificial Neural Networks”, IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, (1999). ,
14(1), 52-59.

[35] Andreon, S, Yaz, E. E, & Olejniczak, K. J. Reduced-Order Estimation of Power System

Harmonics Using Set Theory”, Proceeding of the 1999 IEEE International Conference
on Control Application, Hawai’I, USA, August (1999). , 22-27.

[36] Tsao, T. P, Wu, R. C, & Nig, C. C. The Optimization of Spectral Analysis for Signal
Harmonics”, IEEE Transaction on Power Delivery, April (2001). , 16(2), 149-153.
 Electric Power Quality Recognition and Classification in Distribution Networks 65
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/53081

[37] Lin, H. C, & Lee, C. S. Enhanced FFT-based Parametric Algorithm for Simultaneous
Multiple Harmonics Analysis”, IEEE Proc.- Gener. Transm. Distrib., May (2001). ,
148(3), 209-214.
[38] Liu, Y. Z, & Chen, S. A Wavelet Based Model for On-Line Tracking of Power System
Harmonic Using Kalman Filtering”, IEEE Summer Power Meeting, Vancouver, B. C.
July (2001). , 17-19.

[39] Skvarenina, T, & Dewitt, W. Electrical Power and Control”, Prentice Hall. Ins., New
Jersey, U. S. A, (2001).

[40] Bollen, M. H. J. Understanding Power Quality”, IEEE Press Series on Power Engi‐
neering, Piscataway, NJ. (2000).

[41] Bollen, M. H. J. Understanding Power Quality”, IEEE Press Series on Power Engi‐
neering, Piscataway, NJ. (2000).

[42] Oscar, C. Montero-Hernández, and Prasad N. Enjeti, “A Fast Detection Algorithm

Suitable for Mitigation of Numerous Power Quality Disturbances’, IEEE TRANSAC‐
TIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICATIONS, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER (2005). , 41(6)

[43] Sherif Omar FariedRoy Billinton, and Saleh Aboreshaid,” Stochastic Evaluation of
Voltage Sag and Unbalance in Transmission Systems” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
POWER DELIVERY, OCTOBER (2005). , 20(4)
[44] Dong-Jun WonSeon-Ju Ahn, and Seung-Il Moon, "A Modified Sag Characterization
Using Voltage Tolerance Curve for Power Quality Diagnosis”, IEEE TRANSAC‐
TIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, OCTOBER (2005). , 20(4)

[45] Bin WangWilsun Xu, and Zhencun Pan,”Voltage Sag State Estimation for Power Dis‐
tribution Systems”’ IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYSTEMS, MAY (2005). ,
20(2)
[46] Nicolás Ruiz-ReyesPedro Vera-Candeas, and Francisco Jurado, ”Discrimination be‐
tween Transient Voltage Stability and Voltage Sag Using Damped Sinusoids-Based
Transient Modeling IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, OCTOBER
(2005). , 20(4)

[47] Liu, Y, Steurer, M, & Ribeiro, P. A Novel Approach to Power Quality Assessment:
Real Time Hardware-in-the-Loop Test Bed” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER
DELIVERY, APRIL (2005). , 20(2)
[48] Mostafa, I. Marei, Tarek K. Abdel-Galil, Ehab F. El-Saadany, and Magdy M. A. Sala‐
ma,”Hilbert Transform Based Control Algorithm of the DG Interface for Voltage
Flicker Mitigation” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, APRIL (2005). ,
20(2)
66 Power Quality Issues

[49] Eldery, M. A, Saadany, E. F, & Salama, M. M. A. A Novel Energy Operator Algo‐

rithm for Voltage Envelope Tracking”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER SYS‐
TEMS, FEBRUARY (2005). , 20(1)
[50] Zwe-Lee GaingWavelet-Based Neural Network for Power Disturbance Recognition
and Classification”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, OCTOBER
(2004). , 19(4)

[51] Zhu, T. X, Tso, S. K, & Lo, K. L. Wavelet-Based Fuzzy Reasoning Approach to Power-
Quality Disturbance Recognition” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY,
OCTOBER (2004). , 19(4)

[52] Juan, A. Martinez, and Jacinto Martin-Arnedo, “Voltage Sag Stochastic Prediction
Using an Electromagnetic Transients Program,” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER
DELIVERY, OCTOBER (2004). , 19(4)
[53] Mostafa, I. Marei, Ehab F. El-Saadany, and Magdy M. A. Salama, ”Envelope Tracking
Techniques for Flicker Mitigation and Voltage Regulation”, EEE TRANSACTIONS
ON POWER DELIVERY, OCTOBER (2004). , 19(4)

[54] Chris FitzerMike Barnes, and Peter Green,”Voltage Sag Detection Technique for a
Dynamic Voltage Restorer”, IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRY APPLICA‐
TIONS, JANUARY/FEBRUARY (2004). , 40(1)
[55] Tom, A. Short, Arshad Mansoor, Wes Sunderman, and Ashok Sundaram, ”Site Var‐
iation and Prediction of Power Quality” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIV‐
ERY, OCTOBER (2003). , 18(4)

[56] Mihaela Albu and GT. Heydt, “On the Use of RMS Values in Power Quality Assess‐
ment” IEEE

[57] TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERYOCTOBER (2003). , 18(4)

[58] Emmanouil StyvaktakisMath H. J. Bollen, and Irene Y. H. Gu, “Expert System for
Classification and Analysis of Power System Events” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
POWER DELIVERY, APRIL (2002). , 17(2)

[59] Olivier PoissonPascal Rioual, and Michel Meunier, ‘Detection and Measurement of
Power Quality Disturbances Using Wavelet Transform” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON
POWER DELIVERY, JULY (2000). , 15(3)

[60] Anthony, C, & Parsons, W. Mack Grady, Edward J. Powers, and John C. Soward, ”A
Direction Finder for Power Quality Disturbances Based Upon Disturbance Power
and Energy” IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, JULY (2000). , 15(3)