THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY

“NICOLAE TESTEMITANU”

The Nervous
Tissue

DEPARTAMENT OF HISTOLOGY, CYTOLOGY AND EMBRIOLOGY

GLOBA TATIANA
 Neural tissue cells
• Neurons
– Generate &Transmit nerve impulses
• Neuroglia
– Support neural tissue
– Help supply nutrients to neurons
– Protect neurons
– Form barriers
 Cellular Components of the Nervous Tissue

Neurons

NeuroGlia
(support cells)
 Most Neurons have two main parts:
• Cell body (perikaryon, soma)
• Cytoplasmic processes (only one axon and
One or more dendrites
Morphological classification of neurons
(based on number of processes found on cell body)

• Unipolar
• Pseudounipolar
• Bipolar
• Multipolar
 Unipolar neurons
• Have only one process (axon)
• Rare

Pseudounipolar neurons
• Have a single process that extends from the
cell body & subsequently branches into an
axon & dendrite
• Found in sensory ganglia of dorsal roots of
spinal nerves & cranial ganglia
 Bipolar neurons
• neurons are spindle-shaped, with a
dendrite at one end and an axon at
the other.
• Are present in some sense organs:
retina, spiral ganglion.
 Multipolar neurons
• >2 processes. Have two or more dendrites and one
axon.
• Most common type of neuron. >99% of neurons.
• Location: gray matter of brain and
spinal cord, periheral ganglia.
Functional classification of neurons
• MOTOR neurons - efferent (conduct impulses from
CNS to other neurons, muscles or glands).
• SENSORY neurons - afferent (receive stimuli from
the internal & external environment). Conduct nerve
impulses to the CNS.
• INTERNEURONS act as connectors of neurons in
chain. They most commonly connect sensory & motor
neurons.
• NEUROSECRETORY neurons synthesize and secrete
hormones:
– neurons of hypothalamus: supraoptic &
paraventricular nuclei – neurons produce
hormones: vasopressin & oxytocin).
Sensory – interneuron – motor neuron
 Neuron structure
• Cell membrane with Na+-K+ pumps, that
maintain the necessary ion gradients.
• Nucleus with one prominent nucleolus (“owl-
eye” nucleus)
• Cytoplasm with various cytoplasmic
organelles & inclusions, & cytoskeletal
components
 Morphology of neurons
• Cell body (perikaryon or soma)
– single nucleus with prominent nucleolus.
– Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance) are stained
basophilic.
• represented by rough ER & free ribosomes (polysomes) for
protein synthesis.
• location: in the cytoplasm of perikarion and dendrites,
absent in axon and axon’s
origin (axon hillock).
– Golgi complex
– Mitochondria
– Lysosomes
NISSL’S BODIES

The presence of abundant granular

endoplasmic reticulum is an indication of the
high level of protein synthesis in neurons.
The proteins are needed for:
• maintenance and repair, and for
• production of neurotransmitters and
enzymes.
 Nissl
substance is
rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
and
polysomes
axon hilllock
– Microtubules (neurotubules) move material inside
cell.
– Neurofilaments (specific type of intermediate
filaments) give cell shape and support.
– Neurofilaments & neurotubules form neurofibrils
– is artefact. Neurofibrils appear at time of slide
preparing & can be distinguish inside of neurons.
– Microfilaments (actin) associated with the cell
membrane.
– Lipofuscin is a yellow pigment clumps (harmless
aging).
– Lipid inclusions.
NEUROFIBRILS
Dendrites
• Receptive to stimuli and bring
impulses from the environment
(sensory epithelial cell or other
neurons) to the cell body.
• Typically short, highly branched
• Surfaces specialized for contact
with other neurons (spines) –
increase the area useful for
synapse formation
• Have arborized terminals –
permit a neuron to receive stimuli
at the same time from many other
neurons
• Contains neurofibrils & Nissl
bodies
 Axon
• Is a long process emerging from the
cell body, which conducts impulses
away from cell body
• Long, thin cylindrical process of cell
• Contains many neurotubules &
neurofilaments, mitochondria.
• May has collaterals (branching at
right angles from the main trunk)
• The distal portion of the axon is
usually branched – the telodendron.
• Each terminal branch of the
telodendron has an enlarged ending –
the synaptic button (contain vesicles
filled with neurotransmitters)
 Neurites or processes
Dendrites Axons
many one
short long
irregular in thickness uniform in diameter
Nissl granules No Nissl substance
spines axon hillock
impulse towards the soma away from the soma
 NEUROGLIA (means nerve glue in Greek)
• Glial cells are specialized cells of the nervous system which have
got two objectives:
• glue neurons together
• and associate neurons
 Make up 90% of the cells of CNS
 Occupy about 50 % of the total volume of nervous tissue

Neuroglia differ from Neurons

• Neuroglia have no action potentials and cannot transmit nerve
impulses
• Neuroglia are able to divide (and are the source of tumors of the
nervous system)
• Neuroglia do not form synapses
• Neuroglia form the myelin sheathes of axons.
 NEUROGLIA of CNS

MACROGLIA MICROGLIA
• Ependymal cells macrophages
• Astrocytes
• Oligodendrocytes

 Neuroglia of PNS: neurolemmocytes (Schwann

cell), satellite cells.
Neuron and Neuroglia
 Functions of Neuroglia
• PHYSICAL SUPPORT
– Because of their number and their long processes, the
astrocytes appear to be the most important supporting
elements in the CNS.
• REPAIR
– Glial cells, especially astrocytes, participate in the repair
process following injury to the CNS. Repair consists of
proliferation of glial cells that fill the detect left by the
degeneration of neurons and their processes.
• METABOLIC INSULATION
– Astrocytes may also participate in the formation of the
blood-brain barrier. Oligodendroglial cells are frequently
found adjacent to neurons, and there appears to be a
metabolic dependency between them.
 Ependymal Cells
• Line ventricles of the brain, central canal of the spinal cord,
choroid plexus.
• These epithelium-like cells are cuboidal or columnar-shaped
• The apical surface is studded with cilia.
• Secrete & move liquor
• Form blood-liquor barrier:
1. Endothelium of capillary
2. BM of endothelium
3. Loose connective tissue
4. Ependymal cells
5. BM of ependymal cells

 Cells covering the white matter are more flattened and have
fewer cilia than those covering grey matter.
 Tanycytes
Are modified ependimal cells distinguished by their long,
radially orientated and unbranching basal processes, which
usually reach subependymal capillaries
 Astrocytes (astroglia)
• Are present only in the CNS
• Are the largest of the neuroglia, possessing numerous long
processes
• Processes end in expanded pedicles that attach to the wall of
blood capillaries. These pedicles are called the “vascular feet”.
• Function:
1. Scavenge ion & debris (wastes) from neuron metabolism &
supply energy for metabolism.
2. Provide structural support for nervous tissue
3. Form a protective barrier between pia mater & the nervous
tissue of the brain & spinal cord
4. Eat parts of dead neurons
5. Form scar tissue after injury to the CNS
6. Regulate the content of the extracellular space
 There are two categories of astrocyte
Protoplasmatic Astrocytes Fibrous Astrocytes
• Found in the gray matter of the brain • Found chiefly in the white
and spinal cord matter
• Have abundant granular cytoplasm • Have long , slender,
• They processes have many branches, smooth processes that
are shorter than those of fibrous branch infrequently
astrocytes, and are relatively thick.
 Astrocytes
Promote tight junctions to form BLOOD-BRAIN BARRIER
1. endothelium of the capillary (between endothelial
cells there are tight junctions)
2. basement membrane of endothelium
3. perivascular membrane –
is formed by foot
processes of astrocytes
Blood-brain barrier
1 – endothelium; 2- basement membrane; 3 – astrocyte’s body, 4 – foot processes of
astrocyte; 5 – neuron, 6 – neuron’s processes; 7- oligodendroglial cell
 Oligodendrocytes
• Much smaller than astrocytes
• Processes are less numerous
and shorter
• Found both in gray matter and
in white matter
• Produce the myelin sheath
which provides the electrical
insulation for certain neurons
in the CNS and PNS
• Function: electrical insulation,
maintaining metabolic
exchange and
microenvironment around the
neuronal body and processes.
 Microglia
• The cell bodies are small, dense, and elongated
• Have short processes covered by numerous small expansions,
giving them a thorny appearance
• Are not numerous, but they are found in both white and gray
matter.
• Are specialized macrophages
• Ag-presentation
• Has mesenchymal origin and derived from monocyte.
Types of Neuroglial Cells in the PNS
– Schwann cells
• envelope nerve fibers in PNS
• wind repeatedly around a nerve fiber
• produces a myelin sheath similar to the ones
produced by oligodendrocytes in CNS
• assist in the regeneration of damaged fibers

– Satellite cells
• surround the neurosomas in ganglia of the PNS
• provide electrical insulation around the soma
• regulate the chemical environment of the neurons
 Glial Cells and Brain Tumors
• tumors - masses of rapidly dividing cells
– mature neurons have little or no capacity for mitosis and
seldom form tumors

• brain tumors arise from:

– meninges (protective membranes of CNS)
– by metastasis from non-neuronal tumors in other organs
– most come from glial cells that are mitotically active
throughout life

• gliomas grow rapidly and are highly malignant

– blood-brain barrier decreases effectiveness of
chemotherapy
– treatment consists of radiation or surgery
Nerve fibers – consist of cytoplasmic
process enveloped by sheaths
(oligodendroglial cells).

• Myelinated fibers

• Unmyelinated fibers
 Unmyelinated nerve fibers

The axons are enclosed in simple clefts of oligodendrocytes or

Schwann cells. Each cell may enclose several non-myelinated axons.
Axons of small diameter are usually unmyelinated nerve fibers.
Small diameter nerve fibers are non-myelinated
Myelinated nerve fibers

!!! axons in the CNS

are myelinated by
oligodendrocytes

!!! axons in the PNS

are myelinated by
Schwann cells
 Myelination in the CNS

 Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes

(the process wrap around the axon).
 One oligodendrocyte can takes part in the
process of myelination until 40-50 nerve
fibers.

myelination – production of the myelin sheath

• begins the 14th week of fetal development
• proceeds rapidly during infancy
• completed in late adolescence
• dietary fat is important to nervous system
development
 Myelin sheaths are formed by Schwann cell
Myelination in the PNS

• The first step in myelin formation is axon penetration of existing groove of the
Schwann cell cytoplasm. The edges of the groove come together to form a
mesaxon, so that the plasm membranes of the 2 edges fuse together on their
outer surface.
• Next, the mesaxon wraps itself around the axon several times, the number of
turns determininig the thickness of the myelin layer.
Myelin sheath
• Consists of many layers of
modified cell membrane
having a higher proportion
of lipids than other cell
membrane.
• CNS myelin contains 2
major proteins called
myelin basic protein and
proteolipid protein.
Several human demyelinating
diseases are due to the deficiency or
lack of one or both of these proteins.
Myelinated Nerve Fiber

Myelin
Sheath
Myelin Sheaths

It functions in:
• Protection of the axon
• Electrically insulating fibers from one another
• Increasing the speed of nerve impulse transmission
 Each Schwann cell myelinates a single internode

Areas of incomplete fusion of the

The junctions where two adjacent Schwann cell membrane occur, & small
Schwann cells meet is devoid of amounts of Schwann cell cytoplasm are
myelin – junction is called nodes trapped between the membranes –
of Ranvier (they are the sites where Schmidt-Lanterman clefts (defects in
collaterals can arise). the myelin formation).

The distance between 2 nodes is called an

internode and consists of one Schwann cell.
 Unmyelinated Myelinated
Localization

Mostly in the autonomic NS In the CNS and PNS

Speed of the conduction of the nerve impulse

low (0,5-2 m/s) High (5-120 m/s)

Nerve fiber of the cable type Nerve fiber contains only 1 axon. But in the
(cytoplasm of the Schwann cell can CNS 1 oligodendrocyte can takes part in the
contains 10-20 axons of different process of myelinization until 40-50 nerve
neurons) fibers.
Structural components

1.axon
1.axon (many axons)
2.myelin sheath with Schmidt-Lanterman
2.cytoplasm of the Schwann cell +
clefts and node of Ranvier.
short mesaxon (mesaxons)
3.cytoplasm and nucleus of the Schwann cell.
3.basement membrane
4.basement membrane.
Conduction of the nerve impulse is Conduction of the nerve impulse is saltatory
continuous. (from the node to node of Ranvier – nerve
impulse jumps)
Myelinated Myelinated
Longitudinal section of an unmyelinated nerve
Nodes of Ranvier in a longitudinal nerve section
 Conduction of nerve impulse
A – in the unmyelinated nerve fiber (continuous)
B – in the myelinated nerve fiber (saltatory)
 Nodes of Ranvier are areas of the
myelinated axon that are not
covered by the myelin sheath.

Ion channels are concentrated at the nodes of Ranvier and the myelin sheath acts as an electrical
insulator. This allows for saltatory conductance of the action potential and increases the
transmission speed of the nerve impulse.
Depending on the diameter of the axon, myelination increases the action potential speed approximately 5 to 50fold (up to >110
m/sec).
 Diseases of Myelin Sheath
• degenerative disorders of the myelin sheath
– multiple sclerosis
• oligodendrocytes and myelin sheaths in the CNS deteriorate
• myelin replaced by hardened scar tissue
• nerve conduction disrupted (double vision, tremors, numbness, speech
defects)
• onset between 20 and 40 and fatal from 25 to 30 years after diagnosis
• cause may be autoimmune triggered by virus

– Tay-Sachs disease - a hereditary disorder of infants of Eastern

European Jewish ancestry
• abnormal accumulation of glycolipid called GM2 in the myelin sheath
– normally decomposed by lysosomal enzyme
– enzyme missing in individuals homozygous for Tay-Sachs allele
– accumulation of ganglioside (GM2) disrupts conduction of nerve signals
– blindness, loss of coordination, and dementia
• fatal before age 4
 Nerve endings
Functionally they can be divided into 3 groups:

• synapses – provide the connection between

neurons;
• efferent (motor) endings – transmit signals from
the NS to the working organs (muscles, glands);
are present on the axons.
• receptor (sensitive) endings – receive the
irritation from the external environment and from
the internal organs; are present on the dendrites.
 Synapses are divided into:

Electrical Chemical
In mammals are rarely Mostly distributed. The conduction of the nerve
present. They are as nexus impulse is determined by the special
– provide the passive substance - neurotransmitters.
transport of the electric The conduction of the nerve impulse is only in
current through the cleft the one direction and with delay.
from the cell to other in the The are divided into:
both directions and without • Axodendritic, occurs between axons and
delay. dendrites
• Axosomatic, occurs between axons and the
cell body
• Axoaxonic, occurs between axons and axons
• Dendrodendritic, occurs between dendrites
and dendrites.
 Synapses
• Presynaptic neuron
• Postsynaptic neuron
 Synapses
• Axo-dendritic
• Axo-somatic
• Axo-axonic
• Dendro-dendritic
 Motor neuron cell body in the spinal cord

A single neuron can receive activating or inhibiting inputs from

thousands of synaptic connections.
 Synapse structure
• Presynaptic element
– Axon terminal
– Synaptic vesicles
– Neurotransmitters
– Mitochondria
• Synaptic cleft
• Postsynaptic elements
– Neurotransmitter
receptors
– May generate Action
Potential
 At a chemical
synapse
neurotransmitter
release is triggered
by the influx of Ca2+
and postsynaptic
neurotransmitter
receptors receive
the signal.
 Synaptic Transmission
• An AP reaches the axon terminal of the
presynaptic cell and causes Voltage-
gated Ca2+ channels to open.
• Ca2+ rushes in, binds to regulatory
proteins & initiates NT exocytosis.
• NTs diffuse across the synaptic cleft and
then bind to receptors on the
postsynaptic membrane and initiate
some sort of response on the
postsynaptic cell.

Some synapses are excitatory,

whereas others are inhibitory.
 Efferent nerve endings

Motor Secretory
Are present in the striated and Are present in the glands
smooth muscles. Can make next influences:
By structure they are like synapses, • hydrokinetic (mobilization of
but there are some features: the water);
• nearly to the muscle fiber the • proteokinetic (secretion of the
axon loses the myelin sheath and proteins);
gives some small branches. • synthetic (to increase the
• they are covered by the Schwann synthesis);
cells and basement membrane. • trophic (to maintain the
The transmission of the excitation is
normal structure and function).
provided by the neurotransmitter -
acetylcholine.
• Motor unit
– One neuron
– Muscle cells
stimulated by that
neuron
• Neuromuscular
junctions – association
site of nerve and
muscle.
 Receptor nerve endings
• exteroreceptors (receive the signals from the
external environment). They are: visual,
auditory, olfactory, taste, tactile receptors.
• interoreceptors. They are divided into:
– visceroceptors – receive signals from the
inner organs;
– proprioreceptors – receptors of the locomotor
system.
 Physiological classification of the
receptor nerve endings
• mechanoreceptors (pressure, vibration)
• chemoreceptors (taste, smell)
• thermoreceptors (cold, warm)
• pain receptors
 Morphological classification
Receptor nerve endings
Free (simple) Restricted (compound)
They are consists of
Encapsulated Un-encapsulated
terminal branches of the
They are surrounded by the They are consist of the
dendrites of the sensory connective tissue capsule. branches of the
neuron. Structure: dendrites that are
They provide the • branches of the dendrite surrounded by the
perception of the pain, • surrounding Schwann cells Schwann cells.
cold, warm, tactile • connective tissue capsule They are present in
signals. Examples: the dermis of the skin
They are present inside of • Vater-Pacini corpuscles and in the lamina
the epithelium and in the • Meissner’s tactile propria of the tunica
corpuscles mucosa.
loose connective tissue,
• Ruffini’s corpuscles
which is located beneath. • Bulb of Krause
It is consists of only of the • Neuromuscular spindles
dendrite. • Tendon organ of Golgi
 Receptor nerve endings
Free nerve endings Merkel endings (touch) Pacinian corpuscle
(pain, temperature, (vibration, deep pressure)
light touch)

Krause’s end Meissner’s Ruffini’s corpuscle

bulb (touch) corpuscle (touch) (stretch)
• Vater-Pacini corpuscles – are present on the connective tissue
of the skin and inner organs. They are responsible for the
sensation of the pressure and vibration.
• Meissner’s tactile corpuscles - are located in the papillary
layer of the dermis in skin, mostly: tips of fingers, lips, nipple
and area which is around.
• Ruffini’s curpuscles – are located in the connective tissue of
the skin and in the capsules of the articulations. Take in
pressure.
• Bulb of Krause – is present in the papillary layer of the
dermis, lamina propria of the tunica mucosa in the oral cavity.
It is mechanoreceptor.
• Neuromuscular spindle – receptors of the sprain of the muscle
fibers. It has motor and sensory innervations.
• Tendon organ of Golgi – receptor of the sprain. It is located in
the places where the skeletal muscle fibers join to the tendon.
 Meissner corpuscle

Vater-Pacini corpuscle Free nerve endings

 THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF MEDICINE AND PHARMACY
“NICOLAE TESTEMITANU”

fish

Nervous System
human

mammal

DEPARTAMENT OF HISTOLOGY, CYTOLOGY AND EMBRIOLOGY

GLOBA TATIANA
 Nervous system
• To detect, analyze, utilize & transmit all
information generated by the sensory stimuli
(such as heat & light) & by the mechanical &
chemical changes that take place in the internal &
external environment
• Controls and integrates all body activities
within limits that maintain life
• To organize & coordinate most functions of
the body, especially the motor, visceral,
endocrine & mental activities
Anatomical Nervous System Divisions

• Central nervous system (CNS)

– consists of the brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– consists of cranial and spinal nerves that contain
both sensory and motor fibers
– ganglia (collections of neurons outside the CNS)
– motor & sensory nerve endings
– connects CNS to muscles, glands & all sensory
receptors
 Functional Subdivisions of the PNS
• Somatic (voluntary) nervous system (SNS)
– neurons from cutaneous and special sensory receptors to the
CNS
– motor neurons to skeletal muscle tissue
• Autonomic (involuntary) nervous systems
– sensory neurons from visceral organs to CNS
– motor neurons to smooth & cardiac muscle, glands & blood
vessels
• sympathetic division (speeds up heart rate)
• parasympathetic division (slow down heart rate)
• Enteric nervous system (ENS)
– involuntary sensory & motor neurons control GI tract
– neurons function independently of ANS & CNS
 Peripheral nervous system

• Sympathetic = increases (↑) organ’s activities,

excitatory.
• Parasympathetic = decreases (↓) organ’s activities,
inhibitory.

• The ENS consists of neurons in two enteric

plexuses that extend the length of the GI tract and
function independently of the ANS and CNS.
Neural Tissue Organization
 Histology of nervous system
 White matter consists of:
• aggregations of myelinated nerve fibers,
• few unmyelinated nerve fibers
• neuroglia
• blood vessels
Gray matter contains:
• neuron cell bodies (perikarya),
• mostly unmyelinated nerve fibers
• few myelinated nerve fibers
• neuroglia
• blood vessels
 In the spinal cord, gray matter forms an H-shaped inner core
(central position) that is surrounded by white matter (peripheral
position).
 In the brain, a thin superficial shell of gray matter covers the
cerebrum (form cortex), the white matter is located in the center
(medulla).
 Spinal Cord
• Is a cylindrical structure that is directly continuous with the
brain & is situated in the vertebral canal but not reaching up
to its end.
• In cross section, it exhibits a butterfly-shaped grayish-tan
inner substance, the gray matter & a whitish peripheral
substance, the white matter.
• The white matter is composed of myelinated and
unmyelinated nerve fibers that represent ascending,
descending and transverse pathways.
• The gray matter consists of mirror-image lateral gray
masses connected by a cross-bar of gray matter called the
gray commissure that encloses the central canal.
 Posterior medial sulcus

The central
canal is the
small channel
in the gray
matter which
connects the
gray matter of
left and right
sides. It is
lined by
ependymal
cells

The spinal cord has two grooves that mark its surface
Anterior median fissure / Posterior medial sulcus Anterior median fissure
Central canal
 Spinal Cord
• Gray matter is divided
into the:
Dorsal (posterior)
horns – are fine-
bored & long
Ventral (anterior)
horns – are wide &
short
Lateral horns
 Dorsal (posterior) horns
Inside of them are distinguished:
• Spongy layer – contains many inter neurons.
• Substantia gelatinosa – mostly is formed by
neuroglia.
• Proper nucleus – is formed by inter neurons that
axons come to the opposite part of spinal cord &
inside of tracts go to the cerebellum & thalamus.
• Thoracic nucleus (Clara’s nucleus) - is formed by
inter neurons that axons come to the cerebellum.
 white columns of
posterior funiculus

gray matter
posterior horn

lateral
central canal
funiculus

commissures
 Ventral (anterior) horns
• Contain multipolar motor neurons.
• Spinal motor neurons have the largest nerve cell bodies in the
ventral horn. These cells are also called "lower motor neurons",
or just "motor neurons“. Axons of these cells extend through
ventral (anterior) roots into peripheral nerves, and hence to motor
end plates on muscle fibers.
• The anterior horns are the largest in the areas where the
innervation for limbs is present
– Cervical enlargement (arms)
– Lumbar enlargement (legs)
• Most evident are:
 Medial group of motor neurons that innervate muscles of
the trunk (body)
 Lateral group of motor neurons that innervate muscle of
upper & lower extremities
 lateral
funiculus

gray matter
anterior horn

white columns of
anterior funiculus
 Somatic motor neurons of the spinal cord also
have components in the CNS and PNS, but
they are multipolar

Motor output: axon travels through peripheral nerve to reach target muscle
 Lateral horns
• Are well developed in thoracic & sacral
regions.
• The lateral horn neurons are autonomic
(sympathetic) motor neurons that serve the
visceral organs.
• Their axons also leave the cord via the ventral
root.
 White Matter
• The white matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated
and unmyelinated nerve fibers that allow communication
between different parts of the spinal cord and between the cord
and the brain.
• Nerve fibers run in three directions:
– Ascending / up to higher centers (sensory inputs)
– Descending / down to the cord from the brain or from within
the cord to lower levels (motor outputs)
– Transversely / across from one side of the cord to the other
(commissural fibers).
• The white matter on each side of the column is divided into three
white columns or funiculi and labeled according to their position
(posterior, lateral, anterior).
• Each funiculi contains several fiber tracts, and each tract is made
up of axons with similar destinations and functions.
White Matter
 Meninges
• The central nervous system is enveloped by specialized layers of
connective tissue.
– The outermost layer is the dura mater (or just "dura"), very
dense fibrous connective tissue, tough and fairly
impermeable.
– Immediately adjacent to the brain is the pia mater (or just
"pia"), a delicate layer of collagen and fibroblast-like cells
that adheres closely to the underlying glia limitans (the
outermost layer of proper nervous tissue), includes blood
supply for the brain.
– In between dura and pia is the arachnoid, a layer of very
loose connective tissue in which cerebrospinal fluid occupies
the position of ground substance.
Skin Periosteum
Skull (diploe bone)

Dura mater

Arachnoid

Pia mater
 Cerebellum
• There are three portions - 2 lateral hemispheres and the middle
portion (vermis)
• Functions: - coordination of voluntary muscles, maintenance of
balance, maintenance of muscle tone.
• Consists of gray (cortex) & white matter (medulla)
 is relatively acellular, contains:

contains:

is rich in cells and contains:

 Neurons of Cerebellar Cortex
I. Purkinje cells (neurons)
• are the largest neurons in the
brain.
• have extensive dendritic trees that
are broad perpendicular and
compressed parallel to the length
of the folium.
• the dendrites fill the molecular
layer.
• the axons run through the white
matter and synapse in cerebellar
nuclei (or in vestibular nuclei).
• Purkinje axons engage in
inhibitory synapses; they release
GABA as a neurotransmitter.
 Neurons of Cerebellar Cortex
Basket cells (neurons) are located in the depth of the molecular
layer.
• Their dendrites receive excitatory synaptic input from
parallel fibers.
• Their axons run transversely in the folium and inhibit bands
of Purkinje cells that border the excited zone. Axonal
branches form basket synaptic contacts around initial
segments of Purkinje axons and release GABA.

Stellate cells are intrinsec neurons named for their star-like shape,
which results from dendrites arising in many directions.
• serve as inhibitory interneurons.
 Cortical Afferent Fibers
Two types of afferent fibers enter the cerebellar cortex. Both
afferent types are excitatory to the cortex and they send
excitatory collateral branches to cerebellar nuclei before
entering the cortext. The afferent fibers are:
– Mossy fibers — have terminations that resemble moss. The
mossy endings synapse in glomeruli, with dendrites of granule
cells. Mossy afferents come from all sources (spinal cord,
pontine nuclei, vestibular nuclei & nerve) except the reticular
formation.
– Climbing fibers — terminate by climbing the dendritic tree
of a Purkinje neuron, exciting it greatly via numerous synaptic
contacts. All climbing fibers come from the olivary nucleus.
Like mossy fibers, climbing fibers send excitatory collaterals to
cerebellar nuclei before terminating in the cortex.
 Cortical Circuitry
• Afferent fibers, both climbing and mossy, are excitatory. The fibers
send collaterals to cerebellar nuclei before terminating in cerebellar
cortex. • Climbing fibers excite Purkinje cells
directly. Mossy fibers excite granule
cells. Granule cells excite bands of
Purkinje cells and basket cells along
the length of a folium. Basket cells
inhibit Purkinje cells along the
bilateral margins of the excited band.
• Purkinje cell axons terminate in
cerebellar nuclei (or vestibular nuclei)
where they selectively inhibit output
neurons. Efferent axons from
cerebellar nuclei constitute cerebellar
output.
Note: Granule cells are the only excitatory cells in the cerebellar cortex, all other cells are
inhibitory. Purkinje cell axons are the only axons that leave the cerebellar cortex.
 The Brain
• Functions: interprets sensations, determines
perception, stores memory, reasoning, makes
decisions, coordinates muscular movements,
regulates visceral activities, and determines
personality.

Has Gray matter (cerebral cortex), and White matter

 Cerebral cortex
The cerebral cortex forms the surface of gyri and sulci
over each entire cerebral hemisphere:
There are 6 layers:
 Molecular layer
 Outer granular layer
 Outer pyramidal cell layer
 Inner granular layer
 Ganglionic (inner pyramidal) layer (large pyramidal
cells – Betz cells) – is well developed in the motor
area.
 Fusiform (polymorphic) cell layer
• Layer I ("molecular layer") is the outermost layer.
This layer contains relatively few nerve cell bodies. The
odd name "molecular layer" derives from the fine texture
of this layer, due to its composition largely of dendrites
and fine axon terminals (and glia, of course).
• Layer II ("outer granular layer"), typically contains
many very small cells (granule cells, stellate cells,
pyramidal).
• Layer III ("outer pyramidal layer") contains cell
bodies of medium-size pyramidal cells. Axons from
these cells typically project to the upper layers of
neighboring cortical regions.
• Layer IV ("inner granular layer") contains axonal
ramifications of afferent fibers, such as sensory axons
from the thalamus.
• Layer V ("inner pyramidal layer") contains cell
bodies of large pyramidal cells. Axons from these
cells typically project to more distant cortical
regions, to other parts of the brain, or to lower
centers (such as spinal motor neurons). The larger
size of these pyramidal cells is associated with the
greater length of their axons.
• Layer VI ("layer of pleiomorphic cells) typically
contains cells of assorted size and shape (hence,
"pleiomorphic").
 Neurons of Cerebral Cortex
• The cortex of the cerebrum consists of: stellate cells, horizontal
cells, granule cells - intrinsic neurons, and pyramidal cells – the
efferent (long-axon) cells of the cerebral cortex.
 Neurons of Cerebral Cortex
• Pyramidal cells may be recognized by their relatively large
soma and by their prominent apical dendrites (the upward "apex"
on the "pyramid"). The diagrammatic pyramidal cells alongside
the image suggest the extent of these dendrites (although most
lateral branches are truncated here as well).
• Although typically an apical dendrite is conspicuous only near
the soma of its pyramidal cell, these are actually very long
processes which may extend (with many branches) into the
molecular layer (layer I).
• Basal dendrites (beginning the lower "corners" of each
"pyramid") may extend to either side far beyond the width of this
image.
• Axons from pyramidal cells project distances which, at this
magnification, could equal many tens meters. Some go to
adjacent areas of cortex ("association fibers"). Others cross
through the corpus callosum.
 The giant Betz cells

• are extremely large pyramidal cells of the motor

(precentral) cortex. These pyramidal cells comprise
some of the upper motor neurons.
• Axons from these cells descend in the corticospinal
tract, or pyramidal tract, to synapse with lower
motor neurons.
• Their exceptionally large size is presumably
associated with their need to sustain extremely long
axons.
 Types of cerebral cortex
• Ungranular - is specific for its motor centers.
III, V, VI layers are well developed.
• Granular – is specific for its sensitive centers.
II, IV layers are well developed.
 White matter
• The white matter of the cerebrum is composed of
myelinated and unmyelinated nerve fibers that allow
communication between different parts of the brain and
between the brain and the spinal cord.
• There are three type of nerve fibers:
– Associative nerve fibres (connect gyri of one
hemisphere).
– Commissural nerve fibres (connect gyri of opposite
hemispheres).
– Projective nerve fibres (connect a cortex to
underlying departments of nervous system).
White matter
 Ganglia are aggregations of neuron cell bodies
outside of the CNS.
• There are two principal types, distinguished mainly by their
function and sometimes by location. One type is sensory, the
other motor.
• The first type (sensory) of ganglia: are cranial ganglia and
spinal ganglia. Sensory ganglia – contain pseudounipolar or
bipolar afferent neurons.
• They are located by course of posterior roots of the spinal cord
(spinal ganglia) & cranial nerves (V, VII, VIII, IX, X)
• The second type of ganglion is the autonomic ganglion. They're
functionally motor ganglia. Autonomic ganglia can be:
 Paravertebral
 Prevertebral
 Intramural
 Spinal ganglion
• is encapsulated by a dense CT tissue, which is
continuous with the epineurium and perineurium
of the sensory neuron.
 Spinal cord and Dorsal Root Ganglion

Dorsal median sulcus

Dorsal
horn

(Lateral horn)
if present

Ventral
horn

Ventral median fissure Dorsal root

ganglion (DRG)
 Spinal ganglion
• The ganglion cells are grouped together on the periphery.
• The ganglion cells are pseudo-unipolar
neurons, have centrally-located nuclei.

• Satellite cells are flattened with round (or ovoid) nuclei.

They have similar functions as the Schwann cells: structural
and metabolic support (don’t produce myelin).
• Between the ganglion cells are septa of loose CT (fibroblasts
and connective tissue fibers).
Dorsal Root (Sensory) Ganglion Cells

Dorsal root
ganglion
 Spinal ganglion
• Fascicles of myelinated nerve fibers course through the
middle of the spinal ganglion. There are two type of
fibers:
– the afferent fiber — comes into the soma from a
sensory structure in the periphery. This can be any
kind of sensory structure: a touch receptor, cold
receptor, pain fiber, pressure sensor, etc.
– the efferent fiber — leaves the soma in the ganglion
and carries the information into the central nervous
system for further action.
Myelinated nerve
fibers
 Sympathetic ganglion
• Contains the soma of the second neuron in the autonomic motor
chain.
• The neurons in an autonomic ganglion receive input from the
CNS, process it, and send the signal to some effector organ other
than skeletal muscle.
• Typical effector organs for autonomic ganglia are sweat glands,
salivary glands, smooth muscle, etc.
• In sympathetic ganglia are multipolar neurons.
• The neuron soma are smaller than those of a sensory ganglion, and
their nuclei are more eccentric, some ganglion cells are
binucleated. There are fewer satellite cells, only 2 or so per soma.
• The nerve fibers, scattered between the cell bodies, have little to
no myelin.
• The capsule surrounding the ganglion cells is less distinct.
Sympathetic ganglion cells:
multipolar neurons that reside entirely within the PNS
in sympathetic chain ganglia and “pre-aortic” ganglia
 Parasympathetic ganglia
• Due to their short, postganglionic axons, these ganglia are
often seen within or in proximity to their effector region.
This is evident within the walls of the gastrointestinal tract
(as parasympathetic ganglia are located within the
submucosa or between the circular and longitudinal layers
of smooth muscle).
Parasympathetic ganglion cells:
multipolar neurons that also reside entirely within the PNS
in the wall of the innervated organ
(shown here in the seminal vesicle)
Parasympathetic ganglia in the wall of the gut

#155
 Nerve
• A "nerve" is a grossly visible anatomic structure, and
is a bundle of axonal processes from many different
neurons, wrapped in a connective tissue sheath.

Connective tissue sheath:

• Each axon is surrounded by an ENDONEURIUM –
a layer of loose CT.
• Groups of fibers are bound together into bundles
(fascicles) by a PERINEURIUM (loose CT).
• All the fascicles of a nerve are enclosed by a
EPINEURIUM.
Composition and Connective Tissue Coverings of a Spinal Nerve
Connective tissue layers in a peripheral nerve. Tight junctions
between perineurium cells form a important isolating barrier.

Epineurium

Perineurium
 Nerve fiber classification
1. Sensory nerves – impulses conducted into CNS
2. Motor nerves – impulses conducted away fom
CNS to effector organs ( muscles, glands)
3. Mixed nerves – contain both sensory & motor
nerves
I. Cranial nerves – originate from brain, go to other
body parts
II. Spinal nerves – originate from spinal cord , go to
other body parts
 Beginning of examinations…

…At the end of examinations